EDU 5900

REKA BENTUK PENYELIDIKAN

PENGUMPULAN DATA

OBJEKTIF

• Memahami konsep pengumpulan data dalam penyelidikan.

• Mengetahui kaedah-kaedah pengumpulan data dalam penyelidikan

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way.

Train researchers to

collect observational

data

Procedures for Administering the Data Collection

Respect individuals and sites during data gathering (ethics)

Develop standard written procedures for

administering an instrument

Obtain permission to

collect and use public documents

There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:

•questionnaires•interviews

•focus group interviews•observation•case-studies

•diaries•critical incidents

•portfolios.

There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:

•questionnaires•interviews

•focus group interviews•observation•case-studies

•diaries•critical incidents

•portfolios.

Various data collection techniques can be used such as:

•Using available information •Observing •Interviewing (face-to-face) •Administering written questionnaires •Focus group discussions

Various data collection techniques can be used such as:

•Using available information •Observing •Interviewing (face-to-face) •Administering written questionnaires •Focus group discussions

1. Using available information

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily have been analyzed or published. Locating

these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any

data collection effort.

1. Using available information

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily have been analyzed or published. Locating

these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any

data collection effort.

E.g.: information system data, census data, unpublished reports and publications in archives and libraries

2. Observing

OBSERVATION is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and

recording behaviour and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.

2. Observing

OBSERVATION is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and

recording behaviour and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.

•Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she observes. •Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but does not participate.

•Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she observes. •Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but does not participate.

Observations of human behaviour can form part of any type of study, but as they are time consuming they are most often used in small-scale studies.

Observations can also be made on objects.

If observations are made using a defined scale they may be called measurements. Measurements usually require additional tools. For example, we use thermometers for measuring body temperature.

Observations of human behaviour can form part of any type of study, but as they are time consuming they are most often used in small-scale studies.

Observations can also be made on objects.

If observations are made using a defined scale they may be called measurements. Measurements usually require additional tools. For example, we use thermometers for measuring body temperature.

3. InterviewingAn INTERVIEW is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either

individually or as a group.

Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately

after the interview) or by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both.

3. InterviewingAn INTERVIEW is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either

individually or as a group.

Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately

after the interview) or by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both.

Interviews can be conducted with varying degrees of flexibility. The two extremes, high and low degree of

flexibility

For example:When studying sensitive issues such as teenage pregnancy

and abortions, the investigator may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions. These may, e.g., include how

teenagers started sexual intercourse, the responsibility girls and their partners take to prevent pregnancy (if at all), and the actions they take in the event of unwanted pregnancies.

The investigator should have an additional list of topics ready when the respondent falls silent, (e.g., when asked about abortion methods used, who made the decision and who paid). The sequence of topics should be determined by the flow of discussion. It is often

possible to come back to a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the interview.

For example:When studying sensitive issues such as teenage pregnancy

and abortions, the investigator may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions. These may, e.g., include how

teenagers started sexual intercourse, the responsibility girls and their partners take to prevent pregnancy (if at all), and the actions they take in the event of unwanted pregnancies.

The investigator should have an additional list of topics ready when the respondent falls silent, (e.g., when asked about abortion methods used, who made the decision and who paid). The sequence of topics should be determined by the flow of discussion. It is often

possible to come back to a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the interview.

High degree of flexibility

Less flexible methods of interviewing are useful when the researcher is relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of

respondents being interviewed is relatively large. Then questionnaires may be used with a fixed list

of questions in a standard sequence, which have mainly fixed or pre-categorised answers.

Less flexible methods of interviewing are useful when the researcher is relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of

respondents being interviewed is relatively large. Then questionnaires may be used with a fixed list

of questions in a standard sequence, which have mainly fixed or pre-categorised answers.

Low degree of flexibility

Face - to - face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish

rapport with potential participants and therefor gain their cooperation. These interviews yield

highest response rates in survey research. They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical

when large samples are involved time consuming and expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready

access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview

but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to

draw inferences.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of

completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the

information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as

saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that

interviewers have computer and typing skills.

The main advantage of face to face interviews is that the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary,

clarify doubts and ensure that the responses are properly understood by repeating or rephrasing the

questions.

The disadvantages of the interview include cost and possibility of bias. It is very costly to conduct many

interviews over large geographical areas as it may involve training interviewers, transportation and accommodation

out of town. The very flexibility of an interview is also an opportunity for researcher bias to influence the data collected. Facial or verbal cues may influence the

answers the participants give.

Advantage

Disadvantages

4. Administering written questionnaires

A WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE (also referred to as self-administered

questionnaire) is a data collection tool in which written questions are presented

that are to be answered by the respondents in written form.

4. Administering written questionnaires

A WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE (also referred to as self-administered

questionnaire) is a data collection tool in which written questions are presented

that are to be answered by the respondents in written form.

Paper-pencil-questionnaires

can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and money. People are

more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are

anonymous. But they also have drawbacks. Majority of the people who receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative of the originally selected sample.

(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Web Based Questionnaires

A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would

take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some

disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to

access a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and

so might not give accurate responses. (http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/me

thods.htm)

A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:

• Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the questions and asking for mailed responses;

• Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires; or

• Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.

A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:

• Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the questions and asking for mailed responses;

• Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires; or

• Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.

The response rate is usually small which requires a second or even a third mailing. A further more

important disadvantage of this method is that different participants may interpret the questions

differently and certain questions can be completely misunderstood by many or all of the participants. To avoid this problem, questions

would have to be simple

The Negative Side to Postal Questionnaires

Advantages of this method include:

Doubts regarding the meaning of the questions can be clarified to ensure that the participant is answering the questions in the sense that the researcher intended, The importance of the research can be personally presented to the participants and its significance explained to them to motivate honest answers by emphasizing their contribution to the research, It requires fewer skills than interviewing, and hence relatively low skilled assistants can be recruited to perform this task to speed up the research, and It ensures better response rates because there is a ‘personal face’ to the questionnaires as personal persuasion usually increases interest.

Personally Administered Questionnaires

• The main disadvantage seems to be that the researcher may introduce his personal bias by giving facial or verbal expressions, which may put the participant at unease.

• Further in explaining questions differently to different people, participants may be in fact answering different questions as compared to those whom the questionnaire was mailed.

Personally Administered Questionnaires

5. Focus group discussions (FGD)

A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a

certain subject with the guidance of a facilitator or reporter.

5. Focus group discussions (FGD)

A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a

certain subject with the guidance of a facilitator or reporter.

Telephone surveys may consist of polls, interview or questionnaire survey conducted over the telephone.

Compared to mailed questionnaires or personal interviews, they can cover a wider geographical area in a shorter time. However the disadvantage is the higher cost compared to mailed questionnaire but there can

be substantial cost savings compared to personal face-to-face interviews.

Telephone surveys may consist of polls, interview or questionnaire survey conducted over the telephone.

Compared to mailed questionnaires or personal interviews, they can cover a wider geographical area in a shorter time. However the disadvantage is the higher cost compared to mailed questionnaire but there can

be substantial cost savings compared to personal face-to-face interviews.

6. Telephone Surveys

Anonymity of the telephone survey varies; the lack of face to face contact can both be an advantage and disadvantage. Personal cues cannot be given or received, hence there cannot be an accusation of researcher bias. However, this is not conducive to getting a greater

insight into the perceptions, feelings and thoughts of the interviewee. Further, interviewees may not be easy with a faceless researcher as

they may fear lack of confidentiality of their views.In this research, the length of the questionnaire and the nature of the

questions which required some thought was not suitable for administration over the phone. Hence the telephone was used only to fix appointments for interviews to hand over questionnaires and make

presentations to academics, in some cases before handing the questionnaires to staff.

Anonymity of the telephone survey varies; the lack of face to face contact can both be an advantage and disadvantage. Personal cues cannot be given or received, hence there cannot be an accusation of researcher bias. However, this is not conducive to getting a greater

insight into the perceptions, feelings and thoughts of the interviewee. Further, interviewees may not be easy with a faceless researcher as

they may fear lack of confidentiality of their views.In this research, the length of the questionnaire and the nature of the

questions which required some thought was not suitable for administration over the phone. Hence the telephone was used only to fix appointments for interviews to hand over questionnaires and make

presentations to academics, in some cases before handing the questionnaires to staff.

Telephone Surveys

Institutional or organizational (e.g., school

district)

Site-specific (e.g.,

secondary

school)Individual participants

Parents of participants who are

not considered adults

Campus approval (e.g., university or college) and

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

What Permissions Are Needed:Obtaining Permission

As we develop our data collection techniques, we need to consider whether our research procedures are likely to cause any physical or emotional harm. Harm may be caused, for example, by:•Violating informants’ right to privacy by posing sensitive questions or by gaining access to records which may contain personal data; •Observing the behavior of informants without their being aware (concealed observation should therefore always be crosschecked or discussed with other researchers with respect to ethical admissibility); •Allowing personal information to be made public which informants would want to be kept private, and •Failing to observe/respect certain cultural values, traditions or taboos valued by your informants.

As we develop our data collection techniques, we need to consider whether our research procedures are likely to cause any physical or emotional harm. Harm may be caused, for example, by:•Violating informants’ right to privacy by posing sensitive questions or by gaining access to records which may contain personal data; •Observing the behavior of informants without their being aware (concealed observation should therefore always be crosschecked or discussed with other researchers with respect to ethical admissibility); •Allowing personal information to be made public which informants would want to be kept private, and •Failing to observe/respect certain cultural values, traditions or taboos valued by your informants.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Several methods for dealing with these issues may be recommended:

•Obtaining informed consent before the study or the interview begins; •Not exploring sensitive issues before a good relationship has been established with the informant; •Ensuring the confidentiality of the data obtained; and •Learning enough about the culture of informants to ensure it is respected during the data collection process.

If sensitive questions are asked, for example, about family planning or sexual practices, or about opinions of patients on the health services provided, it may be advisable to omit names and addresses from the questionnaires.

Several methods for dealing with these issues may be recommended:

•Obtaining informed consent before the study or the interview begins; •Not exploring sensitive issues before a good relationship has been established with the informant; •Ensuring the confidentiality of the data obtained; and •Learning enough about the culture of informants to ensure it is respected during the data collection process.

If sensitive questions are asked, for example, about family planning or sexual practices, or about opinions of patients on the health services provided, it may be advisable to omit names and addresses from the questionnaires.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS