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ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Ethnographic ResearchDefinition and PurposeDefinitionA qualitative approach that studies the culturalpatterns* and perspectives of participants in their natural settingsPurposeTo describe, analyze, and interpret the culture of agroup over time to understand the groups shared beliefs, behaviors, and language

a particular way in which sth is done, organised, or happens2

Ethnographic ResearchDefinition and PurposeCulture and ERCulture is the set of shared attitudes, values, concepts,beliefs, and practices that can be attributed to the members of the group being studiedThree broad areas to help focus on tangible cultural behaviors , according to H. F. Walcott:Cultural orientation* where the people are situated in terms of physical space and activities. Cultural know-how how a group goes about daily activitiesCultural beliefs why a group does what it does

The particular things that a person prefers, believes, thinks or usually does.3

Ethnographic ResearchThe Ethnographic ProcessNine steps to conduct an ethnographic studyIdentify the purpose of the research studyA clear idea with some connection to cultural issuesFrame the study as a larger theoretical, policy, or practical problemThe importance of most ethnographic problems is readily apparentPose initial ethnographic research questionsUse general guiding questions that foreshadow the issueDescribe the overall approach and rationale for the study

Ethnographic ResearchThe Ethnographic ProcessNine steps to conduct an ethnographic study cont.Describe the site and sample selectionThe use of purposive sampling techniquesThe use of key informantsDescribe the researchers roleEntry to the siteReciprocity*Ethics

behaviour in which two people or groups of people give each other help and advantage5

Ethnographic ResearchThe Ethnographic ProcessNine steps to conduct an ethnographic study cont.Describe the data collection methodsParticipant observationField notesInterviewsArtifacts Describe appropriate strategies for the analysis and interpretation of dataUse the methods discussed in the chapter on data collection and analysisWrite the ethnographic account

Ethnographic ResearchTypes of Ethnographic ResearchThree common typesThe realist ethnographyThe author studies the culture of schoolsWritten in an objective styleUses common categories for cultural description, analysis, and interpretationThe ethnographic case studyThe focus is on describing a specific caseDescriptions of the activities undertaken by the group and the shared patterns of behavior that develop over time

Ethnographic ResearchTypes of Ethnographic ResearchThe critical ethnographyThe author is interested in advocating for theEmancipation* of groups marginalized in our societyHighly politicizedAdvocates against inequities and domination of particulargroups in societyAddresses issues of power, authority, emancipation, oppression, and inequity

The process of giving people social or political freedom and rights8

Ethnographic ResearchCharacteristics of Ethnographic ResearchDistinctive characteristicsConducted in a natural setting not in LaboratoryInvolves intimate face-to-face interactions with participantsReflects participants perspectives and behaviorsUses inductive, interactive, and recursive collection of unstructured data Data is collected primarily through fieldwork experiencesUses multiple data sources including both quantitative and qualitativeFrames all human behavior and beliefs within a socio-political and historical context

using a particular set of facts or ideas to form a general principle. Involving communication between people. Involving doing or saying he same thing several times in order to produce a particular result or effect9

Ethnographic ResearchDistinctive characteristics ..8) Uses the concept of culture as a lens through which the results are interpreted9) Places an emphasis on exploring the nature of particular social phenomena10) Investigates a small number of cases in detail11) Uses data analyses that involve the explicit interpretation of the meanings and functions of human actions that are presented through the description of themes and interpretations within the context or group setting12) Offers interpretations of peoples actions and behaviors that are uncovered through the investigation of what they actually do and the reasons for doing it

Ethnographic ResearchDistinctive characteristics ..13) Offers a representation or interpretation of peoples lives and behaviors that is neither the researchers or the participants but is built on the points of understanding and misunderstanding that occur between the researcher and participants14) Are necessarily partial, bound by what can be handled within a certain time, under certain specific circumstances, and from a particular perspective

Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic TechniquesTriangulationCollecting data using many sources rather than a single oneMultiple sourcesInterviewsObservationsArtifactsMultiple informantsConsistency across sources and informants creates a stronger understanding of what is truly going on

Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic TechniquesParticipant observationTwo purposesTo observe the activities, people, and physical aspects of a situationTo engage in activities that provide useful information in a given situation Three varying degrees of participationActive participant observer active engagementPrivileged active observer engaged in a more active, privileged manner such as teaching a lessonPassive observer little, if any, engagementRecommended social behaviorsNegotiating entrance into the setting requires the researcher to be able to clearly describe the purpose, plan, and constraints likely associated with the researchReciprocity requires the researcher to move between formal and informal ways of interacting with participantsThe researcher must have a tolerance for ambiguityThe researcher must have personal determination coupled with a faith in oneself

Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic TechniquesField notesA record of the researchers understanding of the lives, people, and events that are the focus of the researchThe link between field notes and the researchWhat is observed is ultimately treated as dataWhen writing field notes researchers should give particular attention to the indigenous meanings and concerns of the people studiedField notes provide essential grounding for writing broader, more coherent accounts of others lives and concernsField notes detail the social and interactional processes that make up peoples everyday lives and activities

Ethnographic Research

Recommendations for observing and recording field notesMake mental notes and record them as soon as possible after observingJot down key informationCapture key words and phrases without a lot of explanationUse a mnemonic device to help reconstruct the observed eventsDont worry about grammar or other rulesTrace what you did during the dayAvoid the temptation to recreate dialogue

Ethnographic Research

Describe as completely and accurately as you can all relevant aspects of the observationRecord your personal reactions (i.e., reflective field notes)Observe and record everything you possibly canObserve and look for nothing in particularLook for bumps or paradoxes

Ethnographic ResearchFollowing is an example of an ethnographic approach to a research questions.What is the Hispanic student culture in an urban community college? After selecting a general research question and a research site in a community college that enrolls many Hispanic students. The researcher first gains entry to the college and establishes rapport with the participants of the study. Building rapport can be a lengthy process, depending on the characteristics of the researcher (e.g. non Hispanic vs Hispanic; Spanish speaking vs. non Spanish Speaking).

Ethnographic ResearchAs is common in qualitative approaches, the researcher simultaneously collects and interprets data to help focus the general research question initially posed. Throughout data collection, the ethnographic researcher identifies recurrent themes, integrates them into existing categories, and adds new categories as new themes or topics arise. The success of the study relies heavily on the researchers skills in analyzing and synthesizing the qualitative data into coherent and meaningful descriptions.

Ethnographic ResearchThe research report includes a holistic description of the culture, the common understandings and beliefs shared by participants, a discussion of how these beliefs relate to life in the culture, and discussion of how the findings compare to literature already published about similar groups. In a sense, the successful researcher provides guidelines that enable someone not in the culture to know how to think and behave in the culture.

CASE STUDY RESEARCH

Case Study ResearchDefinition and PurposeCase study is a qualitative research approach in which researchers focus on a unit of study known as a bounded system (i.e. individual teachers, a classroom, or a school). A method to deeply observe the characteristics of individual unit such as a person, a group or a community, in order to analyse various phenomena in relation to that unit of study.Qualitative case studies focuses on experiential knowledge of a certain case and closely related to the social and political influence

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Case Study ResearchDefinition and PurposeMerriam: The case is a thing, a single entity, a unit around which there are boundaries. I can fence in* what I am going to study. Stake: Case study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what is to be studied.Miles and Huberman: Case study is an investigation of a phenomenon that occurs within a specific context. Yin (2003): Empirical enquiry to investigate a contemporary phenomenon in real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evidentStenhouse (1999): states that the task of case study is to produce reports of experience and to offer evidence, not to deal with generalisation.

to limit someones activity in a way that annoys them or makes them unhappy.

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Case Study ResearchDefinition and PurposeSo the Case Study Research is;A qualitative approach to studying a phenomenonFocused on a unit of study, or a bounded systemNot a methodological choice, but a choice of what to study;An all-encompassing research method.

Case Study ResearchWhen to Use Case Study ApproachA Case Study research method is appropriate when the researcher wants to answer a descriptive question What Happened? OR an Explanatory question How or Why did something happened?Example: How do central office personnel, principals and teacher manage and cope with multiple innovation? means What happened in the process of managing and coping with multiple innovations?Case Study is an appropriate choice of research method if the researcher is interested in studying process.

Case Study ResearchCharacteristics of Case Study ResearchParticularistic: it means that it is focused on a particular phenomenon, such as situation or event. That is, a case study researcher may specifically choose a particular instance of a phenomenon under investigation to understand a specific problem that occurs in everyday practice. Descriptive: It means the end result of the case study, the narrative, includes thick description of the phenomenon that was the focus of the case study research.

Case Study ResearchCharacteristics of Case Study ResearchHeuristic: it means the fact that case studies illuminate the readers understanding of the phenomenon under study beyond the readers original knowledge.In short, one outcome of case study research is a narrative account that provides the researcher (and reader of the case study) with new insights into the way things are and into the kinds of relationships that exist among participants in the study.

Case Study ResearchDesigning Case Study ResearchA good case study research design includes a statement of the purpose of the research, initial research questions, review of related literature, and a rationale for the selection of the case (i.e. unit of analysis). Determine the Research Question.The questions asked by the researcher will determine e theappropriateness of the research method. Questions thatAddress Who,what, how, and why provide the case studyresearcher with Good starting points.

Case Study ResearchDesigning Case Study Research2. Define the Case under study.Focus on what / whom; for example in Mills study, the casewas the McKenzie School District. More specifically, the school district cases were focused on central office personnel, principals, and teachers all of which were units of analysis. 3. Determine the role of theory development in case selection.4. Determine the theoretical and conceptual framework of the case study.5. Determine whether a single case study, a multiple case study, or a collective case study is appropriate.

Case Study ResearchSample SelectionQualitative sampling is the process of selecting a small number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals chosen will be able to help the researcher understand the phenomenon under investigation. In case study the researchers unit of analysis may bea child, a classroom of children , or an entire school district depending on the research question. The most common form of sampling is purposive or purposeful sampling based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned.

Case Study ResearchFollowing is an example of a study that used the case study research approach:Mills asked, How do central office personnel, principals, and teachers manage and come with multiple innovations? and studied educational change in one American school district. Mills described and analyzed how change functioned and what functions it served in this district. The function of change was viewed from the perspectives of central office personnel (e.g. superintendent, director of research and evaluation, program coordinators), principals, and teachers as they coped with and managed multiple innovations, including the introduction of kindergartens to elementary schools, the continuation of a program for at-risk students, and the use of the California Achievement Test(CAT) cores to drive school improvement efforts. Mills used qualitative data collection techniques including participant observation, interviewing written sources of data, and non-written sources of data.

Case Study ResearchStrengthsIt may offer larger details about a particular phenomenon. For instance, it may include narrative and a specific description about a particular activity, personal relationship or a group interpretation.The readers of a case study may obtain naturalistic generalizations from personal or vicarious experience. i.e. people can share and understand others social experienceCase study provides a holistic interpretation and always refers to a social context. Case study provides sufficient basal facts for developing a suitable Hypothesis regarding the social unit to be studied

Case Study ResearchLimitationsPeople may think that case study researchers do not follow systematic procedures and may have biased views that probably influence the findings and the conclusionThe researchers may not be able to cover all issues and offer a scientific generalization because they tend to have limited evidence, not as many as quantitative researchCostly method in terms of time and moneyCause-Effect relationship is not established

Case Study ResearchLimitationsCase studies often rely on subjective data, such as the participants statements or the researchers observations, because most case studies focus on human experiences. Consequently, data will vary based on the participants description, opinion, and feeling. To avoid subjectivity and to increase the objectivity of data, a researcher should use replicative, falsification and triangulating methods.

Ethnographic Vs Case Study ResearchEthnography is defined as an art and science of describing a group or culture. It is investigative in nature, and a successful ethnography is created when the ethnographer behaves like a true spy. He does not impose his own view points or try to make a subjective analysis of what is good or bad according to his own culture. It means that he has to remain neutral and does not need to be judgmental at any stage of ethnography. Ethnography requires a lot of patience, and it is not prudent to make generalizations without confirming them through repeated observations. Talking of observation, the best method of data collection in ethnography is through participant observation, where an ethnographer tries to become a part of the group and records observations without making any kind of analysis.

Ethnographic Vs Case Study ResearchA case study is, on the other hand, explanatory in nature. It can also be descriptive in nature, and in that case it inches closer to ethnography. Case studies draw from a wealth of previous researches, and the researcher draws conclusions based upon the data he obtains from systematic study of a particular instance, event, individual, or a group. Case study is more interested in whys of an event or an instance and its implications more than ethnography. In this sense, a case study is more outward looking than ethnography, which is an inward looking approach. A case study is often of a shorter duration than ethnography which takes up considerable time. Neutrality is the centre point of ethnography, which is also there in a case study, but not as much as in ethnography.

Ethnographic Vs Case Study Research While ethnography is an art of describing a group orculture, case study is an in depth analysis of a particular instance, event, individual, or a group Ethnography requires participant observation as a datacollection method whereas it is not necessary in a case study. Case study is outward looking while ethnography is inwardLooking Ethnography takes a longer time than a case study

Ethnographic Vs Case Study ResearchWhile ethnography is a study of a culture or an ethnic group, a case study investigates a particular instance, event or an individual. But there are case studies that involve a particular group or gang also. This makes finding a distinction between a case study and ethnography all the more difficult.

Ethnographic Vs Case Study Research.Case Study ResearchEthnographic ResearchIt does not only depend on participant-observer data but mainly uses interviews.It may require certain periods of time in the field and emphasize details of observational evidence.The ethnographer may use an interview as an additional technique to capture whole participants perspective. The cs researchers tend to follow ethnographic methods by providing detailed observations about reality and trying to avoid former commitment to any theoretical frameworks The ethnographers do not always produce case studies. Moreover, the case study does not have to present direct and detailed observations, but it can be based on any quantitative or qualitative dataIt is strategy of assembling data and drawing interpretationAs a practice is a method of collecting dataCase study is outward looking, aiming to delineate the nature of phenomena through detailed investigation of individual cases and their contexts.Ethnography is inward looking, aiming to uncover the tacit knowledge of culture participants.

NARRATIVE RESEARCH

Narrative Research

DefinitionThe description of the lives of individuals, the collection of individuals stories and their experiences, and a discussion of the meaning of those experiencesPurposeAn attempt to increase understanding of central issues related to teaching and learning through the telling and retelling of participants stories

Narrative Research

Eight Basic StepsIdentify the purpose of the study and identify the phenomenon being exploredSelect an individual in order to learn about the phenomenonPose initial narrative research questionsDescribe the researchers roleEntry into the research siteReciprocity*Ethics

behaviour in which two people or groups of people give each other help and advantage

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Narrative Research

5.Describe the data collection methods with particular attention to active interviewing6.Describe appropriate strategies for the analysis and interpretation of data7.Collaborate with the participant to construct the narrative and to validate the accuracy of the story8.Complete the writing of the narrative account

Narrative Research

Similarity to the steps discussed for all other research designsAn interactive, personal, collaborative process characterized by a caring, trusting relationship between the researcher and participantThe researchers intent is to empower the participant to tell his or her storyThe participant must have equal voice in the relationshipThe researcher must actively listen to the participants story before contributing his or her own perspective

Narrative Research

Types of Narrative ResearchAutobiographiesBiographiesLife WritingLife Stories and HistoriesPopular MemoriesPersonal AccountsPersonal NarrativesPersonal DocumentsDocuments of Life

Narrative Research

Characteristics of Narrative ResearchFive characteristics on which the type of narrative research is categorized1.Who authors the accountThe researcher, the participant, or both2.The scope of the narrativeAn entire life or a single episode3.Who provides the storyTeachers, students, parents, friends, etc.4.The theoretical and/or conceptual framework that has influenced the studyFor example, critical or feminist theory5.Whether or not all of these elements are included in the one narrative

Narrative Research

Characteristics of Narrative ResearchSix key characteristics1.Focus on the experiences of individuals2.Concerned with the chronology of an individuals experiences3.Focus on the construction of life stories based on data collected through active interviewsActive interviewing emphasizes the collaborative construction of the story4.Uses Restoring as a technique for constructing the narrative account5.Incorporates context and place in the story6.Reflects a collaborative approach that involves the researcher and the participant in the negotiation of the final text

Narrative Research

Sources of data1.Participants recollections of events or experiences2. Secondary sources such as the participants journal entries, artifacts, etc.3.The nature of these sources implies the researcher must interact at a very personal level with the participant to collect dataThe need for a relationship based on trust, caring, respect, and equality to facilitate collecting data as well as analyzing and interpreting it

Narrative Research

Empirical data is central to narrative researchThe interpretive nature of narrative research presents concerns for credibility of the studyImplies the use of multiple data sources, triangulation, and collaborative negotiation of the written account

Narrative Research

Six data collection techniquesRestoryingOral historyMemorabilia*Story tellingLetter writingAutobiographical and biographical writing

objects that are collected because they are connected with a person or event that is thought to be very interesting.49

Narrative Research

Two perspectives on data collection, analysis, and interpretationNarrative analysisThe kind of narrative that is constructed by the researcher who has collected descriptions of events through interviews and observations and synthesized them into stories or narrativesThe story is the outcomeAnalysis of narrativesThe process whereby the researcher collects stories as data and analyzes them into a set of themes that hold across all of the storiesThe themes are the outcomesThe text focuses on the first of these perspectives

Narrative Research

1. RestoryingThe process in which the researcher gathers stories; analyzes them for key elements of the story such as the time, place, or plot; and rewrites the story to place it in a chronological sequenceFour stagesThe researcher conducts the interview and transcribes the dataThe researcher re-transcribes the data based on the key elements that are identified in the storyThe researcher organizes the story chronologicallyThe participant is asked to collaborate with the researcher to write the final restoried narrative.A major advantage is that the restoried account is likely to represent the individuals lived experiences

Narrative Research

2. Oral historyA method for collecting data from participants by asking them to share their experiencesTwo ways to develop oral historiesInterviews using structured or unstructured protocolsAnnals and chroniclesThe participant constructs a timeline and divides it into segments of significant events or memories

Narrative Research

3. MemorabiliaPhotos, personal objects, newspaper articles, artifacts, etc.Such memorabilia can be used by the researcher as prompts to elicit details about the participants life4. Story tellingTelling stories should become a normative part of the data collection processThe use of many stories can provide researchers with many opportunities to add to their understanding of the participants experiences

Narrative Research

5. Letter writingEngaging the researcher and participant in a dialogueFacilitated by the use of e-mailProvides valuable insights into the evolving, tentative interpretations the participant is consideringAllows the researcher and participant to reflect on the evolution of the themes

Narrative Research

6. Autobiographical and biographical writingEngaging the participants in writing about their perceptions of their experiencesHas the potential to broaden the researchers understanding of past events and experiences that have impacted the participants experiences

Other narrative data sourcesDocuments such as lesson plans, newsletters, etc.Teaching portfoliosPersonal philosophies

Narrative Research

Writing the narrativeThe final step in the narrative research processThe data collected throughout the study finds its way into the final written accountThe collaboration between the researcher and participant becomes critical at this point

Narrative Research

Following is an example of the narrative research approach. Kristy, an assistant professor of education, is frustrated by what she perceives as the gender-biased distribution of resources within the School of Education (SOE). Kristy shares her story with Winston, a colleague and a researcher. Kristy describes in great detail her view that the SOE dean, George, is allocating more resources for technology upgrade, curriculum materials, and conference travel to her male colleagues.

Narrative Research

Winston collects artifacts including minutes of faculty meetings, technology orders, and lists of the curriculum materials ordered for the library at the university that relate to the resource allocation. After collecting all the data that will influence the story, Winston reviews the information, identifies important elements and theme and retells Kristys story in a narrative from.After constructing the story he shares the story with Kristy who collaborates on establishing it accuracy.

Narrative Research

In his interpretation of Kristys unique story of gender bias, Winston describes themes related to power and influence in a hierarchical school of education and the struggles faced by beginning professors to establish their career paths in a culture that is remarkably resistant to change.

Ethnographic/Case Study/Narrative

Ethnographic: What is the Hispanic student culture in an urban community college? Case Study: How do central office personnel, principals, and teachers manage and come with multiple innovations(New Ideas/Methods)? and studied educational change in one American school district. Narrative: Kristy, an assistant professor of education, is frustrated by what she perceives as the gender-biased distribution of resources within the School of Education (SOE).

The Term Ends Here