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Effective Academic Writing
an essay-writing workbook for school and university
Elizabeth Thomson
Louise Droga
Effective Academic Writing
an essay-writing workbook for school and university
Elizabeth Thomson
Louise Droga
SAMP
LE
Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
First published in Australia in 2012
Phoenix Educa�on Pty Ltd
PO Box 3141
Putney NSW 2112
Australia
Phone 02 9809 3579
Fax 02 9808 1430
Email [email protected]
Web www.phoenixeduc.com
Copyright © Elizabeth Thomson and Louise Droga
All rights reserved. Except as permi2ed under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 (for example a
fair dealing for the purpose of study, research, cri�cism or review), no part of this book may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmi2ed in any form or by any means without
prior wri2en permission. Copyright owners may take legal ac�on against a person or
organisa�on who infringes their copyright through unauthorised copying. All inquiries should be
directed to the publisher at the address above.
ISBN 978-1-921586-61-3
Cover design by Kate Stewart
Printed in Australia by Five Senses
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The contents of this workbook were developed over �me as part of a course in academic wri�ng at the
University of Wollongong. We would like to thank the students who allowed us to use their work as models
and who provided us with cri�cal feedback on the contents of the workbook throughout the course.
We would also like to thank our colleagues, Dr. Robyn Woodward-Kron for her research on academic essays
and Professor Gaetano Rando for his teaching and sugges�ons during the development of the workbook.
And finally, we would like to thank Ms Helen de Silva Joyce for her editorial contribu�on and her
encouragement to see the publica�on process through to the end.
Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
First published in Australia in 2012
Phoenix Educa�on Pty Ltd
PO Box 3141
Putney NSW 2112
Australia
Phone 02 9809 3579
Fax 02 9808 1430
Email [email protected]
Web www.phoenixeduc.com
Copyright © Elizabeth Thomson and Louise Droga
All rights reserved. Except as permi2ed under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 (for example a
fair dealing for the purpose of study, research, cri�cism or review), no part of this book may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmi2ed in any form or by any means without
prior wri2en permission. Copyright owners may take legal ac�on against a person or
organisa�on who infringes their copyright through unauthorised copying. All inquiries should be
directed to the publisher at the address above.
ISBN 978-1-921586-61-3
Cover design by Kate Stewart
Printed in Australia by Five Senses
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The contents of this workbook were developed over �me as part of a course in academic wri�ng at the
University of Wollongong. We would like to thank the students who allowed us to use their work as models
and who provided us with cri�cal feedback on the contents of the workbook throughout the course.
We would also like to thank our colleagues, Dr. Robyn Woodward-Kron for her research on academic essays
and Professor Gaetano Rando for his teaching and sugges�ons during the development of the workbook.
And finally, we would like to thank Ms Helen de Silva Joyce for her editorial contribu�on and her
encouragement to see the publica�on process through to the end.
SAMP
LE
INTRODUCTION 1
TOPIC 1 THE BIG PICTURE 3
Academic culture 3
Cri�cal stance 3
Persuasive wri�ng 4
Judgement 6
Spoken and wri2en language 6
Social purpose and context 7
Academic wri�ng 7
Essays and genres 9
TOPIC 2 LANGUAGE – NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS 13
The meanings and structure of nouns 13
Common nouns 14
Nominalisa�on 15
The noun group 18
The func�on of different types of nouns 22
The importance of noun groups in academic wri�ng 25
TOPIC 3 LANGUAGE – VERB GROUPS AND THE CLAUSE 29
Verbs 29
The meaning/seman�cs of verbs 29
Func�on of verbs in academic wri�ng 41
The structure of the verb group 42
Tense in the verb group 44
Voice in the verb group 45
Polarity in the verb group 46
Modality in the verb group 47
The clause 49
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
TOPIC 1 THE BIG PICTURE 3
Academic culture 3
Cri�cal stance 3
Persuasive wri�ng 4
Judgement 6
Spoken and wri2en language 6
Social purpose and context 7
Academic wri�ng 7
Essays and genres 9
TOPIC 2 LANGUAGE – NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS 13
The meanings and structure of nouns 13
Common nouns 14
Nominalisa�on 15
The noun group 18
The func�on of different types of nouns 22
The importance of noun groups in academic wri�ng 25
TOPIC 3 LANGUAGE – VERB GROUPS AND THE CLAUSE 29
Verbs 29
The meaning/seman�cs of verbs 29
Func�on of verbs in academic wri�ng 41
The structure of the verb group 42
Tense in the verb group 44
Voice in the verb group 45
Polarity in the verb group 46
Modality in the verb group 47
The clause 49
CONTENTS
SAMP
LE
TOPIC 4 MIDDLE GROUND – PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE 53
The sentence 53
The paragraph 55
The topic sentence 55
Suppor�ng sentences 56
Theme and Rheme 59
Choosing themes 61
Rheme 63
Thema�c development 63
TOPIC 5 MIDDLE GROUND – COHESION 66
Cohesion 66
Conjunc�on 66
Reference 70
Presuming par�cipants 70
Common reference mistakes 71
Reference nouns 72
The func�ons of the 72
TOPIC 6 MIDDLE GROUND – USING EVIDENCE AND PARAPHRASING 75
The func�on of the suppor�ng sentence 75
The topic sentence and the essay preview 75
Evidence in suppor�ng sentences 77
Referring to the literature 78
Paraphrasing and summarising 79
Strategies for paraphrasing 81
Strategies for summarising 82
TOPIC 7 THE BIG PICTURE – CITATION AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 86
Cita�ons 86
Bibliography and reference list 89
TOPIC 8 THE BIG PICTURE – ESSAY QUESTIONS AND OUTLINES 92
Interpre�ng the essay ques�on 92
Developing the essay outline 95
Abstract essay outlines 98
TOPIC 9 THE BIG PICTURE – INFORMATION REPORTS 102
Informa�on reports 102
Descrip�ve informa�on reports 102
Taxonomic informa�on reports 103
TOPIC 4 MIDDLE GROUND – PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE 53
The sentence 53
The paragraph 55
The topic sentence 55
Suppor�ng sentences 56
Theme and Rheme 59
Choosing themes 61
Rheme 63
Thema�c development 63
TOPIC 5 MIDDLE GROUND – COHESION 66
Cohesion 66
Conjunc�on 66
Reference 70
Presuming par�cipants 70
Common reference mistakes 71
Reference nouns 72
The func�ons of the 72
TOPIC 6 MIDDLE GROUND – USING EVIDENCE AND PARAPHRASING 75
The func�on of the suppor�ng sentence 75
The topic sentence and the essay preview 75
Evidence in suppor�ng sentences 77
Referring to the literature 78
Paraphrasing and summarising 79
Strategies for paraphrasing 81
Strategies for summarising 82
TOPIC 7 THE BIG PICTURE – CITATION AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 86
Cita�ons 86
Bibliography and reference list 89
TOPIC 8 THE BIG PICTURE – ESSAY QUESTIONS AND OUTLINES 92
Interpre�ng the essay ques�on 92
Developing the essay outline 95
Abstract essay outlines 98
TOPIC 9 THE BIG PICTURE – INFORMATION REPORTS 102
Informa�on reports 102
Descrip�ve informa�on reports 102
Taxonomic informa�on reports 103
SAMP
LE
TOPIC 10 THE BIG PICTURE – EXPLANATIONS 106
Explana�ons 106
Sequen�al explana�ons – how things happen 106
Causal explana�ons – why things happen 107
The language of cause and effect 108
TOPIC 11 THE BIG PICTURE – EXPOSITIONS 112
Exposi�ons 110
Integra�ng other text-types into exposi�ons 114
The language of Exposi�ons 116
Using language to evaluate 117
Modality 120
Gradua�on 121
Engagement 122
Heteroglossia 122
TOPIC 12 THE BIG PICTURE – DISCUSSIONS 125
Discussions 125
Organising the arguments 125
The language of Discussions 129
ANSWERS 130
REFERENCES 147
AItude 117
NOTE – SAMPLE ESSAYS for • Crea�ve arts • History • Law • Management • Modern languages • Philosophy
can be seen at www.phoenixeduc.com via the Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng page
TOPIC 10 THE BIG PICTURE – EXPLANATIONS 106
Explana�ons 106
Sequen�al explana�ons – how things happen 106
Causal explana�ons – why things happen 107
The language of cause and effect 108
TOPIC 11 THE BIG PICTURE – EXPOSITIONS 112
Exposi�ons 110
Integra�ng other text-types into exposi�ons 114
The language of Exposi�ons 116
Using language to evaluate 117
Modality 120
Gradua�on 121
Engagement 122
Heteroglossia 122
TOPIC 12 THE BIG PICTURE – DISCUSSIONS 125
Discussions 125
Organising the arguments 125
The language of Discussions 129
ANSWERS 130
REFERENCES 147
AItude 117
NOTE – SAMPLE ESSAYS for • Crea�ve arts • History • Law • Management • Modern languages • Philosophy
can be seen at www.phoenixeduc.com via the Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng page SAMP
LE
SAMP
LE
1 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
INTRODUCTION The aim of this workbook is to help university and secondary school students understand and prac�se the
building blocks of academic wri�ng. Anyone who has a2empted to write knows that wri�ng is a complicated
three-step process:
Step 1 Planning
This step involves thinking about the purposes of wri�ng, the audience and the organisa�on of the text.
Step 2 Dra$ing
This step is all about geIng the words onto the page in an organised fashion so that the text as a whole is
coherent and meets its purpose.
Step 3 Cra$ing
This step is all about making the text read more easily, choosing your words carefully and making the wri�ng
your own.
Being able to effec�vely plan, draK and craK requires a solid understanding and control of language and how it
is used in different contexts.
This workbook explains the context of academic culture and the kinds of social purposes wri�ng fulfils in
academic disciplines. In terms of using language, it looks in detail at how different essay types fulfil different
purposes. It illustrates four highly valued essay types commonly used in high school and university in Australia
and provides you with prac�ce in wri�ng these types of essays. Each topic has useful prac�ce ac�vi�es to help
you learn to control the vocabulary and grammar resources of wri�ng.
The workbook consists of twelve topics:
Topic 1 introduces academic culture and the four essay types – report, explana�on, exposi�on and
discussion. Essen�ally, it paints the big picture of academic wri�ng to set the scene for the workbook. The
subsequent topics look closely at the building blocks of essays, no�ng how each essay type ac�vates or
exploits different gramma�cal resources to fulfil its social purpose. These gramma�cal resources exist at
word, group, clause and text level.
Topics 2 and 3 take an up-close look at different kinds of clauses and how nouns and verbs cluster into
groups. These topics offer prac�ce ac�vi�es to develop wri�ng control at clause level.
Topics 4 to 6 inves�gate the paragraph, the middle ground of essays, looking at how they func�on to control
ideas, create cohesion and use evidence, with prac�ce ac�vi�es on paragraph structure and cohesion.
Topics 7 to 12 inves�gate and demonstrate how the gramma�cal resources at clause and paragraph level are
ac�vated in each of the four essay types. The use of cita�ons, essay ques�ons and planning, as well as the
specific features of each of the essay types are introduced and prac�sed.
Using authen�c examples, the workbook takes a bo2om-up approach to wri�ng, looking at units of wri�ng from
the smallest to the largest, from word through paragraph to whole essays. It also includes an answer key.
Annotated models of each of the essay types can be seen on the Phoenix Educa�on web page for this �tle
(www.phoenixeduc.com). It will help you explore the three levels of wri2en texts as shown in the diagram on
the following page.
For the student looking to be2er understand the demands of academic wri�ng, this workbook will give you the
opportunity to prac�se discrete features of wri�ng. For example, there are ac�vi�es that address separately the
structure of the noun group, the use of the and the choice of abstract nouns that organise ideas. These discrete
features are then brought together in other ac�vi�es so that you get the opportunity to prac�se how each
feature works in concert with others to build the texture of academic wri�ng. The ac�vi�es build in complexity
un�l you are ready to write an essay from scratch.
For the teacher, this workbook will provide a framework for teaching the features of academic wri�ng using a
series of annotated essay models which are wri2en by both fully fledged and novice writers and which
demonstrate the features under discussion. It provides straighMorward explana�ons that relate grammar to
meaning. If student writers are to engage with grammar and understand its meaning-making poten�al.
understanding this rela�onship is essen�al,
1 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
INTRODUCTION The aim of this workbook is to help university and secondary school students understand and prac�se the
building blocks of academic wri�ng. Anyone who has a2empted to write knows that wri�ng is a complicated
three-step process:
Step 1 Planning
This step involves thinking about the purposes of wri�ng, the audience and the organisa�on of the text.
Step 2 Dra$ing
This step is all about geIng the words onto the page in an organised fashion so that the text as a whole is
coherent and meets its purpose.
Step 3 Cra$ing
This step is all about making the text read more easily, choosing your words carefully and making the wri�ng
your own.
Being able to effec�vely plan, draK and craK requires a solid understanding and control of language and how it
is used in different contexts.
This workbook explains the context of academic culture and the kinds of social purposes wri�ng fulfils in
academic disciplines. In terms of using language, it looks in detail at how different essay types fulfil different
purposes. It illustrates four highly valued essay types commonly used in high school and university in Australia
and provides you with prac�ce in wri�ng these types of essays. Each topic has useful prac�ce ac�vi�es to help
you learn to control the vocabulary and grammar resources of wri�ng.
The workbook consists of twelve topics:
Topic 1 introduces academic culture and the four essay types – report, explana�on, exposi�on and
discussion. Essen�ally, it paints the big picture of academic wri�ng to set the scene for the workbook. The
subsequent topics look closely at the building blocks of essays, no�ng how each essay type ac�vates or
exploits different gramma�cal resources to fulfil its social purpose. These gramma�cal resources exist at
word, group, clause and text level.
Topics 2 and 3 take an up-close look at different kinds of clauses and how nouns and verbs cluster into
groups. These topics offer prac�ce ac�vi�es to develop wri�ng control at clause level.
Topics 4 to 6 inves�gate the paragraph, the middle ground of essays, looking at how they func�on to control
ideas, create cohesion and use evidence, with prac�ce ac�vi�es on paragraph structure and cohesion.
Topics 7 to 12 inves�gate and demonstrate how the gramma�cal resources at clause and paragraph level are
ac�vated in each of the four essay types. The use of cita�ons, essay ques�ons and planning, as well as the
specific features of each of the essay types are introduced and prac�sed.
Using authen�c examples, the workbook takes a bo2om-up approach to wri�ng, looking at units of wri�ng from
the smallest to the largest, from word through paragraph to whole essays. It also includes an answer key.
Annotated models of each of the essay types can be seen on the Phoenix Educa�on web page for this �tle
(www.phoenixeduc.com). It will help you explore the three levels of wri2en texts as shown in the diagram on
the following page.
For the student looking to be2er understand the demands of academic wri�ng, this workbook will give you the
opportunity to prac�se discrete features of wri�ng. For example, there are ac�vi�es that address separately the
structure of the noun group, the use of the and the choice of abstract nouns that organise ideas. These discrete
features are then brought together in other ac�vi�es so that you get the opportunity to prac�se how each
feature works in concert with others to build the texture of academic wri�ng. The ac�vi�es build in complexity
un�l you are ready to write an essay from scratch.
For the teacher, this workbook will provide a framework for teaching the features of academic wri�ng using a
series of annotated essay models which are wri2en by both fully fledged and novice writers and which
demonstrate the features under discussion. It provides straighMorward explana�ons that relate grammar to
meaning. If student writers are to engage with grammar and understand its meaning-making poten�al.
understanding this rela�onship is essen�al,
SAMP
LE
2 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Without a doubt, wri�ng is like playing the piano. The more you do it, the be2er you get. It is
habit forming and can even be enjoyable. We hope you find this workbook useful as you become
an academic writer.
THE BIG PICTURE
Topic 1
Academic culture
Topic 7
Cita�on &
bibliography
Topic 8
Essay ques�ons
and outlines
Topic 9
Informa�on reports
Topic 10
Explana�ons Topic 11
Exposi�ons
Topic 12
Discussions
MIDDLE GROUND
Topic 4
Paragraph
structure
Topic 5
Cohesion
Topic 6
Using evidence
and paraphrasing
LANGUAGE
Topic 2
Nouns and noun
groups
Topic 3
Verb groups and
the clause
2 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Without a doubt, wri�ng is like playing the piano. The more you do it, the be2er you get. It is
habit forming and can even be enjoyable. We hope you find this workbook useful as you become
an academic writer.
THE BIG PICTURE
Topic 1
Academic culture
Topic 7
Cita�on &
bibliography
Topic 8
Essay ques�ons
and outlines
Topic 9
Informa�on reports
Topic 10
Explana�ons Topic 11
Exposi�ons
Topic 12
Discussions
MIDDLE GROUND
Topic 4
Paragraph
structure
Topic 5
Cohesion
Topic 6
Using evidence
and paraphrasing
LANGUAGE
Topic 2
Nouns and noun
groups
Topic 3
Verb groups and
the clause
SAMP
LE
3 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Critical stance
[A critical stance involves] systematic analysis based on a questioning attitude to the material being
analysed and the methods being used, and governed by the overall purpose of reaching a judgement. Ballard & Clanchy 1996: 47
THE BIG PICTURE
Topic aims ≈ To discuss different approaches to academic culture
≈ To introduce the no�on of a cri�cal stance
≈ To explain different types of wri�ng for academic purposes
≈ To present four genres essen�al to academic wri�ng – Informa�on Report, Explana�on, Exposi�on and
Discussion
Academic culture
Throughout the world there are many different approaches to knowledge. No one approach is be2er or worse than
another but they do reflect differences in thinking. The values and beliefs of different cultures influence approaches to
knowledge. In some cultures reproduc�on of knowledge is valued, while in others, extending knowledge – pushing the
boundaries of what is known – is valued.
Extending the boundaries of knowledge is highly valued in the Western Intellectual Tradi�on. This tradi�on forms the
basis of educa�on in Western schools and universi�es in Europe, the United Kingdom, North America, Australia and
New Zealand. However, this process of extending knowledge is highly formalised in Western educa�onal seIngs. It is
governed by a certain approach called cri�cal stance.
Critical stance
Cri�cal stance involves taking an analy�cal and cri�cal approach to knowledge through two sources:
1 tradi�onal knowledge in a field of study
2 individual analysis and cri�cal reflec�on on what has been learnt
Cri�cal stance is some�mes difficult to grasp because it appears to be paradoxical in that new knowledge is only
valued if it is built on the founda�on of previous knowledge. An individual cri�cal and analy�cal stance is only
valued if the cri�cism and analysis is based on the authority of tradi�on. If it is not based on previous knowledge,
then it is not considered important or valuable.
Example of critical stance in science – chemists
ANALYSIS: When chemists are trying to iden�fy an unknown substance, they:
≈ observe its proper�es
≈ reduce it down to its basic elements in order to perceive the rela�onships between the separate elements
CRITICAL ANALYSIS: The chemists then ask two kinds of ques�ons:
1 Factual ques4ons – ques�ons that determine the facts of the substance such as:
≈ What is the colour of the substance?
≈ What is the atomic weight of the substance?
≈ How does the substance react to other substances?
2 Judgement ques4ons – ques�ons which judge the worth or value of the process they have followed such as:
≈ Are the instruments of measurement the most appropriate?
≈ Are the experimental procedures being used exhaus�ve?
≈ Is there more than one way of explaining the facts?
Topic 1
3 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Critical stance
[A critical stance involves] systematic analysis based on a questioning attitude to the material being
analysed and the methods being used, and governed by the overall purpose of reaching a judgement. Ballard & Clanchy 1996: 47
THE BIG PICTURE
Topic aims ≈ To discuss different approaches to academic culture
≈ To introduce the no�on of a cri�cal stance
≈ To explain different types of wri�ng for academic purposes
≈ To present four genres essen�al to academic wri�ng – Informa�on Report, Explana�on, Exposi�on and
Discussion
Academic culture
Throughout the world there are many different approaches to knowledge. No one approach is be2er or worse than
another but they do reflect differences in thinking. The values and beliefs of different cultures influence approaches to
knowledge. In some cultures reproduc�on of knowledge is valued, while in others, extending knowledge – pushing the
boundaries of what is known – is valued.
Extending the boundaries of knowledge is highly valued in the Western Intellectual Tradi�on. This tradi�on forms the
basis of educa�on in Western schools and universi�es in Europe, the United Kingdom, North America, Australia and
New Zealand. However, this process of extending knowledge is highly formalised in Western educa�onal seIngs. It is
governed by a certain approach called cri�cal stance.
Critical stance
Cri�cal stance involves taking an analy�cal and cri�cal approach to knowledge through two sources:
1 tradi�onal knowledge in a field of study
2 individual analysis and cri�cal reflec�on on what has been learnt
Cri�cal stance is some�mes difficult to grasp because it appears to be paradoxical in that new knowledge is only
valued if it is built on the founda�on of previous knowledge. An individual cri�cal and analy�cal stance is only
valued if the cri�cism and analysis is based on the authority of tradi�on. If it is not based on previous knowledge,
then it is not considered important or valuable.
Example of critical stance in science – chemists
ANALYSIS: When chemists are trying to iden�fy an unknown substance, they:
≈ observe its proper�es
≈ reduce it down to its basic elements in order to perceive the rela�onships between the separate elements
CRITICAL ANALYSIS: The chemists then ask two kinds of ques�ons:
1 Factual ques4ons – ques�ons that determine the facts of the substance such as:
≈ What is the colour of the substance?
≈ What is the atomic weight of the substance?
≈ How does the substance react to other substances?
2 Judgement ques4ons – ques�ons which judge the worth or value of the process they have followed such as:
≈ Are the instruments of measurement the most appropriate?
≈ Are the experimental procedures being used exhaus�ve?
≈ Is there more than one way of explaining the facts?
Topic 1
SAMP
LE
4 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
This form of cri4cal analysis requires exercising judgement, which in this sense, means forming an opinion.
ARGUMENT: The chemists then present the analysis and their judgements in a wri2en text using a persuasive and
reasoned argument.
Example of critical stance in social science – historians
ANALYSIS: When historians are studying an aspect of history such as the causes of a war, they analyse:
≈ the facts around the event
≈ the order of events
≈ the sources of evidence
CRITICAL JUDGEMENTS: The historians make cri�cal judgements on the validity of the sources of informa�on about the
event by asking ques�ons such as:
≈ Are the sources first or second hand?
≈ Are there other sources that support or verify the facts?
≈ Are the sources biased or suspicious?
ARGUMENT: The historians then present their judgements in a wri2en text that presents the analysis and the judgements
using a persuasive and reasoned argument.
From Ballard & Clanchy 1996
Persuasive writing
Persuasive wri�ng is the kind of wri�ng which is most highly valued in the Western Intellectual Tradi�on. It
appears across the full range of disciplines in secondary schools and universi�es – the natural sciences, the social
sciences and the humani�es. Persuasive wri�ng involves much more than describing and summarising. It
includes descrip4on, defini4on, analysis, cri4cal judgements and argument.
As a university student or senior secondary student, you need to take a cri�cal stance in your approach to your
learning and assignment work. Your success will depend on your ability to:
≈ think cri�cally
≈ base what you think on the exis�ng body of knowledge
≈ build on or extend knowledge
≈ present your views in a persuasive and gramma�cally well-formed piece of wri�ng
What critical thinking involves
• taking up a posi�on in rela�on to an issue • adop�ng a par�cular perspec�ve on an issue eg: conserva�ve, socialist or feminist perspec�ve • developing a central claim • puIng forward arguments for and against a par�cular posi�on • exploring and understanding alterna�ve posi�ons • linking theory and evidence • using evidence to support your claim • describing characteris�cs • describing processes • analysing and interpre�ng test results • making links of cause and effect • being cri�cal: ques�oning and checking your work and/or the work of others • drawing a conclusion from evidence
4 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
This form of cri4cal analysis requires exercising judgement, which in this sense, means forming an opinion.
ARGUMENT: The chemists then present the analysis and their judgements in a wri2en text using a persuasive and
reasoned argument.
Example of critical stance in social science – historians
ANALYSIS: When historians are studying an aspect of history such as the causes of a war, they analyse:
≈ the facts around the event
≈ the order of events
≈ the sources of evidence
CRITICAL JUDGEMENTS: The historians make cri�cal judgements on the validity of the sources of informa�on about the
event by asking ques�ons such as:
≈ Are the sources first or second hand?
≈ Are there other sources that support or verify the facts?
≈ Are the sources biased or suspicious?
ARGUMENT: The historians then present their judgements in a wri2en text that presents the analysis and the judgements
using a persuasive and reasoned argument.
From Ballard & Clanchy 1996
Persuasive writing
Persuasive wri�ng is the kind of wri�ng which is most highly valued in the Western Intellectual Tradi�on. It
appears across the full range of disciplines in secondary schools and universi�es – the natural sciences, the social
sciences and the humani�es. Persuasive wri�ng involves much more than describing and summarising. It
includes descrip4on, defini4on, analysis, cri4cal judgements and argument.
As a university student or senior secondary student, you need to take a cri�cal stance in your approach to your
learning and assignment work. Your success will depend on your ability to:
≈ think cri�cally
≈ base what you think on the exis�ng body of knowledge
≈ build on or extend knowledge
≈ present your views in a persuasive and gramma�cally well-formed piece of wri�ng
What critical thinking involves
• taking up a posi�on in rela�on to an issue • adop�ng a par�cular perspec�ve on an issue eg: conserva�ve, socialist or feminist perspec�ve • developing a central claim • puIng forward arguments for and against a par�cular posi�on • exploring and understanding alterna�ve posi�ons • linking theory and evidence • using evidence to support your claim • describing characteris�cs • describing processes • analysing and interpre�ng test results • making links of cause and effect • being cri�cal: ques�oning and checking your work and/or the work of others • drawing a conclusion from evidence SA
MPLE
5 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Sample response from a Hong Kong Chinese student
Study context Has been studying a degree in Social Science in Australia for two years – majoring in Interna�onal
Rela�ons
Step 1: Iden4fying the three most important influences
i watching my Aunt speaking English with her overseas friends
ii studying world geography and learning about foreign people and foreign cultures from my teacher’s
experience working as a volunteer
iii learning about the United Na�ons in History and wan�ng to work in the field of third-world development
Step 2 : Naming the influences using nouns
i Aunt’s bilingualism
ii Geography teacher’s volunteerism
iii United Na4ons development programs
Step 3: Describing the influences
i Aunt’s bilingualism
I used to listen to my Aunt speak French and English over the telephone when I visited her house. She was
really sophis�cated. She had lots of overseas friends because she was an exchange student in high school
and lived in France with a host family for one year.
ii Geography teacher’s volunteerism
My geography teacher used to give really interes�ng talks about his overseas experiences and how he was
a volunteer worker in South Africa. He came to learn English and understood much more about the lives of
people outside Hong Kong.
iii United Na4ons development programs
In my high-school history class, I studied the United Na�ons. We looked at how and why the United
Na�ons was formed aKer World War II and the Universal Declara�on of Human Rights. It was really
interes�ng.
Step 4: Analysing order of importance
i geography teacher’s volunteerism
ii United Na�ons development program
iii Aunt’s bilingualism
Activity 1: Critically thinking about your experience Step 1 Make a list of the three most important influences on your choice of university degree or subjects in senior
secondary school.
Step 2 Give each of these influences a name. Be sure the name is expressed as a noun.
Step 3 Under each of these names, write two or three sentences which describe in more detail the effects of these
influences.
Step 4 Analyse the importance of each of these three influences and number them in order of importance.
Step 5 Write a final evaluation that contains your reasons for selecting the three influences and their order of
importance. Include in your evaluation judgements that explain why you are now studying the degree or
subjects of your choice.
Ac�vity adapted from Ballard and Clanchy 1996: 61
5 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Sample response from a Hong Kong Chinese student
Study context Has been studying a degree in Social Science in Australia for two years – majoring in Interna�onal
Rela�ons
Step 1: Iden4fying the three most important influences
i watching my Aunt speaking English with her overseas friends
ii studying world geography and learning about foreign people and foreign cultures from my teacher’s
experience working as a volunteer
iii learning about the United Na�ons in History and wan�ng to work in the field of third-world development
Step 2 : Naming the influences using nouns
i Aunt’s bilingualism
ii Geography teacher’s volunteerism
iii United Na4ons development programs
Step 3: Describing the influences
i Aunt’s bilingualism
I used to listen to my Aunt speak French and English over the telephone when I visited her house. She was
really sophis�cated. She had lots of overseas friends because she was an exchange student in high school
and lived in France with a host family for one year.
ii Geography teacher’s volunteerism
My geography teacher used to give really interes�ng talks about his overseas experiences and how he was
a volunteer worker in South Africa. He came to learn English and understood much more about the lives of
people outside Hong Kong.
iii United Na4ons development programs
In my high-school history class, I studied the United Na�ons. We looked at how and why the United
Na�ons was formed aKer World War II and the Universal Declara�on of Human Rights. It was really
interes�ng.
Step 4: Analysing order of importance
i geography teacher’s volunteerism
ii United Na�ons development program
iii Aunt’s bilingualism
Activity 1: Critically thinking about your experience Step 1 Make a list of the three most important influences on your choice of university degree or subjects in senior
secondary school.
Step 2 Give each of these influences a name. Be sure the name is expressed as a noun.
Step 3 Under each of these names, write two or three sentences which describe in more detail the effects of these
influences.
Step 4 Analyse the importance of each of these three influences and number them in order of importance.
Step 5 Write a final evaluation that contains your reasons for selecting the three influences and their order of
importance. Include in your evaluation judgements that explain why you are now studying the degree or
subjects of your choice.
Ac�vity adapted from Ballard and Clanchy 1996: 61
SAMP
LE
6 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Activity 2: Making personal judgements
a Read the evaluating text the Hong Kong student wrote in Step 5.
Step 5 Evaluating the influences – making judgements
I think that the most important influence on my choice of university degree was my teacher’s volunteerism. His experiences showed me that it was possible to do a good thing, like help people less fortunate, and at the same time experience life overseas and get to know different people and different cultures. And by learning about the United Nations I came to know about its role and the kinds of development programs around the world. This led me to plan a career in third-world development. Finally, my Aunt’s bilingualism affected my desire to be educated overseas because I envied her ability to meet and know people from other cultures. And so, I decided that I needed to be trained overseas to improve my English and get a degree in international relations. That is why I decided to study overseas. I feel that a university education in a multicultural society like Australia is a good way to learn about many cultures and at the same time improve my English. I believe I have made this choice as a direct result of my childhood experiences.
b Underline the words of opinion and judgement in this paragraph.
c Does the language in the paragraph reflect written or spoken language?
Judgement
Judgement relates to whether or not something is good or bad, favourable or unfavourable, be2er or worse.
The judgements given by the Hong Kong student in Step 5 above sound as if he is talking rather than wri�ng. His
judgements are more personal and conversa�onal. In academic essays, opinions and judgements are oKen
present but they are not always so easy to iden�fy because academic wri�ng expresses opinion and judgement
in less obvious ways. This will become clear by looking at another paragraph wri2en as part of a history essay,
where the opinions are highlighted.
The debate as to the overriding mo�ve for the choice of Botany Bay has long been contested. The
tradi�onal argument asserts that the primary reason for the se2lement at Botany Bay was in reac�on
to the overcrowded gaols and hulks: New South Wales was to be a dumping ground for the convicts
of Britain. Those in favour of this argument ques�on that had this not been a problem, would New
South Wales ever have been colonised by Britain? However, it cannot be ignored that Botany Bay
was a@rac4ve for several reasons besides its apparent fer4le soil and suitable climate conducive to
the transporta4on and establishment of the convicts. Reports from Captain James Cook and Sir
Joseph Banks, and proposals by James Matra, John Call and George Young all men�on the strategic
economic and naval advantages that Botany Bay offered. The more the Bri�sh found out about
Botany Bay, the more a2rac�ve the new country became. The ques�on could be posed, if Britain
were so desperate to solve the problem of overcrowding in its gaols and hulks, why wasn't the
choice of Botany Bay examined years earlier? The cost of sending convicts so far away could be
jus4fied by the countless other advantages that could be reaped from the land down under. Thus,
it can be asserted that transporta�on was the mode but not the mo�ve of Britain's colonisa�on of
Australia.
In the history example the student has removed the personalised opinions and inserted evalua�ons using a
more academic style. No�ce that the history student never uses expressions such as I think or I feel. How we use
grammar to express judgement will be looked at in Topic 9.
Spoken and written language
Every day at school and university you use both spoken and wri2en English. You speak to your fellow students,
your lecturers or teachers, office staff and so on. Your use of spoken English occurs in both informal and formal
contexts. One of the most important formal contexts in which you use spoken language is when you give an oral
presenta�on for assessment. This is a kind of planned speech that answers a ques�on and requires you to take
a cri�cal stance. Whether you present an argument orally or in wri2en form, the principles of taking a cri�cal
stance are the same.
6 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Activity 2: Making personal judgements
a Read the evaluating text the Hong Kong student wrote in Step 5.
Step 5 Evaluating the influences – making judgements
I think that the most important influence on my choice of university degree was my teacher’s volunteerism. His experiences showed me that it was possible to do a good thing, like help people less fortunate, and at the same time experience life overseas and get to know different people and different cultures. And by learning about the United Nations I came to know about its role and the kinds of development programs around the world. This led me to plan a career in third-world development. Finally, my Aunt’s bilingualism affected my desire to be educated overseas because I envied her ability to meet and know people from other cultures. And so, I decided that I needed to be trained overseas to improve my English and get a degree in international relations. That is why I decided to study overseas. I feel that a university education in a multicultural society like Australia is a good way to learn about many cultures and at the same time improve my English. I believe I have made this choice as a direct result of my childhood experiences.
b Underline the words of opinion and judgement in this paragraph.
c Does the language in the paragraph reflect written or spoken language?
Judgement
Judgement relates to whether or not something is good or bad, favourable or unfavourable, be2er or worse.
The judgements given by the Hong Kong student in Step 5 above sound as if he is talking rather than wri�ng. His
judgements are more personal and conversa�onal. In academic essays, opinions and judgements are oKen
present but they are not always so easy to iden�fy because academic wri�ng expresses opinion and judgement
in less obvious ways. This will become clear by looking at another paragraph wri2en as part of a history essay,
where the opinions are highlighted.
The debate as to the overriding mo�ve for the choice of Botany Bay has long been contested. The
tradi�onal argument asserts that the primary reason for the se2lement at Botany Bay was in reac�on
to the overcrowded gaols and hulks: New South Wales was to be a dumping ground for the convicts
of Britain. Those in favour of this argument ques�on that had this not been a problem, would New
South Wales ever have been colonised by Britain? However, it cannot be ignored that Botany Bay
was a@rac4ve for several reasons besides its apparent fer4le soil and suitable climate conducive to
the transporta4on and establishment of the convicts. Reports from Captain James Cook and Sir
Joseph Banks, and proposals by James Matra, John Call and George Young all men�on the strategic
economic and naval advantages that Botany Bay offered. The more the Bri�sh found out about
Botany Bay, the more a2rac�ve the new country became. The ques�on could be posed, if Britain
were so desperate to solve the problem of overcrowding in its gaols and hulks, why wasn't the
choice of Botany Bay examined years earlier? The cost of sending convicts so far away could be
jus4fied by the countless other advantages that could be reaped from the land down under. Thus,
it can be asserted that transporta�on was the mode but not the mo�ve of Britain's colonisa�on of
Australia.
In the history example the student has removed the personalised opinions and inserted evalua�ons using a
more academic style. No�ce that the history student never uses expressions such as I think or I feel. How we use
grammar to express judgement will be looked at in Topic 9.
Spoken and written language
Every day at school and university you use both spoken and wri2en English. You speak to your fellow students,
your lecturers or teachers, office staff and so on. Your use of spoken English occurs in both informal and formal
contexts. One of the most important formal contexts in which you use spoken language is when you give an oral
presenta�on for assessment. This is a kind of planned speech that answers a ques�on and requires you to take
a cri�cal stance. Whether you present an argument orally or in wri2en form, the principles of taking a cri�cal
stance are the same.
SAMP
LE
7 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
In school and university you will also use wri2en English to take notes during class and to do research for
assignments. Most importantly, you will use wri2en English in your assessment tasks. Assessment occurs in a
range of wri2en forms, including short-answer exercises, proposals, synopses, summaries, essays and reports.
Wri�ng is very highly valued and if you can take a cri�cal stance, which employs analysis, and write good
descrip�ons and judgements, you will do well at school and university.
Spoken and wri2en language serve different purposes and differ in many ways. Wri�ng is not speech wri2en down. In
wri2en language we tend to use vocabulary that is more formal and specialised, develop more complex descrip�ons
and state our opinions is less explicit ways which makes them appear more objec�ve. The Hong Kong student uses
language that is more spoken and his paragraph would be easily understood, if we were listening to it. The history
student’s paragraph uses more complex language that would be difficult to listen to and understand.
Social purpose and context
The different kinds of wri�ng that you are expected to produce in senior school and at university occur in
different contexts and for different reasons. The language of different texts depends on the contextual situa�on
and we can describe each situa�on in terms of:
≈ the purpose for wri�ng
≈ what is being wri2en about which we call the field of the text
≈ who is involved in the situa�on which we call the tenor of the text
≈ how the informa�on is being presented which we call the mode of the text
The purpose and the context of your wri�ng determine the structure and gramma�cal choices of what you
write. The shape of the text is affected by the purpose and the context. The following two examples will make
this clear:
Example 1
You have had an accident while walking between classes and you need to write a short incident report
Field: what you were doing when the accident happened / how the accident happened / what happened
aKer the accident
Tenor: you and people in school/university administra�on
Mode: wri2en language which is polite and formal because you do not know the administra�ve staff
personally and the report is an official record of the incident / it will probably be wri2en on a special
form
Example 2
You have been asked to write a report about how work is organised in a workplace you visited on a field trip
Field the purpose of the workplace / organisa�onal structure of the workplace / different jobs which people
do
Tenor you and your teacher / people you observed
Mode wri2en academic language which reports on the observa�on because you are demonstra�ng to your
teacher/lecturer what you have learnt
Academic writing
In senior secondary school and university you are expected to write different kinds of academic texts, which are
briefly described in the table below. We will look at these texts in more detail in later topics and you will find
examples of these different texts at www.phoenixeduc.com.
7 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
In school and university you will also use wri2en English to take notes during class and to do research for
assignments. Most importantly, you will use wri2en English in your assessment tasks. Assessment occurs in a
range of wri2en forms, including short-answer exercises, proposals, synopses, summaries, essays and reports.
Wri�ng is very highly valued and if you can take a cri�cal stance, which employs analysis, and write good
descrip�ons and judgements, you will do well at school and university.
Spoken and wri2en language serve different purposes and differ in many ways. Wri�ng is not speech wri2en down. In
wri2en language we tend to use vocabulary that is more formal and specialised, develop more complex descrip�ons
and state our opinions is less explicit ways which makes them appear more objec�ve. The Hong Kong student uses
language that is more spoken and his paragraph would be easily understood, if we were listening to it. The history
student’s paragraph uses more complex language that would be difficult to listen to and understand.
Social purpose and context
The different kinds of wri�ng that you are expected to produce in senior school and at university occur in
different contexts and for different reasons. The language of different texts depends on the contextual situa�on
and we can describe each situa�on in terms of:
≈ the purpose for wri�ng
≈ what is being wri2en about which we call the field of the text
≈ who is involved in the situa�on which we call the tenor of the text
≈ how the informa�on is being presented which we call the mode of the text
The purpose and the context of your wri�ng determine the structure and gramma�cal choices of what you
write. The shape of the text is affected by the purpose and the context. The following two examples will make
this clear:
Example 1
You have had an accident while walking between classes and you need to write a short incident report
Field: what you were doing when the accident happened / how the accident happened / what happened
aKer the accident
Tenor: you and people in school/university administra�on
Mode: wri2en language which is polite and formal because you do not know the administra�ve staff
personally and the report is an official record of the incident / it will probably be wri2en on a special
form
Example 2
You have been asked to write a report about how work is organised in a workplace you visited on a field trip
Field the purpose of the workplace / organisa�onal structure of the workplace / different jobs which people
do
Tenor you and your teacher / people you observed
Mode wri2en academic language which reports on the observa�on because you are demonstra�ng to your
teacher/lecturer what you have learnt
Academic writing
In senior secondary school and university you are expected to write different kinds of academic texts, which are
briefly described in the table below. We will look at these texts in more detail in later topics and you will find
examples of these different texts at www.phoenixeduc.com. SAMP
LE
130 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Answers Where no answer is given ask your teacher to check your answer
Topic 1 Ac4vity 2
b Words of opinion and judgement – I think / the most important influence / a good thing / help people less fortunate / desire to be educated
overseas / envied / I decided / I feel / mul�cultural society like Australia / is a good way to learn / I believe
c Spoken
Ac4vity 3
b 1 Informa�on report 2 Explana�on 3 Exposi�on 4 Discussion
c Taking up a posi�on in rela�on to an issue – 3 and 4
Adop�ng a par�cular perspec�ve on an issue – 3 and 4
Developing a central claim– 3 and 4
PuIng arguments for and against a par�cular posi�on – 4
Exploring and understanding alterna�ve posi�ons – 3 and 4
Linking theory and evidence – 3 and 4
Using evidence to support your claim – 3 and 4
Describing characteris�cs – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Describing processes – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Analysing and interpre�ng test results – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Making links of cause and effect – 2, 3 and 4
Being cri�cal – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Drawing a conclusion from evidence – 3 and 4
Topic 2
Ac4vity 1
Proper nouns French, English, France
Common nouns aunty, telephone, house, friends, student, school, family, year, desire, overseas, ability, people, cultures
Pronouns I, she
Ac4vity 2
a Common nouns – debate / mo�ve / choice / argument / reason / se*lement / reac�on / gaols / hulks / ground / convicts / argument / problem
b Concrete nouns – gaols / hulks / ground / convicts
Abstract nouns – debate / mo�ve / choice / argument / reason / problem / reac�on / se*lement
Ac4vity 3
a Count nouns singular – debate / mo�ve / choice / argument / reason / se*lement / reac�on / ground / problem
Count nouns plural – gaols / hulks / convicts
No mass nouns
b Proper nouns – Botany Bay, NSW, Britain, Bri�sh
Ac4vity 4
a Nominalisa�ons – aid / support / government / non-government organisa�ons / aid / strategy / promo�on / aid / assistance / supplies / necessi�es / transport / generators
b Nominalised verbs – to debate – debate /to choose – choice / to argue – argument / to reason – reason / to solve – solu�on / to se*le –
se*lement / to react – reac�on / to provide – provision
c Nominalised adjec�ves – mo�vated – mo�ve / isolated – isola�on / scarce – scarcity / beau�ful – beauty / broad – breadth / long –
length / wide – width / high – height
Ac4vity 5
a
b
Pre-modifica4on Thing Qualifier
the debate as to the overriding mo�ve for the choice of Botany Bay
The tradi�onal argument
the primary reason for the se2lement at Botany Bay
the overcrowded gaols
gaols and hulks
NSW
a dumping ground for the convicts of Britain
Those in favour of this argument
this
problem
NSW
the Bri�sh
Pointer Numera4ve Describer Classifier Thing
the debate
the tradi�onal argument
the primary reason
the overcrowded gaols
a dumping ground
the Bri�sh
130 Effec�ve Academic Wri�ng
Answers Where no answer is given ask your teacher to check your answer
Topic 1 Ac4vity 2
b Words of opinion and judgement – I think / the most important influence / a good thing / help people less fortunate / desire to be educated
overseas / envied / I decided / I feel / mul�cultural society like Australia / is a good way to learn / I believe
c Spoken
Ac4vity 3
b 1 Informa�on report 2 Explana�on 3 Exposi�on 4 Discussion
c Taking up a posi�on in rela�on to an issue – 3 and 4
Adop�ng a par�cular perspec�ve on an issue – 3 and 4
Developing a central claim– 3 and 4
PuIng arguments for and against a par�cular posi�on – 4
Exploring and understanding alterna�ve posi�ons – 3 and 4
Linking theory and evidence – 3 and 4
Using evidence to support your claim – 3 and 4
Describing characteris�cs – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Describing processes – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Analysing and interpre�ng test results – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Making links of cause and effect – 2, 3 and 4
Being cri�cal – 1, 2, 3 and 4
Drawing a conclusion from evidence – 3 and 4
Topic 2
Ac4vity 1
Proper nouns French, English, France
Common nouns aunty, telephone, house, friends, student, school, family, year, desire, overseas, ability, people, cultures
Pronouns I, she
Ac4vity 2
a Common nouns – debate / mo�ve / choice / argument / reason / se*lement / reac�on / gaols / hulks / ground / convicts / argument / problem
b Concrete nouns – gaols / hulks / ground / convicts
Abstract nouns – debate / mo�ve / choice / argument / reason / problem / reac�on / se*lement
Ac4vity 3
a Count nouns singular – debate / mo�ve / choice / argument / reason / se*lement / reac�on / ground / problem
Count nouns plural – gaols / hulks / convicts
No mass nouns
b Proper nouns – Botany Bay, NSW, Britain, Bri�sh
Ac4vity 4
a Nominalisa�ons – aid / support / government / non-government organisa�ons / aid / strategy / promo�on / aid / assistance / supplies / necessi�es / transport / generators
b Nominalised verbs – to debate – debate /to choose – choice / to argue – argument / to reason – reason / to solve – solu�on / to se*le –
se*lement / to react – reac�on / to provide – provision
c Nominalised adjec�ves – mo�vated – mo�ve / isolated – isola�on / scarce – scarcity / beau�ful – beauty / broad – breadth / long –
length / wide – width / high – height
Ac4vity 5
a
b
Pre-modifica4on Thing Qualifier
the debate as to the overriding mo�ve for the choice of Botany Bay
The tradi�onal argument
the primary reason for the se2lement at Botany Bay
the overcrowded gaols
gaols and hulks
NSW
a dumping ground for the convicts of Britain
Those in favour of this argument
this
problem
NSW
the Bri�sh
Pointer Numera4ve Describer Classifier Thing
the debate
the tradi�onal argument
the primary reason
the overcrowded gaols
a dumping ground
the Bri�sh
SAMP
LE
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