Russia Paper 2

Factors that led to the February 1917 revolution

Political problemsThe incompetence of Nicholas II

Tsar Nicholas II was unable to rule effectively. He made poor decisions that led to worsening relations with the government and increased hardship for civilians and soldiers alike.Nicholas refused to accept any reduction in the absolute power he held.He was detached from the plight of the Russian people and his policies also alienated ethnic minorities.When the Duma was recalled during World War 1, a group of Octoberists and Kadets established the Progressive Bloc. This group wanted to have more control over the war. In response, in 1915, Nicholas closed the Duma. This alienated many liberals.Nicholas declared himself Commander in Chief of the army and departed for the Eastern Front to take control of operations.However, Nicholas was not well educated in the tactics of war. Moreover, his absence left a weakened government in Petrograd (formerly St Petersburg).

The war and the Tsarina

Tsarina Alexandra and her son, Tsarevich Alexis

As the war continued, the quality and effectiveness of the Russian Empire's government was called into question.The departure of Nicholas II to the front left his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, in control. Alexandra was not hugely popular in Russia. She was reserved and awkward in public. More importantly, she was a German princess and some were suspicious as to where here loyalties lay in the war.Alexandra gained increasing influence over the appointment of ministers to the government. She was determined that no member of the imperial government should ever be in a sufficiently strong position to challenge the authority of her beloved husband. She appointed less threatening, sometimes incompetent, ministers to replace those who knew how to govern.As a result, members of the government tended to be increasingly weak and ineffective men. They owed their positions to winning favour with the Tsarina, rather than their ability and effectiveness.

This would have been bad enough with Russia at peace, but in wartime, it led inevitably to disaster for the monarchy and for Russia.

Issues with Rasputin

RasputinThe imperial family was

brought into disrepute as the Tsarina fell under the influence of Grigori Rasputin.Rasputin was a monk from Siberia. He was rumoured to be a Khlyst, member of an extreme underground sect that had split from the Orthodox Church. He was infamous for his drunkenness and for womanising.However he also gained a reputation as a healer, able to perform amazing feats and miracles.Rasputin came to the attention of the royal family. In April 1907, Alexandra called on him to heal her only son, the Tsarevich Alexis. He was suffering from painful bleeding as a result of an injury. It was not publicly known but Alexis suffered from the blood disease haemophilia.After Alexis recovered, Tsarina Alexandra became convinced that Rasputin could control the young boy's illness.While there is still debate over the nature of his powers over the health of Alexis, it is clear that his influence over the Tsarina was considerable. He advised her on appointments to the government, interfered in important decisions. He could do no wrong in the eyes of the Tsarina. Excuses were always made for his excessive and antisocial behaviour.To the Russian people, Rasputin symbolised everything that was wrong with imperial government. The court and the royal family became objects of ridicule, to be despised. Rasputin's murder by royalists at the end of 1916, came too late to undo the damage he had caused.

Revolutionary groupsThe membership and influence of revolutionary groups had been severely reduced by 1914, mainly through the repressive tactics of Stolypin and the Okhrana. But radical opinion was not wholey defeated:

Revolutionary groups survived underground and continued to attract support. Revolutionaries managed to assassinate Stolypin in 1911. Pravda, the Bolshevik newspaper, was highly popular amongst workers.Despite the Bolsheviks holding influence over many workers, Lenin had no part in bringing about the February Revolution. He believed that revolution should be organised, not developed from unorganised protest.

Impact of World War OneThe War brought terrible suffering for soldiers and civilians alike. Best estimates state that almost two million Russian soldiers were killed. A similar number of civilians also perished. Morale during this time was very low and the myth of the army as the Russian ‘steamroller’ had been vanquished.The Russian people looked for someone to hold to account for their suffering. In 1915, the Tsar had declared himself Commander in Chief of the Army. This made him a suitable target for this discontent.

Military defeats

World War One was a total disaster for Russia. The Russian army suffered defeat after defeat at the hands of Germany.

1914German troops pose with Russian guns captured at the Masurian Lakes

The Russians invaded Eastern Germany with two large armies. They were completely routed by smaller German forces at the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.

1915

Germany turned the full weight of its power against Russia and launched a series of onslaughts, including the Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive and the 2nd Battle of the Masurian Lakes.The Germans and Austrians unified their command and were able to successively rout Russian forces, who lacked modern weaponry or enough supplies. The Russians were forced into retreat. Large areas of Russian territory including Lithuania and Poland, were overrun.

1916For a time, the Russians achieved victory against the Germans and Austrians and regained some territory. However, the gains were minimal and Russia suffered heavy defeats late in the year.

Leadership

Nicholas II blesses Russian troopsIn 1915, Tsar Nicholas II took personal command of the army. He left St Petersburg and moved to army headquarters in Russian Poland.Nicholas II may have believed that, by taking charge, his army would be inspired and would fight with renewed vigour. Unfortunately, the Tsar knew little about the command and organisation of large military forces. The series of defeats and humiliations continued.The organisation of the Russian army deteriorated and

there were massive shortages of ammunition, equipment, and medical supplies.Nicholas II's decision to take charge meant that he was increasingly seen by the Russian people as having personal responsibility for the military disasters inflicted on Russia.

Economic problemsFrom the start of the war, Russia's economic problems grew steadily worse. By the beginning of 1917, the country was facing virtual economic collapse.

IndustryRussian industry moved into crisis during the war. Vital raw materials from overseas could no longer reach Russia. This resulted in shortages of raw materials and finished goods. The army faced major shortages of supplies and weapons.

TransportRussia had an underdeveloped railway system. This was taken over by the government to be used primarily for the war effort. It had to cope with the pressures of moving large quantities of troops and supplies to the battlefronts. This made it more difficult to keep the cities supplied with food.

AgricultureAgricultural methods remained backward and still relied on many peasants being able to work the land. Millions of peasant farmers were conscripted into the army. This led to a major shortage of manpower on the farms and a corresponding fall in production.There were serious shortages of food in the city shops. The price of even the most basic foods was rising steeply.By 1916, inflation had reached 200 per cent, the value of the rouble had fallen substantially and the price of goods was soaring. This made life increasingly difficult, particularly for poorer people.

Revolution from belowDiscontent among peasantsMany of those conscription into the army had come from the Russian peasantry. By 1916 a third had been injured.As the Russian Army had retreated from Poland and Lithuania in 1915, they had employed a ‘scorched earth’ policy, destroying a great deal of farmland. Peasant livelihoods were obliterated.Shortages in grain during the war resulted in many of the poorer land workers hoarding what they produced.

Discontent among workerWomen take to the streets of PetrogradThe ‘war economy’ had resulted in a steep increase of workers in the cities. City administrations faced added pressure to provide housing and services.Unemployment rose in industries that were not directly contributing to the war effort (these factories could not maintain a supply of raw materials).Living conditions deteriorated, especially as a result of shortages in the shops. These were caused by: the abandonment of Poland and

Lithuania in 1915 had deprived Russia of much farmland

peasants hoarded grain for their own use rather than selling it the railways were committed to the war effort not transporting supplies to the citiesThere was a severe lack of food in Moscow and, in 1917, Petrograd only received half of the grain required to feed its citizens. These shortages contributed to social unrest.In January 1917, in commemoration of Bloody Sunday, 140 000 workers went on strike in Petrograd. In February, rioting broke out in the city. Crowds attacked bakeries in a desperate search for bread. This was partially in response to the announcement of bread rationing.In the following days, strikes and demonstrations took place. Strikers from the Putilov Engineering Plantith joined the crowds at the celebration of International Women’s Day. As the number of people on the streets of Petrograd increased, soldiers refused orders to fire on the crowds. Instead they began to join in the protests.The Petrograd Soviet was established and issued Order #1, announcing that soldiers had the right to elect their own officers.

The fall of the TsarWhen informed of these events, Nicholas II dismissed it as a "hooligan movement" which would soon be over. Even as his regime met total collapse, the Tsar still showed his inability to face reality.Nicholas made an attempt to return from the war front to the capital, Petrograd, and reclaim his authority. But in late February revolutionaries diverted the train to Pskov. Isolated and powerless without the support of the army, his reign as Tsar was over - the only option now was abdication.Nicholas named his brother, the Grand Duke Michael, as his successor. Michael lacked the support of the people or the military. He refused the position. With that, the Romanov dynasty surrendered control of Russia.

Past Paper Questions:

To what extent was war the main cause of the February revolution?

Factors leading to the success of the October Revolution

Weaknesses of the Provisional GovernmentThe establishment of the Provisional Government

Prince LvovThe Provisional Government was formed on March 1, 1917. It was meant to be a temporary body that would govern Russia in place of the Tsar until elections could be held.Unlike the Petrograd Soviet, the provisional government was unelected. Many saw it as a dictatorial body of upper class citizens - Prince Lvov was its Prime Minister.Elections were delayed and the Provisional Government was in power until later that year.The Provisional Government took major decisions - Russia continued its military action in World War One and land reforms were postponed. Both rulings greatly affected the Russian people. This made the government increasingly unpopular and provided ammunition for revolutionaries, who called for its dissolution.

The establishment of the SovietsThe Soviets were councils elected by workers, soldiers and sailors:After the February Revolution, the first Soviet appeared in Petrograd. Soon Soviets had been elected in Moscow and other cities.They were usually chaotic, rowdy, and disorganised. But they were elected - unlike the Provisional Government.Lenin declared "All power to the Soviets", implying that the Soviets should govern Russia in place of the Provisional Government. This became an extremely effective Bolshevik rallying cry.

Petrograd Soviet in session

Dual powerThe existence of both the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet meant that power was shared. The Petrograd Soviet accepted that the Provisional Government would make decisions for Russia until elections could be held.The existence of two political bodies increased the potential for political disagreement. This was especially the case as the two bodies held very different views.The Provisional Government

consisted mainly of Octoberists and Kadets. They only wanted moderate changes to the government of Russia.Tthe Petrograd Soviet was made up of Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. They wanted to give power to the working classes.

Economic problemsEconomic difficulties had played a major role in Nicholas II's fall from power. The Provisional Government had very limited success in dealing with these problems:

The price of goods continued to increase Food was in short supply Fuel shortages made living conditions unbearable, especially during the harsh Russian winter The government could not guarantee enough grain, ammunition or weapons for troops

fighting in the war.The government did not to solve the land issue in the countryside and the desire of peasants for control of more land was not met. As a result seizures of land from landowners became widespread.The continuing economic crisis discredited the Provisional Government and strengthened the appeal of the Bolsheviks.

Continuation of the warThe Russian people wanted the war to come to an end. However, the Provisional Government decided to continue Russia’s involvement. They feared that foreign investment from Britain and France would cease in the event of a Russian withdrawal.In March, 1917, the Petrograd Soviet declared that it would no longer support an offensive war against Germany.

The June Offensive

The Provisional Government persisted with military campaigns. Alexander Kerensky, Minister of War, ordered the June Offensive of 1917, an attempt to push the Austrians back. However this failed and contributed to protests during July.The morale of the army declined further and there were huge increases in the level of desertions. The soldiers became more receptive to Bolshevik propaganda and the loyalty of a number of units to the Provisional Government was now uncertain.

The Petrograd SovietThe July DaysFactory workers are urged to support the Petrograd Soviet

Following the failure of the June Offensive morale in the army fell rapidly. Increasing numbers of soldiers deserted. Others lost their loyalty to the government.Shortages continued and there was widespread unrest in Petrograd between the 3rd and 6th of July. Sailors from Kronstadt protested in the city. Soldiers joined them. Soon thousands of protesters awaited instructions from the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolsheviks.However, there was little in the form of direction from Socialist Revolutionaries. Lenin did not take advantage of the situation, perhaps because only small numbers of soldiers and sailors actively supported the Bolsheviks.The uprising was suppressed by loyal troops who were brought in by the Provisional Government. A number of Bolshevik leaders, including Trotsky, were arrested. Lenin fled to Finland.

The Kornilov RevoltIn August 1917, Lavr Kornilova, a Russian General, made an attempt to seize power for himself. His army advanced on Petrograd. The Provisional Government, now under the leadership of Alexander Kerensky, seemed powerless to stop him.

Kerensky called on the Petrograd Soviet to defend the city. This meant arming the Soviet - a move that would not be easy to reverse.

General KornilovUnder Trotsky's direction, the Red Guards organised the defence of the city. Bolshevik agents infiltrated Kornilov's troops and encouraged them to desert. The Bolsheviks also organised strikes by railway workers - disrupting Kornilov's supplies and communications. By the end of the month, Kornilov had been relieved of his command and put under arrest.An important result of the Kornilov Revolt was a marked increase in

support for the Bolsheviks. They were seen to have saved the revolution from a loyal Tsarist general. By September, the Bolsheviks had gained control of the Petrograd Soviet.

Role of the BolsheviksThe Bolsheviks were a revolutionary party, committed to the ideas of Karl Marx. They believed that the working classes would, at some point, liberate themselves from the economic and political control of the ruling classes. Once they had achieved this, a genuine socialist society based on equality, could be established.However, the Bolsheviks differed from the Mensheviks in that they believed that this revolution should move more quickly as the workers were not ready to rule themselves. Hence, the Bolsheviks would form a Dictatorship of the Proletariat to hold power until Russia was modernised. The Poletariat were the original supporters of the Bolsheviks and tended to be industrial workers.At the time of the February Revolution, which overthrew the Tsar, the Bolsheviks were still relatively weak. Most of their leaders, including Lenin, were in exile in Switzerland. The chances of the Bolsheviks ever attaining power in Russia seemed remote.But in late 1917, Bolshevik leader Lenin decided that the conditions in Russia were ripe for revolution.

Role of Lenin

Vladimir Ilyich Ulianov, known as Lenin, returns to PetrogradIn April 1917, assisted by Germans, Lenin returned to Russia from Switzerland. At once he took control and direction over the Bolsheviks. He prepared to seize power using a clear plan:

First the Bolsheviks had to gain control of the Petrograd Soviet Then they would take power in the name of the Soviet The process would then be repeated in other citiesLenin's energy and drive convinced the Bolsheviks to agree on this course of action.For the plan to work, it was necessary to increase Bolshevik support within the Soviets. Lenin developed Bolshevik policies with this aim in mind. These policies were outlined in his April Theses.

The April ThesesLenin declared “All power to the Soviets”. This showed that the Bolsheviks did not believe in the existence of the Provisional Government or an elected national assembly.He also promised “Peace, Land and Bread” to the masses

Peace -o Lenin could see that the Russian people wanted an end to the waro The Bolsheviks declared that they would make peace with the Germans.

Land -o Bolsheviks support was concentrated in the citieso they had very little support among the peasants who made up the vast majority of the

populationo by offering them land, Lenin ensured that the peasants stayed neutral when the

Bolsheviks made their bid for power Bread -

o Lenin claimed that the Bolsheviks could solve the food shortages that existed in the towns and cities

Leon TrotskyHowever, the influence of the Bolsheviks was limited until Autumn 1917. The Petrograd Soviet was dominated by Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, while the Provisional Government remained in control of Russia.

Leon TrotskyLenin was actively supported by Leon Trotsky. In September, Trotsky became Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet and was head of the Military Revolutionary Committee. The MRC was established to protect Petrograd and allowed socialists to infiltrate the army.Trotsky had superb organisational and improvisational skills. His position in the Soviet allowed him to create the Red Guard. This was a Bolshevik militia, formed from armed factory workers, soldiers and sailors.Lenin returned to Petrograd in early October, determined to seize power quickly. The Provisional Government had announced that elections would take place in November and he was certain that the Bolsheviks would perform poorly.Trotsky took charge of planning the Bolshevik coup that was intended for the end of October.

The October RevolutionLed by Trotsky, the Military Revolutionary Committee was able to secure the support of the Petrograd Garrison and the Kronstadt sailors.On 24th October, Prime Minister Kerensky tried to limit Bolshevik influence. He ordered the arrest of many of their leaders. In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee decided to take action.The Red Guards and Kronstadt sailors gained control of key infrastructure in the city. On the night of the 25th, they moved against the Provisional Government.The Winter Palace was surrounded by the Petrograd garrison, supported by the Kronstadt sailors who had arrived on board the Aurora battleship.The Provisional Government members were arrested on the 26th October after the Winter Palace was stormed by Red Guards.

Storming of the Winter Palace

Reasons for the victory of the Reds in the Civil War

The Russian Civil WarAfter seizing control of Russia from the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks had to safeguard their fragile grip on the reins of power.Lenin negotiated peace with Germany and therefore an end to Russia's role in World War One. However he could not avoid a civil war.The Russian Civil War raged from 1918 until the start of 1921. During this time, the Bolsheviks faced massive opposition to their rule in the form of the White Armies, led by former officers of the Tsarist state, and also from intervention by the forces of foreign countries. Yet, by the start of 1921, the Bolsheviks had defeated their enemies and gained a complete victory.

Leadership of the Reds

The Bolsheviks were extremely fortunate in the quality of their leadership, particularly in Lenin and Trotsky. Throughout the Civil War, Lenin provided the energy and drive needed to inspire success, while Trotsky provided the organisation and charisma.

Role of Leon Trotsky

Trotsky (left) alights from his armoured trainTrotsky became Commissar for War in the Bolshevik government in March 1918. A brilliant organiser and improviser, Trotsky created the Red Army out of the Red Guards and from the remnants of the old Tsarist army.Although the appointment of ex-Tsarist officers was questioned, Trotsky insisted they would bring

expertise essential to winning the Civil War.Political commissars were drafted into army units to spread socialist ideas and maintain loyalty to the Bolsheviks.Conscription was established, hundreds of thousands of peasants were drafted into the Red Army.Trotsky imposed a very tough system of discipline and control over the Red Army. Officers found guilty of cowardice or treachery were executed. However, men who showed initiative and courage were promoted rapidly.Trotsky travelled in an armoured train to the front lines to encourage troops. At times of crisis, he readily assumed personal command of areas under threat. He successfully inspired and encouraged troops to greater efforts, and to eventual victory.

RuthlessnessUnder Lenin's leadership, the Bolsheviks displayed total ruthlessness in making sure that they did not face rebellion and revolt in the areas they controlled.The Constituent Assembly had been organised by the Provisional Government, to draw up a constitution for Russia. When it was elected, the majority of delegates happened to be Social Revolutionaries. The Bolsheviks feared opposition to their plans and closed the Assembly.

A Cheka officer interrogates a suspected 'enemy of the people'Once the Civil War began, the Bolsheviks banned all political parties and arrested their leaders. They also closed down newspapers that opposed them.The Cheka, the Bolshevik Secret Police, hunted down and arrested anyone who was suspected of hostility towards the Bolsheviks. By the end of the Civil War, they had executed over 100,000 political opponents."War communism" was introduced to help supply the war effort. In May 1918 a Food Dictatorship was established where the Bolsheviks requisitioned grain from the peasants.Meanwhile, much of Russia’s industry was nationalised, giving the Bolsheviks total control of goods production.

Propaganda

Lenin's image promotes the Red ArmyThe Bolsheviks organised a highly effective propaganda campaign in the areas they controlled:

Agitprop (agitation propaganda) was used to encourage soldiers.

Trotsky’s train was fitted with equipment to produce posters and leaflets

This and other trains contained cinemas where propaganda films were shown

Speeches, newspapers, and leaflets continually told the people that, through the Soviets, they were in charge of Russia.

Propanganda told the people that living conditions would improve and wealth would be distributed more fairly. In contrast they warmed that the White Armies and their leaders would destroy all the achievements of the Revolution, break up the Soviets and bring back the old system:The Bolsheviks portrayed themselves as a patriotic party who would defend Russia from imperialists. This was particularly effective since the Whites had support from Britain, France and the USA.The Bolsheviks spread the fear that Russia would be taken over by foreign countries and absorbed into their empires.

Leadership of the WhitesThe White Armies appeared to have a number of advantages in the Civil War:

Their leaders were experienced military commanders

They controlled huge areas of Russia They had the Bolsheviks surrounded They had the active support of foreign countries, which intervened in the Civil War on

their behalf.However, as the Civil War developed, the White Armies began to face major problems and difficulties in organising their campaigns. Against the drive and ruthless energy of the Bolsheviks, their campaigns faltered. By the end of 1920, the Bolsheviks were close to achieving total victory.White Army weaknesses The Whites had a number of weaknesses that led to their defeat.

Divided leadership While the Bolsheviks had Lenin as their leader, no one person was in charge of the White forces.

The Whites had several leaders - Yudenich, Kolchak, Deniken and Wrangel. All wanted glory for themselves. While trying to defeat the Reds, they were also often in competition with each other. They were all ambitious men and each was determined to take control of Russia for himself. Deniken and then Wrangel were concentrated in the south, while Admiral Kolchak was in the north-west and Yudenich in the west. They were so far apart that they were unable to coordinate attacks.As a result, there was virtually no co-operation between the various White Armies. They fought independently and this made it easier for the Red Army to defeat them individually.

Brutality and corruption White Army forces often behaved with great brutality and cruelty in the areas they controlled. Towns were burned, property destroyed or stolen, and crops and livestock were taken by force. If civilians objected, they faced torture and execution. Inevitably, the Whites became hated and feared. Corruption was widespread in White-controlled areas. White soldiers looted shops and houses, and were often drunk. A black market was created for goods originally intended to help fight the war.

Morale The Bolsheviks were fighting for a very definite cause - the establishment and survival of a communist Russia. The Whites, however, had problems motivating their troops and building up support. Why should soldiers face death simply to make Kolchak or Yudenich master of Russia? Moreover, some Russians feared that foreign intervention would bring an end to Russian independence in the event of White victory. As time passed, more and more soldiers deserted from the White Armies.

Given the choice between the Bolsheviks and the Whites, it was hardly surprising that Bolshevik support increased dramatically.

Impact of foreign interventionThe impact of foreign countries on the Civil War was minimal for a number of reasons:

World War One had ended in 1918, resulting in a lack of commitment to Russia With the threat of Germany gone, Britain, France and the USA did not feel the need to supply

Russia After World War One, foreign powers lacked resources or troops to spare Neither the fear of communism, nor the desire to protect Russian autocracy was strong

enough to keep Western powers committed to involvement in Russia

By the end of 1919 most foreign troops had left Russia. But the Reds used the idea of foreign support for the White armies as propaganda. They claimed that the White generals were attempting to defeat the Bolsheviks in order to hand Russia over to foreign imperialists.The fear of losing their independence convinced a great deal of Russians to support the Reds. As a result, the Reds established themselves as the saviours of Russia.

Geographical implicationsAt the start of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks controlled the key central area of Russia between Petrograd and Moscow. This gave them a number of advantages.Most of Russia's railways were in this area. This made communication between the various battlefronts much easier. Trotsky was able to move troops and supplies quickly to positions under attack. As Commissar for War, he was able to visit the battlefronts in an armoured train, and to take personal command.The large population of the major cities was a key resource for the Bolsheviks. The cities provided fresh recruitment for the Red Army.Much of Russia's industry and raw materials was located in this area. This made it possible for the Bolsheviks to keep their troops supplied and equipped with weapons, ammunition and supplies.The sheer size of Russia worked against the White Armies. They had to move their forces and supplies over huge distances. This made it difficult to maintain effective control.The lack of effective railways was an added complication to the existing communication difficulties between the different White Armies and their leaders.

Victory for the RedsBy the end of the Civil War in 1921 the Bolsheviks had succeeded in securing their grip on power in Russia.The White Armies and the foreign powers fighting on Russian soil had been defeated. Just as importantly, rival political parties had been outlawed. Thanks to the Cheka secret police, dissenting voices had been silenced.Lenin had achieved his ultimate goal of steering his small Bolshevik party to total control of Russia.