Educational Foundations, Winter-Spring 2008Hodge, Kozub ... · Educational Foundations, Winter-Spring 2008Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & Kambon Sanuel R. Hodge is an associate professor

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Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & KambonEducational Foundations, Winter-Spring 2008

Sanuel R. Hodge is an associate professor of physical education in the School of Physical Activity and Educational Services at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Francis M. Kozub is an associate professor in the Department of Physical Education and Sport, State University of New York at Brockport, Brockport, New York. Adrienne D. Dixson is an assistant professor in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University. Columbus, Ohio. James L. Moore III is an associate professor in the College of Education and Human Ecology, coordinator of the Counseling Program, and the inaugural director of the Todd Anthony Bell National Research Center on the African American Male at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Kwesi Kambon is the director of Multicultural Education and Equity with the Columbus Public School District, Columbus, Ohio.

Sincethenineteenthcenturyandstilltoday,per-sistentstereotypicbeliefsaboutBlacks1haveportrayedthemasathleticallysuperiorwhileintellectuallyinfe-rior toWhites2 (Harrison, 2001; Harrison, Harrison,&Moore,2002;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Miller,1998;Wiggins,1989).Incontrast,Whiteshavebeenportrayed as athletically inferior but intellectuallysuperiortoBlacks.Thesetypesofrace-basedstereo-typicbeliefshavepresentdayimplicationsforyouth,suchasimposingsocialandpsychologicalburdensonperformanceandthuspotentiallyreducingastudent’sabilitytoperformtoherorhispotential(Stone,Lynch,Sjomeling,&Darley,1999).Forinstance,Stoneetal.(1999)asserted thatathleticperformanceis impededoutofconcernaboutconfirminganegativestereotype

A Comparisonof High School Students’

Stereotypic Beliefsabout Intelligence

and Athleticism

By Samuel R. Hodge, Francis M. Kozub,Adrienne D. Dixson, James L. Moore III,

& Kwesi Kambon

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High School Students’ Stereotypic Beliefs

which“increasesanxietyandinpartbecauseitcreatesself-doubtabouttheabilitytoperform”(p.1224).ResearchsupportstheplausibilitythatforBlackstudent-athletes’ negative stereotypic beliefs about their intelligence can lead them tolowertheirexpectationsinacademiccontexts(Steele&Aronson,1995;Stoneetal.,1999).Itisimportantthatteachers,coaches,andotherschoolpersonnel(e.g.,counselors)understandhowrace-sportstereotypescanimpacttheaspirationsofyouthtowardorawayfromvariedathleticpursuesoftenattheexpenseoftheiracademicsuccess(Harrison,Azzarito,&Burden,2004). What’smorerevealingaboutthisissueisthatitisheldthatinternalizedaccep-tanceofrace-basedstereotypicbeliefsaboutintelligenceandathleticismconfoundedbyalackofaccess,opportunity,andeconomicalvariablesplusotherfactors(e.g.,socio-cultural)leadsomeBlackandHispanic3youthtowardmoreeconomicallyaccessiblesports(e.g.,baseball,basketball,football)andawayfromexposuretolesseconomicallyaccessiblesportssuchasgolfandtennis(Burden,Hodge,&Har-rison,2004;Edwards,1998;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002;Harrison&Lawrence,2004).Onthisissue,Burdenetal.(2004)examinedBlackandWhitestudents’beliefsabouttheirs(in-group)andeachothers(out-group)ethnicgroups’intentionstoparticipateinvarioussportactivities.Theyreportedthatrespondentsfrom both groups were influenced by socio-cultural variables (e.g., absence orpresenceofsportrolemodelsasportrayedbythemedia).Specifically,bothBlackandWhitestudentsbelievedthatsocio-culturalvariablesinfluencedBlackstomorelikelyparticipateinbasketballandfootballthanWhites,andthatWhitesweremorelikelytoparticipateintennis,golf,andswimming.Burdenetal.alsofoundthatrespondentsfrombothgroupsheldbeliefsthatBlacks’intenttoparticipateinvar-iedsportactivitiesarehinderedbysocioeconomicinequalities.MostrespondentsbelievedthatsportactivitiessuchasbasketballandfootballwereaccessibletomostBlacks,whereasgolf,swimming,andtennisweremuchlessaccessibletoBlacks;butaccessibleformostWhitesintheircommunities.Plus,thelargepresenceofBlacksinbasketballandfootballatthecollegiateandprofessionallevelsaffectssomeBlack(self-stereotyping)andWhite(stereotyping)students’beliefsaboutBlacks’intenttoparticipateinthesesports.Incontrast,thedominatepresenceofWhitesintennisandgolfatthecollegiateandprofessionallevelsinfluencessomeBlack(stereotyping)andWhite(self-stereotyping)students’beliefsaboutWhites’intentionstoparticipateinthesesports(Burdenetal.,2004). Researchthatexaminesdifferentethnic4groups’beliefsabouttheirsandothersintellectualandathleticabilitiesisimportanttounderstandinghowbesttocounterharmfulstereotypes(Steele,1997;Steele&Aronson,1995).Hence,moreresearchisneededtobetterunderstandvariousethnicgroups’race-basedstereotypicbe-liefsabouttheirsandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofothers(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Belcher,2006;Steele,1992,1997;Steele&Aronson,1995).ThepurposeofthisstudywastocomparethebeliefsofBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirown(in-group)andtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofother(out-group)ethnicgroups.Thecentralresearchquestion

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Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & Kambon

waswhatarethebeliefsofBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirownandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofotherethnicgroups.Thisresearchwaspartofalargerstudydesignedtoexaminehighschoolstudents’attitudesandmotivationstowardurbaneducationandsports.

Theoretical Framework Stilltoday,thedominantcultureintheUnitedStates(U.S.)ofAmericaisre-flectedintheteaching-learningprocessinmostpublicschools(Azzarito&Solmon,2006).Thiscultureusuallyreferstothehegemony5ofWhitemaledominationwithinaEuro-Americanparadigm(Gordon,1995;Ladson-Billings,2000).Toooften,themeaningsstudentsattachtotheireducationalexperiences(Azzarito&Solmon,2006)andteachers’understandings,perspectives,andpedagogiesaresituatedinthisepis-temology(DeSensi,1995),and“[t]hehegemonyofthedominantparadigmmakesitmorethanjustanotherwaytoviewtheworld—itclaimstobetheonlylegitimatewaytoviewtheworld”(Ladson-Billings,2000,p.258).Tochallengethedominantorthodoxy,6increasinglylegalandeducationalscholarshavepromotedcriticalracetheory(CRT;Dixson&Rousseau,2005;Ladson-Billings,1995,1998a,2000). Ineducation,CRTsituatesresearchonsocial justiceandracialequality inschoolsandschooling(Jay,2003).Itemergedasacounter legalscholarship topositivistandliberallegaldiscourseofcivilrights(Ladson-Billings,1998a,2000).ImportanttoCRTisthepositionthat“individualsandsocialgroupsconstructtheirownrealityregardlessoftheoppressiveelite-dominatedsocialhierarchyinwhichtheyexist,andtherebyhavethecapacitytoresistandreconstruetheirrelationshiptoit”(Knapp&Woolverton,1995,p.551).DixsonandRousseau(2005)co-editedaspecialissueforthejournalRace, Ethnicity and EducationwhichprovidesaseriesofexcellentarticlessituatedinCRTthatthereaderisencouragedtoexamine. PsychologicalCRT(Jones,1998)isanextensionofCRT(Ladson-Billings,1998a)andservesasanappositeframeworkforunderstandingtheroleofsocialpsychologicalprocessessuchasrace-basedstereotypingwhichislinkedtopersistentracialdisparities.PsychologicalCRTassertsthatraceisbothsociallyandpsychologicallyconstructedfromaccessiblesocialinformation.Race,asasocialconstruct,hasdefiningpropertiesthatamplifygroupdifferencesandcontributestoperceptualandbehavioralbiases.Suchbiases,inturn,createinconsistentexperiencesforpersonsacrossdifferentracialgroups.Similarly,inconsistenciesinexperiencesleadtodivergentunderstandingsofwhatsocialjusticeis,and,asaresultfurtheramplifiesthedifferencesinsocialperceptionacrossthevariedracialgroups(Jones,1998).PsychologicalCRTpositsfivemajortenetsas:(a)spontaneousandpersistentinfluencesofrace,(b)fairnessderivedfromdivergentracialexperiences,(c)asymmetricalconsequencesofracialpolitics,(d)paradoxesofracialdiversity,and(e)salienceofracialidentity.Although,thesetenetsarebrieflysummarizedbelow,Jones(1998)providesafulldiscussionofpsychologicalCRTanditsmajortenets. Thefirsttenet,spontaneous and persistent influences of race, postulatesthat

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thereare threefactorspertinent to thesocialandpsychologicalconstructionofrace,whichisspontaneouslyactivatedincognition. First,peoplenaturallytendtocategorizethings,includingthemselvesandotherpeople,whichsustainsracialcategories. Second, knowledge of race-based stereotypes is pervasive and wellembeddedincognition.Third,knowledgeofstereotypescanandoftenhasauto-maticinfluencesonbeliefs,socialjudgments,andbehaviors.Perpetuatingrace-sportstereotypicbeliefs,forexample,theUniversityofNorteDame’slegendaryfootballplayerandalumnusPaulHornung’scommentthat,“theschoolneedstoloweracademicstandardsto‘gettheblackathlete’(i.e.,footballplayers)…ifwe’regoingtocompete”wasconsideredbysomeasracist(Whiteside,2004).ThistypeofstereotypicbeliefthatBlacksareathleticallysuperiorbutintellectuallyinferiortoWhites and vice verse, plus other historical and contemporary factors (rac-ism,socio-cultural,economic),continuetoinfluenceyouthtoparticipateornotparticipateinselectedsportactivities(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004).Unknowingly,stereotypicbeliefsaccentuateperceivedsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenracialgroups(Jones,1998). Thesecondtenet,fairness and divergent racial experiences, impliesthatourdivergentsocialhistoriesandtheconstructionofracethereinmeansthatdiversegroupsinevitablyviewfairnessdifferently.ThebeliefsoffairnessarenotconsistentacrossraciallinesandthepsychologicalexperienceoffairnesshasnotkeptpacewiththemeasurableindicesofprogressintheU.S.(Jones,1998).ForBlackstudent-athletes,divergentracialexperiencesatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducation(PW-IHE)campusesarecauseforconcern(Benson,2000;Brooks&Althouse,2000;Donnor,2005;Lawrence,2005;Singer,2005).Forexample,Blackstudent-athleteshavevoicedconcernsthatracismismanifestedinBlacksbeing:(a)deniedaccesstoleadershippositionsonandofftheplayingfieldinsports,and(b)beingtreateddifferentlycomparedtoWhitestudent-athletes(Singer,2005). Inthethirdtenet,asymmetrical consequences of racial policies, racialgroupsdivergeasaresultoftheir“calculationsofcostsandbenefitsofracialpolicies”and“color-blindstrategiesviolatethisasymmetryprinciple”(Jones,1998,p.653).Fortargetsofracialdiscrimination,psychologicalCRTpositsthat“actingasifracedoesn’tmatter,wheninfactitdoes”placesonesusceptibletomissedopportuni-tiesandacceptanceofanotion“whoseveryenunciationputsoneina‘one-down’position”(Jones,1998,p.653).Insports,duringthelate1980s,aMajorLeagueBaseball(MLB)official,AlCampanis,statedthat“[B]lacksperformedwellonthefieldbutlacked‘thenecessities’tooccupymanagerialpositionsorplacesofresponsibilityandauthorityinthefrontofficesofsportsorganizations”(Miller,1998,p.137).SuchcommentsservetoperpetuatelingeringstereotypicbeliefsaboutBlacks,whicharguablycontributestotheunder-representationofBlacksinsportleadershippositions(Bell,2005a,2005b;Walker,2005).Forexample,alegacyofrace-basedstereotypicbeliefsand“goodoldboy”practicesismanifestedatthecollegiatelevel,astodaytherearefewBlackcoachesinDivisionI-Abasketballandevenlessrepresentedinfootball(Walker,2005).Walker(2005)explainedthatof

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the117DivisionI-AfootballprogramsintheUSalmost50%oftheplayerswereBlack,whileonlyabout6%oftheheadcoacheswereBlack. Moreover,policesofraceneutrality(e.g.,socalled“colorblind”admissionpolices)haveaversiveconsequencesfortargetsofracialdiscrimination,particularlyBlacksandHispanics in theU.S.ForBlackandHispanic student-athleteswhohopetoonedayattendaPW-IHE,policesofraceneutralitycanhavefarreachingconsequences.Today,discrepanciesexistatcollegesanduniversitiesasadmissionofficersstrugglewiththequestionofwhetherornottoconsiderraceintheirad-missiondecisions.Forexample,theUniversityofTexashasadoptedrace-neutraladmissionspolicies,whileontheotherhand,theUniversityofGeorgiareportstoconsiderraceasanadmissionsfactor(Lum,2005).Bothrace-neutralandrace-consciousadmissionpoliciescanbeincompliancewiththeU.S.SupremeCourtrulingsinlightoftherecentUniversityofMichigancases7allowingracetobeusedasanadmissionsfactor.Thusfar,universitieslackconsensusonthisissue(Hodge,Harrison,Burden,&Dixson,2008). Thefourthtenet,paradoxes of racial diversity,positsthatraceis“bothlessandmorethanitseems”(Jones,1998,p.653).Insports,racebecomesbothmoreandlessthanwhatitseems.ItseemsmorethanwithitiswiththestereotypicbeliefsthatBlackandHispanicathletesdominatesports,partlyduetotheirpresenceandsuccessesintheNationalBasketballAssociation(NBA)andMLB,respectively.Itbecomeslesssalientwiththedominantgroup,specifically,Whiteathleteswhoactu-allydominatemostsportsintheU.S.Steeleandhiscolleagueshavefoundthatthesalienceofracialstereotypescanadverselyimpactindividual’sacademicandathleticperformances (Steele, 1997;Steele&Aronson, 1995;Stone et al., 1999). Jones(1998)explainedthatout-group“homogeneitysupportsthesocialsignificanceofrace,yetpsychologicalandbehavioralfactsattesttosignificantheterogeneitywithinracialgroups”(pp.653-654).Butaspeopletrytosuppressracialinfluencesintheirjudgments,itispossiblethattheymakeraceevenmoresalientcognitively,result-ingina‘rebound’effect,whichheightensracialsalienceonthoseoccasionswheresuppressionbecomesnolongercompulsory.Giventhat“weallbelongtomultiplegroups,wecancreategroupswhosemembershavemultiplethingsincommonandasaresult,racialdimensionsrecedeinimportance”(Jones,1998,p.654). Inthelasttenet,salience of racial identity,Jonesexplainedthatracialidentityisoftenasourceofin-groupprideandout-grouphostility.Oftenasourceofin-grouppride,OgdenandHilt(2003) claimedthatBlacksconsumebasketballanduseitasapartoftheircultureandcollectiveidentity.Theystatedthataconsumptionofbasketballisinfluencedbysocialandculturalvariablestoinclude:(a)societal[ste-reotypic]expectationsofBlackstopursuebasketballparticipation,(b)prevalenceofBlackrolemodelsinbasketballatthecollegiateandprofessionallevels,and(c)perceptionsofsomeBlacksthatbasketballisaviablemeansforsocialmobility. Again,thesalienceofraceaffectsjudgmentsaboutin-andout-groups.Forinstance,Stoneetal.(1997)foundcollegestudents(asampleofpredominantlyWhite undergraduate students) held stereotypic beliefs about Black andWhite

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athletesandthesebeliefsinfluencedtheirjudgmentsaboutathleticperformanceofbasketballplayers.Intheirexperiment,halfoftheparticipantswereledtothinkthatthetargetplayeronaradiobroadcastofacollegebasketballgamewasBlackandtheotherhalfwereledtothinkthatthetargetwasaWhiteathlete.ThesemostlyWhitecollegestudentsjudgedtheBlackmaletargetasmoreathleticandlessintel-ligent;andtheWhitemaletargetaslessathleticbutpossessingmorebasketballintelligenceandhustle.Later,Stoneetal.(1999)foundthatmakingsalientnegativeracialstereotypesaboutBlackandWhiteathleteshadadverseinfluenceonathleticperformanceofbothgroups. InaccordwithpsychologicalCRT,prevalentrace-sportstereotypescanim-pacttheaspirationsofyouthtowardorawayfromvariedathleticpursuesoftenattheexpenseoftheiracademicsuccess(Harrisonetal.,2004).Scholarsarguethatprevalentrace-sportstereotypicbeliefscanhavedetrimentalconsequences(Hall,2002;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002).Onthispoint,Taylor(2000)assertedthatschoolsintheUSare“saturatedwithimagesofBlackathleteste-reotypes,…NotonlydoesthereinforcementofphysicalabilityoverintellectualcapabilitydiminishthepotentialofyoungBlackmen,butitalsoperpetuatesthemyththattheroadtosuccessispavedwithsportscontracts,notdiplomas”(p.75).Importantly,thecurrentresearchprovidesinsightintostudents’beliefsabouttheirsandpeers’intellectualandathleticabilitiesinurbanschools.PsychologicalCRT(Jones,1998)wasusedtosituateandbetterunderstandanethnicallydiversecrosssectionof9ththrough12thgradestudents’beliefsabouttheirsandpeers’intellectualandathleticabilitiesinalargeurbanschooldistrict.

Method

Research Design Theresearchmethodwasdescriptivecrosssectionalsurvey(Fraenkel&Wal-len,1990).Thismethodologyallowed theresearchers toaccessnumeroushighschoolstudentsfromdiverseethnicandculturalbackgroundsattendingphysicaleducationclassesatmultipleschoolswithinalargeurbanschooldistrict.

Participants and Sampling Participants(n=819)wereacrosssectionof9ththrough12thgradestudentsofvariousethnicgroups.TheywererandomlysampledfromsixhighschoolswithinalargeurbanschooldistrictintheMidwesternpartoftheUS.Duetosmalldispro-portionatereturnsfromAsian/PacificAmericanandNativeAmericanrespondents,adecisionwasmadetoomitthesecases.Further,adecisionwasmadetoomitcaseswhereresponsesincludedmissingdatapointsfrom40%orgreaterofthevariablesofinterest.Thisresultedin688usabledatasets.Table1showsgenderproportions(n=324,47%femalesandn=364,52.9%males)forBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialrespondents.Thesamplerangedinagefrom12to18yearswithameanvalueof16years(SD=1.03).Genderandethnicgroupdifferencesinagewerenot

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foundinthesample(p>.05).ThesamplewasmostlycomprisedofBlackstudents(n=437,63.5%)butnogenderproportiondifferenceswerefound(p>.05).Studentsinphysicaleducationclassesvoluntarilyparticipatedinthisstudyafterinformedconsentwassecuredfromtheirparents.

Instruments Descriptivedata(e.g.,students’ethnicity,gender,gradelevel,andage)werecollected from a demographic questionnaire,Tannehill and Zakrajsek’s (1993)Modified Student Descriptive Questionnaire8(MSDQ). Dataonrespondents’stereotypicbeliefswerecollectedusingtheBeliefs about Intelligence and Athleticism Scale(BIAS).Itwasdevelopedforthisstudyandiscomprisedofsixitemspostulatedtoassessadiversecohortofhighschoolstudents’beliefsabouttheirown(in-group)andother(out-group)ethnicgroups’intellectandathleticabilities.ContentvalidityoftheBIASwasestablishedthroughapaneloftwosportsociologistsandaphysicaleducationteachereducator.Panelistswereselected,basedontheirestablishedreputationasaleaderinresearchonissuesofstereotypingand/orissuespertinenttorace/ethnicityinphysicaleducation.Acoverletter,copyoftheinstrument,andaratingsheetweresentthroughelectronicmail(withthedocu-mentattached)toeachpanelist.TheinstructionsweretocritiquetheBIASon:(a)parsimonyandcompleteness,(b)accuracy,(c)suitability,and(d)utility(Antonak&Livneh,1988).Panelists’feedbackconfirmsthattheBIAShascontentvalidity. Followingcontentvalidationprocedures,weadministeredtheBIASinstru-menttothecurrentsampleofhighschoolstudents.Reliabilityestimateswhereencouraginganddemonstratedinternalconsistencyinresponsestothesixitems(x=.88,n=688).Explorationoftheunderlyingdimensionsfollowedusingprincipalcomponentanalysis toexaminestructural relationshipsamongvariables (BIASitems).Evidenceofaloneunderlyingdimensionwasconsistentwithahypoth-esizedconstructandprovidedevidenceofvalidity (Hair,Anderson,Tatham,&Black,1995).Thelonecomponentextractedincludedallsixitemsexplaining63%ofthevarianceandsupportingtheexistenceofasingleparadoxicalconstructofstereotypic beliefs about intellect and athleticismforthesample.Thesepreliminar-ilypsychometricmeasuresofferevidenceofvalidityandreliabilityoftheBIAS(Antonak&Livneh,1988;Hairetal.,1995). UsingtheBIASinstrumentstudents’beliefswereassessedona5-pointLikertscale.Thepanelistswereaskedtoindicatetheirlevelofdisagreementoruncertaintytoagreementtothefollowingstereotypicstatements.

1.Ethnicminorities9(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallybetterathletescomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericanathletes.

2.White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturally betterathletescomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmerican/Hispanic).

3.Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)dominatemostsports.

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4.White/EuropeanAmericansdominatemostsports.

5.Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericans.

6.White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics).

Responseswerecodedas:1=stronglydisagree,2=disagree,3=unsure,4=agree,and5=stronglyagree.Scoreswerecalculatedbyaveragingparticipants’responses(1-5)foreachitemontheBIASscale.

Data Analysis BIASdatawereanalyzedusingmultivariateanalysisofvariance(MANOVA)onuntransformeddatawithaconservativealphalevelatp

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toWhite/EuropeanAmericanathletes”thantheresponsesofuncertaintytodis-agreementbytheirHispanic,White,andBiracialpeers.Thoughnotstatisticallydifferent,Blackmaleswereconsistentinlevelsofagreementandtendedtofavortheuncertainresponseonthisposition.Further,HispanicandWhitefemales,andbiracialmaleswereindisagreementtothisstatement,whileHispanicandWhitemalesand,biracialfemalesscoredintheunsurerangeonaverage. BIAS Item 2.Thesediverseethnicgroups(i.e.,Black,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudents)didnotdiffersignificantlyintheirtendenciestodisagreewithorindicateanunsureorneutralresponsetothestatementthat“White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallybetterathletescomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmerican/Hispanic).”However,significantgenderdifferenceswerefoundbetweenmaleandfemalestudentsintheirresponsestothisitem.Onaverage,malesfromeachethnicgroupdisagreedwithorwereambivalent intheirresponseswhilefemalestudentsweremostlyindisagreementtostrongdisagreementwiththestereotypicbeliefthatWhite/EuropeanAmericansarebetterathletescomparedto“ethnicminorities.” BIAS Item 3.Blackstudentsalsoscored,onaverage,significantlyhigherintheir levelsofagreementwith thestereotypicstatement that“Ethnicminorities

Table1BeliefsaboutIntelligenceandAthleticismbyEthnicGroupandGender(n=688)

Black Hispanic White Biracial

Variable Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female n=242 n=195 n=6 n=9 n=86 n=81 n=30 n=39

BIASItem1M 3.41 2.84 3.00 1.67 2.78 2.18 2.10 3.08SD 1.24 1.35 2.19 1.00 1.48 1.42 1.32 2.71

BIASItem2M 2.68 2.64 2.50 1.67 2.84 1.81 2.90 2.15SD 1.20 1.34 1.64 1.00 1.43 1.06 1.24 1.37

BIASItem3M 3.62 3.10 1.50 2.00 3.05 2.15 2.50 2.08SD 1.18 1.34 .55 1.50 1.34 1.28 1.04 1.16

BIASItem4M 2.77 2.45 3.00 1.67 2.84 2.07 2.60 2.08SD 1.31 1.22 2.19 1.00 1.22 1.28 1.22 1.28

BIASItem5M 3.14 2.74 2.00 1.67 2.80 1.70 2.70 2.15SD 1.27 1.28 1.20 1.00 1.34 .98 1.20 1.42

BIASItem6M 3.06 2.51 1.00 1.67 3.00 2.07 2.90 2.31SD 1.20 1.25 .00 1.00 1.31 1.34 1.32 1.66

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(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)dominatemostsports.”Blackmaleswereinclinedtoagreewiththisstatement.Incontrast,Hispanic,Whitefemale,andbiracialpeersrespondedinawaythatindicatelevelsofdisagreement,especiallybyHispanicmalestothisbeliefstatement,alongwithlevelsofuncertaintybyBlackfemales,Whitemales,andbiracialfemalestothisposition. BIAS Item 4.Thegroups(i.e.,Black,Hispanic,White,andbiracial)didnotdif-fersignificantlyintheirdisagreementoruncertaintywiththestereotypicstatementthat“White/European-Americansdominatemostsports.”But,significantgenderdifferenceswerefoundbetweenfemaleandmalestudents in theirresponses tothisstatement.Onaverage,femalestudentsfromeachethnicgroupwereinclinedtodisagreewiththestereotypicbeliefthatWhite/EuropeanAmericansdominatemost sports.Overall,maleswereunsure.Althoughstatisticallynon-significant,HispanicandWhitemaleshadthehigheraveragescoresonthisitemcomparedtotheirfemalepeers,aswellasBlackandbiracialpeers. BIAS Item 5.Blackstudents,malesinparticular,responsescoreswerestatisti-callyhigheronaveragethanothergroupsonthestatementthat“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericans.”However,aswasthecaseforotheritems,valuesindicatinguncertaintytothisstatement(particularlybyBlackfemales)wereindicatedalongwithlevelsofbothagreementanddisagreementorunsureresponsesbyHispanic,White,andbiracialstudents.Morespecifically,boththeHispanicfemalesandmalesandWhitebiracialfemalestudentswerealongthecontinuumofdisagreementtostrongdisagreement;andtheWhiteandbiracialmales,onaverage,wereunsureofthepositionthat“ethnicminorities”werenaturallymoreintelligentthanWhites.BIAS Item 6.Hispanicstudents,malesinparticular,responsescoreswerelowerandonaverageindicateddisagreementtostrongdisagreementtothestereotypicstatement that“White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallymore intelligentcom-paredtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics).”Comparably,BlacksdifferedsignificantlyfromHispanicsintheirresponsesindicatingmoreuncertaintytoagreementonthisstatement.Black,White,andbiracialmalesdidnotdifferintheiruncertaintytothisposition;andWhiteandbiracialfemalesdisagreedwiththepositionthatWhite/EuropeanAmericanshavehigherintelligence.

Discussion The purpose of this study was to compare the beliefs of Black, Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirownandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofotherethnicgroups.Thecentralresearchquestionwas“WhatarethebeliefsofBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudentsontheirownandtheintellectualandathleticabilitiesofotherethnicgroups?”Onthatquestion,similartootherstudies(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Harrison,Lee,&Belcher,1999), thisstudy’sfindingsindicatethatstudentsfromraciallydiversebackgroundsdifferasafunctionofgenderandethnicityintheirbeliefsaboutin-groupandout-groupintellectualandathleticabilities.Itwasfoundthat

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theBlackmaleswereofamindtoagreewithtwoofthesixstatementscomprisingtheBIAS.TheirtendencywastoagreewiththeBIASstatementsthat:(a)“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallybetterathletescomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericanathletes,”and(b)“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)dominatemostsports.”Allothergroupsweredisposedtoexpressun-certaintyordisagreementtostrongdisagreementwiththeBIASstatements.Acrossethnicgroups,girlswerelessinclinedthanboystoagreewithanyofthestereotypicstatementsonathleticism,sportdominance,andintelligence.Typically,BlackfemaleandHispanicmales’responsesrangedfromuncertaintytostrongdisagreement.Onaverage,Whitemalesmostlyexpresseduncertaintytodisagreementwitheachofthestatements.But,Hispanic,White,andbiracialfemalestypicallydisagreedorstronglydisagreedwiththeBIASstatements. Onintelligence,Blackmales,particularly,heldsignificantlyhigherscoresindi-catinguncertaintytoagreementtothestereotypicstatementthat“Ethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics)arenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoWhite/EuropeanAmericans.”Similarly,BlackmalesweremorelikelythanHispanicstoagreewiththestereotypicstatementthat“White/EuropeanAmericansarenaturallymoreintelligentcomparedtoethnicminorities(AfricanAmericans/Hispanics).”Incontrast,Hispanicstudentswereindisagreementtostrongdisagreementwiththisstereotypicposition.Thesefindingspartiallysupportthepostulationinpsychologi-calCRTthatpeoplehaverace-basedstereotypeswellembeddedintheirminds.ThiswasmostevidentamongtheBlackmales. InpsychologicalCRT,thetenetspontaneous and persistent influences of racepositthatindividualsnaturallytendtocategorizethings,includingthemselves(e.g.,Blackmales)andotherpeople,whichmaintainracialcategories(Jones,1998).Further,knowledgeofrace-basedstereotypesispervasiveandwellembeddedincognition,andknowledgeofstereotypescanandoftenhasautomaticinfluencesonbeliefs,socialjudgments,andbehaviors(Jones,1998).SomescholarsarguethatBlackyouth,areinfluencedbyrace-basedstereotypesandassuch“placeatremendousemphasisonandidentitywithathleticachievement”(Harrisonetal.,2002,p.129),toooften,attheexpenseofacademicpursues(Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002).Harrisonetal.(1999)foundthatBlackadolescents’sportactivitypreferencesdifferedfromtheirWhitepeers.Blackadolescentsidentifiedmuchmorewithparticipationinbasketball,football,andtrackthanWhites(Har-risonetal.,1999).SomearguethatsportsmainlybasketballisameansofracialorcollectiveidentityforBlacksandisviewedasavehicleforsocialandeconomicalprogress(Harrisonetal.,2002;Ogden&Hilt,2003). ResearchshowsthatcollegestudentstendtoharborstereotypicbeliefsonBlacks,particularlymales,underachievementinacademicpursuesdueinparttosupposedinferiorintellect(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2002;Sailes,1993).SteeleandAronson(1995)reportedthatBlackcollegestudents’performanceondifficultacademictasksdeterioratedwhenracialstereotypesaboutintellectualinferiority(i.e.,stereotypethreat)weremadesalient.Moreover,teachersmayharborviewsthat

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manifeststereotypicbeliefsaboutstudentsofcolor(Ford&Moore,2004;Harrison&Belcher,2006;King,1994;Schultz,Neyhart,&Reck,1996).SometeachersmayevenhavestereotypicbeliefsaboutBlackandHispanicstudentsasintellectuallylesscapableandmorelikelytocreatedisciplinaryproblems(King,1994).Alignedwiththisnotion,Su(1997)assertsthatnoviceteachers,attimes,havelittleawarenessofracismordiscriminationandtheeffectsonschooling.Becausemostteacherswillteachstudentswho’sculturalandethnicbackgroundsaredifferentthantheirown(Fox&Gay,1995;Griffin-Famble,2006),thisisasignificantassertion. InAmericansociety,misguidedstereotypicbeliefsaboutBlacks’athleticsupe-riorityandintellectualinferiorityinfluencethemindsofthousandsperhapsmillionsofpeople(Harrison&Lawrence,2004).Inthisstudy,itwasevidentthatsocietyprofoundlyinfluenceshighschoolstudents’beliefsandimpressions.Forexample,theBlackmalestudentsheldstrongbeliefsonperceivedathleticsuperiorityandsportsdominance,buttheywereunsureonquestionsofintelligence.ThesefindingsindicatethatBlackmales,perhapsmoresothanotherethnicgroupsandfemales,areinfluencedbystereotypicbeliefsregardingtheirperceivedathleticsuperiorityandsportdominance.Suchfindingsareconsistentwithpreviousstudiesinotherdomainsotherthanathletics(Moore,Madison-Colmore,&Smith,2003;Steele&Aronson,1995).PsychologicalCRTpositsthreefactorsunderlyingthesocialandpsychologicalconstructionofrace. First,individualsnaturallytendtocategorizethings,includingpeople,thissustainsracialcategories.Second,knowledgeofrace-basedstereotypesispervasiveandoftenwellingrainedincognition.Third,knowledgeofstereotypesunknowinglyinfluencesbeliefs,judgments,andbehaviors(Jones,1998). LikingtothebeliefsheldbyBlackmalestudentsinthisstudy,previousresearchhasshownthatcollegestudentsharborself-stereotypic(in-group)andstereotypic(out-group)beliefsaboutBlackathletes’superiorityanddominanceinafewsports,suchasbasketball,football,andtrack(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Sailes,1993).But,onthenotionofsportdominance,HarrisonandLawrence(2004)pointedoutthat90%of“allsportshavelessthan1%ofAfricanAmericanparticipationandpresenceintheirsports”(p.42).Yet,themythofBlackathletesdominatingsportsstillexists,duetolingeringvestigesofracismthatmagnifytheiroverrepresentationinafewselectedsports(i.e.,mostlybasketball,football,andtrack).Thisoccurs,despitethefactthatWhiteathleteshaveadominatepresenceinmostsports(e.g.,hockey,baseball,soccer,golf,tennis,volleyball,wrestling,skiing,bowling,autoracing,andsoon). DisproportionatetoWhites,moreBlackyouthaspiretoprofessionalcareersinsuchsportsasbasketballandfootball(Lee,1983),whileHispanicyouthaspiremoretocareersinbaseballasameanstosocialmobilityfrompoverty(Rudman,1986).Today,Blacksrepresentsome76%oftheplayersintheNBA.ThisisthelowestpercentageofBlackNBAplayerssince1991-1992(Branom,2005).Onanascendingtrend,some30%ofcurrentMLBplayershaveHispanicorLatinoancestries(Draper,2006;Lapchick,2006). Inthesesports,BlackandHispanicathleteshaveexperiencedsuccesses(Lap-

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chick,2006).But theirsuccessesandfailuresareoftenmagnifiedowingto thesocialconstructionofraceastheseathletes“representtheirrace.”Paradoxically,BlackandHispanic athletes’ absenceorunder representation inmost all othersportsismarginalizedasaconsequenceoftheconstructionof“theirrace”withsuchstereotypicnotionsas“BlacksandHispanicsdon’tswim,ski,orracecars.”InpsychologicalCRT,raceispositedas“bothlessandmorethanitseems”(Jones,1998,p.653).Jonesexplainedthat,aspeopletrytosuppressracialinfluencesintheirjudgments,itispossiblethattheymakeraceevenmoresalientcognitively,resultingina“rebound”effect,whichheightensracialsalienceonthoseoccasionswheresuppressionbecomesnolongercompulsory. Instereotyping,racebecomesbothmoreandlessthanwhatitseems.ItbecomesmorethanwithitiswiththestereotypicbeliefsthatBlackandHispanicathletesdominatesports,partlyduetotheirpresenceandsuccessesintheNBAandMLB,respectively.Itbecomeslesssalientcognitivelyforthedominantgroup,specifically,WhiteathleteswhoactuallydominatemostsportsintheUS.Ofconcern,Steeleandhiscolleagueshavefoundthatthesalienceofracialstereotypescanadverselyimpactindividual’sacademicandathleticperformances(Steele,1997;Steele&Aronson,1995;Stoneetal.,1999). Steele (1992,1997)posited thatwhenapersonencountersasituation thatrepresentsadomainwithwhichshe/heisidentified,astereotype threatexistsofperformingpoorlyandpossiblyharmingher/hisself-esteem.Scholarsassertthatnegativestereotypeshinderperformancebycausingpersonswithinastereotypedgrouptobecomeapprehensivethattheirperformancemayservetoconfirmthenega-tivestereotypeothershaveoftheirgroup(Cheryan&Bodenhausen,2000;Steele&Aronson,1995).Thisleadstothecyclicaleffectsofself-stereotyping(Harrison&Worthy,2001).Onthecontrary,Mooreetal.(2003)andMavis(1997)havefoundthatnegativestereotypingcanalsopositivelyinfluenceacademicperformance.Theyassertedthatnegativestereotypingcansometimesmotivatestudentsto“prove”thenegativestereotypewrong.Inthecaseofacademics,ifthenegativestereotypeisthatBlackstudentsdonotperformwellinschool,thensomestudentsmightworkextrahardtoperformwell.Asitrelatestoathletics,itisquitelikelythatthiscouldbethecasewithsomeofthestudentsinthisstudy.

Limitations Threelimitationsofthisstudyshouldbeacknowledged.First,thegroupsamplesweredisproportional in sizewitha largegroupofBlackstudentscompared tosmallergroupsofHispanic,White,andbiracialstudents.Hispanicfemale(n=9)andmale(n=6)studentgroupswereverysmall.However,thesestudentgroupswerereflectiveoftheschools’populationethniccompositions.Second,thegroupswerenotdistributedevenlybetweenmaleandfemalestudents.Third,theBIASinstrumentshouldberevisedtorepresentBlackandHispanicgroupsseparatelyratherthanasethnic minorities,whichmayhaveconfoundedtheresults.Theintentinusingthedescriptionethnic minorities,wastoassessstereotypicbeliefscom-

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montobothBlackandHispanicathletesasathleticallysuperiorbutintellectuallyinferiortoWhiteathletes.But,surelythesegroupshavedifferentsportparticipationpatterns,aswellasuniquenessintheircultures,languages,music,foods,andsoon,whichshouldberecognizedandassessedaccordingly(Marin&Marin,1991).Despitetheselimitations,thereisstillusefulinformationtobegleanedfromthestudy’sfindingsforteachereducationprogramsandschooldistrictsresponsibleforensuringthatteachersareculturallycompetenttoaddress,suchissuesasrace-basedstereotyping(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryant,&Harrison,2004).

Implications and Recommendations Race-basedstereotypinghasitsrootsinthepsychologicalunderpinningsofrac-ism,bothofwhichareepidemictoAmericansocietyandbyextensionitseducationalinstitutions,whichinfluencethebeliefsofteachersandstudentsaswellascoachesandstudent-athletes(Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Singer,2005).Educationalscholarsassertthatwheneverteachers,coaches,andotherschoolprofessionalsacceptandarticulate,knowinglyorunknowingly,prevailingtheoriesofathleticsuperiorityandintellectualinferiorityofBlackandHispanicyouth,theydopsychologicalharmtotheseimpressionableyouth(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrison,1995,2001). Thestudy’sfindingsprovideinsightsonBlack,Hispanic,White,andbiracialstudents’ beliefs about in- and out-groups’ intellectual and athletic abilities inurban schools.The information can be used by teacher education programs tobetterprepareteachercandidatesandschooldistrictstoprovideeffectiveprofes-sionaldevelopmentinitiativestohelpteachersmoreeffectivelypromoteacademicachievementofallstudents.Todoso,meansthateducatorsmustbecomeculturallycompetentandresponsivepractitioners(Sparks,1994;Martens,2004;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Likewise,Martens(2004)statedthatcoachesshouldseektobecomeculturallyresponsive. Toaddresstheseissues,teacherpreparationinstitutionsandschooldistrictsmustensurethatcoachesandeducatorsarepreparedtoandwillingtocreatecul-turally relevantsportandacademic learningcontexts that reduce the impactofpsychologicallyharmfulstereotypes(Griffin,2002;Martens,2004).Thismeans,forexample,ensuring thatcoaches insportsettingsand teachers inclassesareculturallycompetent,whichwouldenablethemtoimplementculturallyrespon-sivepractices(Foster,1995;Ladson-Billings,1990,1994,1995;Martens,2004;Villegas&Lucas,2002)andchallengeathletesandstudents’stereotypicviewsthroughinformeddialogue(Burdenetal.,2004;Harrisonetal.,2004;Harrison&Lawrence,2004;Sparks,1994). Culturallyrelevant(Ladson-Billings,1994)orresponsive(Gay,2000)teach-ing has proven to help students, particularly Black and Hispanic children andyouth,valueacademicachievementandthusidentifymorewiththeeducationalprocess(Cazden&Leggett,1981;Ladson-Billings,1994,1995,1998b).Cultur-allyresponsivepedagogybringsthelanguage,values,andcultureofadiversityofstudentsintotheeducationalprocessincludingthosefromethnically,culturally,and

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linguisticallydiverseancestries(Nieto,1999;Quintanar-Sarellana,1997;Sparks,1994;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Tobuild“culturalbridges”intoday’srichlydiverseschoolsandcommunities(Cothran&Ennis,2000;Nieto,1999),researchersandpractitionersadvocateacurriculumframeworkthatemphasizesculturalcompetenceandawareness,usesculturallyresponsivepedagogies(Ford,Moore,&Harmon,2005;Quintanar-Sarellana,1997)andencouragesdialogueandreflectivepractice(Cazden,2001;Hodge,Tannehill,&Kluge,2003). Todemonstrateculturalcompetenceandin-turneffectivelyimplementculturallyresponsivepedagogies,teachersmustfirstprogressfromethnocentric10perspectivesowingtothedominanthegemonicculturetoaplaceofculturalawareness(DeSensi,1995).Quintanar-Sarellana(2002)identifiedthreestagesofculturalawareness,whichtypifyteachersaseither:(a)culturallyunaware,(b)inatransitionalstage,or(c)cul-turallyaware.InfluencedbyAmerica’sdominantculture,teacherswhoareculturallyunaware“activelyrejectstudents’languageandculture,eitherovertlyorcovertly”(Quintanar-Sarellana,2002,p.44).Thoseeducators,inthetransitionalstage,begintogaininsightintotheculturesandlanguagesoftheirstudents,andtheyaremoreapttocommunicatewithparentsandengageinprofessionaldevelopmentinitiativesonsuchtopicsasstudentdiversity.Teacherswhoareculturallyawareareresponsivetothedistinctionsbetweentheculturalcapital11ofthestudentsandtheschool. Furthermore,culturallyawareteachersareableto:(a)integratethestudents’languagesandculturesintheteaching-learningprocess,(b)useavarietyofteachingstrategiesappositefortheirdiverseclasses,(c)communicateeffectivelywithstudentsandparents,and(d)useeffectiveinterpersonalskillsandstrategiestobetterrelatetostudents(Cazden,2001;Cazden&Leggett,1981;Foster,1995;Ladson-Billings,1994, 1995, 1998b;Quintanar-Sarellana, 2002).Ladson-Billings (1994) assertedthatteacherswithculturallyrelevantpedagogieshavehighself-esteemandahighregardforandconnectwellwithothers(e.g.,students,parents,andmembersofthecommunity).Tohelpteachersmovetowardculturalawareness,scholarsadvocatetheinfusionofcontentonsuchissuesasdiversityandmulticulturalismwithinteachereducationcurricular(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryant,etal.,2004;DeSensi,1995;Flowers,Milner,&Moore,2003;Milner,Flowers,Moore,Moore,&Flowers,2003;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Culturallyawareteacherswhoareresponsivetostudents’languagesandcultureshaveproveneffective(Foster,1995;Cazden,2001;Grant,1994;Ladson-Billings,1990,1995;Lucas,Henze,&Donato,1990). EvidenceofthisisgiveninareviewoftheextantliteraturebyFoster(1995),whoreportedthateffectiveculturallyresponsiveteachers:(a)expresscaringbe-haviorsthroughtheirpersonalizedinteractionsandcloserelationshipswiththeirstudents;(b)communicatehighexpectationsforeffortandachievementofstudents;(c)linkclassroomcontenttostudentexperiences;(d)focusonthedevelopmentofthewholechild,notmerelyherorhiscognitivematuration;(e)organizelearningasasocialevent,ratherthanasacompetitiveorindividualexperience;and(f)in-corporateaspectsofstudents’homeandculturalcommunicationpatternsintheirteaching.Intheirculturallyresponsivecurriculummodel,VillegasandLucas(2002)

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envisionteacherswho(a)aresocioculturallyconsciousinrecognizingthat“therearemultiplewaysofperceivingrealityandthatthesewaysareinfluencedbyone’slocationinthesocialorder”(p.21),(b)haveaffirmingviewsofstudents’diversities,(c)viewthemselvesaschangeagentsformakingschoolsmoreresponsivetoallstudents,(d)understandhowstudentsconstructknowledgeandpromotesstudents’knowledgeconstruction,(e)knowaboutthelivesoftheirstudents,and(f)useswhattheyknowaboutstudents’livestodesignandimplement“instructionthatbuildsonwhatstudentsalreadyknowwhilestretchingthembeyondthefamiliar”(Villegas&Lucas,2002,p.21). Teacher preparation institutions and school districts need to better ensurethatcoachesandteachersarepreparedandwillingtocreateculturallyresponsivesportandacademiclearningcontextsthatreducetheadverseimpactofrace-basedstereotypes.Thiscanbeachievedthroughthesystemicinfusionofcontentandexposuretoissuesofdiversityandmulticulturalisminteachereducationcurricularandinprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesforcoachesandpracticingteachersattheschooldistrictlevel(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryantetal.,2004).Inaculturallyresponsiveframework,teachersarebestabletoconnectwithadiversityofstudentsandcontributemeaningfullytotheirschoolingexperience(Flowersetal,2003;Fordetal.,2005;Ladson-Billings,1995;Quintanar-Sarellana,1997;Villegas&Lucas,2002).Furthertocounterstereotypicbeliefs,coachesandteachersshouldespouseethnorelativistic12 views in their interactions with student-athletes and activelyengagestudentsininformeddialogueonsuchissuesasracismandstereotypingofvariedethnicgroupsregardingintellectualandathleticabilities(Burden,Hodge,O’Bryantetal.,2004;DeSensi,1995;Harrison&Lawrence,2004).

Notes 1ThetermBlackisusedtoidentifyparticipantsinthisstudywhoself-identifiedtheirraceorethnicityasBlack,African,AfricanAmerican,orAfro-Caribbean(Westat,2005).TheseparticipantsweremostlyAfricanAmericansnativetotheUSandotherindividualsofAfricanancestry. 2ThetermWhiteisusedtoidentifyparticipantsinthisstudywhoself-identifiedtheirethnicityasEuropeanAmerican,White,orWhiteAmericanasanapproachtorecognizeAnglo(White)descendants fromEuropeanandnon-Europeancountries (Westat,2005).TheseparticipantsweremostlyWhitesnativetoUSA. 3ThetermHispanicisusedtoidentifyparticipantsinthisstudywhoself-identifiedtheirraceorethnicityasHispanic,Chicano/a,Cuban,Latino/a,LatinAmerican,orMexicanAmerican.TheseparticipantsweremostlyHispanicorLatinoandotherindividualsofLatinAmericanorotherSpanishancestry(Westat,2005). 4 Ethnic grouporethnicity referstoculturaltraditionsandlanguages,familyancestry,andhistoricalbackgroundandpractices(e.g.,AfricanAmerican,AsianAmerican,ItalianAmerican,andMexicanAmericanpeople)(Coakley,2004). 5Hegemonyreferstodomination,control,powerstructures,andauthority. 6Orthodoxyreferstotheholdingofcorrectorgenerallyacceptedviewsorbeliefs. 7TheU.S.SupremeCourtonJune23,2003ruledintwocases(i.e.,Gratzv.Bolling

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andGrutterv.Bollinger)onadmissionpolicesattheUniversityofMichigan.TheCourtruledthatraceandethnicityamongotherfactorscanbetakenintoaccountintheadmissionprocess,butracialquotasareprohibited(AmericanCouncilonEducation,2003). 8Demographicdataonthesamplewascollectedinconjunctionwithalargerstudyofhighschoolstudents’motivationsandbeliefsabouteducationandopportunity. 9Inthisstudy,weusedthetermethnicminoritiestomoreauthenticallyreflectcommonreferencetoAfricanAmericans,Hispanics,andotherpeopleofcolor.But,wegenerallyavoidusingthisterminidentifyingindividualsorethnicgroupstatuswithrespecttopeopleofcolorbecausethetermlacksglobalvalidityandoftenimpartsanegativeconnotationonsuchindividuals(Coakley,2004).Wemoreoftenusethetermpeople of colorinreferringtoBlacks/AfricanAmericans,Asian/PacificAmericans,Hispanics,andNativeAmericans,forexample. 10 Ethnocentric perspectives reflect an individual’s “denial of, defense against, andminimizationofdifference”(DeSensi,1994,p.36)withrespecttoothercultures. 11Culturalcapitalrefersto“thebehaviorpatterns,setofvalues,andlinguisticexpres-sionsthatmembersofacertainsocioeconomicorethnicgrouptransmittoothermembersofsociety”(Quintanar-Sarellana,1997,pp.40-41). 12Ethnorelativeviewsreflectanindividual’s“acceptanceof,adaptationto,andintegra-tionofdifference”(DeSensi,1994,p.36)withrespecttoothercultures.

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Educational Foundations, Winter-Spring 2008Hodge, Kozub ... · Educational Foundations, Winter-Spring 2008Hodge, Kozub, Dixson, Moore, & Kambon Sanuel R. Hodge is an associate professor