Dyslexia and Thinking Skills"How can current research into
thinking skills enlighten practical approaches to teaching people
with dyslexia or literacy difficulties?"Phil Wain
2014isthisdyslexia.com
"How can current research into thinking skills enlighten
practical approaches to teaching people with dyslexia or literacy
difficulties?"AbstractDyslexia is a condition affecting a large
percentage of the population the British Dyslexia Association
estimates that it affects 10% of the population. Those affected
have difficulty with spelling, reading fluency and accuracy and
often with handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics, sequencing,
organisation and rote memory. However, current research is
uncovering the possibility that those same dyslexic individuals may
have certain advantages conferred by those same brain differences
that cause dyslexia. Bearing in mind the self-esteem issues
affecting many dyslexics and current research on teaching thinking
skills and motivation, dyslexic students need carefully managed
programmes of individual support making use of techniques that
maximise the impact of their cognitive strengths on developing
their learning. Such techniques include Philosophy for Children,
Mediated Learning and multi-sensory and visual strategies. In this
essay I aim to explore how current research into thinking skills
can inform practice in the education of dyslexic learners.What is
dyslexia?
The Rose Report definition of dyslexia is generally accepted as
a good definition currently. Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that
primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word
reading and spelling. Characteristic features of dyslexia are
difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal
processing speed. Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual
abilities. It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct
category, and there are no clear cut-off points. Co-occurring
difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor
co-ordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal
organisation, but these are not, by themselves, markers of
dyslexia. A good indication of the severity and persistence of
dyslexic difficulties can be gained by examining how the individual
responds or has responded to well founded intervention. Sir Jim
Rose (2009). P10Students with dyslexia tend to display difficulties
in the three areas of phonological awareness, verbal processing
speed and working memory. As contemporary education puts great
emphasis on spelling, writing, reading fluently and rote
memorisation of facts, these emphases can make life at school a
difficult experience for many dyslexic students. In contrast,
students with dyslexia often show relative strengths in material
and spatial reasoning, understanding of interconnections, narrative
reasoning, understanding of dynamic relationships and creativity in
the visual and other arts. A large proportion of architects,
entrepreneurs, inventors and artists have a diagnosis of dyslexia
(Bannatyne, 1971) and there is an emerging science researching the
brain differences which underlie dyslexia and the mechanisms of the
effects of these brain differences.Current theories
Genetic and environmental factors have an impact on the
development of dyslexia. It is known to run in families. Several
theories have been developed to look into the cognitive causes of
dyslexia. Phonological deficitMany associate dyslexia with
phonological deficit (where historically it was seen primarily as a
visual disorder) impairments in storage, retrieval or
representation of speech sounds. Most dyslexic people have
difficulties in this area. Snowling Stackhouse, Frith and others
postulate that genetic differences in the left hemisphere affect
the ability to sequence, identify and produce sounds. This has been
backed up by fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) showing
that specific areas of the brain light up when engaged in
phonological activities and that these are less likely to light up
with dyslexic subjects. These areas are named the Wernickes and
Brocas areas and Frith and Paulesus research suggested that these
areas (the former involved in whole word recognition, the latter in
word breakdown into sound segments) work more in isolation in
dyslexic people Phonological processing difficulties cause
difficulties with sound blending, rhyme, verbal processing and
non-word repetition. The implication of this theory is that
teaching should develop phonological skills.Magnocellular TheoryA
different approach was brought by Stein and others, returning in a
way to the earlier visual models the Magnocellular theory. This
associated dyslexia with dysfunction of magnocellular pathways
(Stein and Walsh 1997). Magnocells are responsible for the timing
of sensory and motor signalling. They are specialised for fast
processing of temporal information. Reading puts stress on
magnocells and any weakness in the pathway leads to confusions of
letter order and poor visual memory. It may also result in weak
phonological skills because there is an auditory subsystem to the
magnocellular pathways large neurones responsible for sound
discrimination.Indeed Stein does not confine the magnocellular
theory to effects of visual processing. He postulates that temporal
processing involved in phonological and/or visual and/or motor
systems may be impaired. Stein and Walsh do beg the question
whether all the diversity of dyslexics with all the diversity of
symptoms can be put down to an individual explanation. However they
put forward a mechanism of how temporal impairments might lay under
phonological, visual and motor difficulties.Processing and Double
DeficitDr Maryanne Wolf encourages us to look beyond phonological
issues to the processing difficulties most dyslexic are affected
by. She examines the effect of the retrieval of information stored
by the brain and the speed with which the brain organises
information. Her term double-deficit describes people affected by
both phonological difficulties and processing difficulties. Wolf
claims that around 50% of dyslexics have the double deficit with
just less than a quarter of dyselxics affected predominately by one
of the two issues. She has developed the RAVE-O intervention
programme. The programme is focussed on developing reading fluency
both word recognition and comprehension and underlying factors such
as visual scanning, orthographic pattern recognition, semantic and
syntactic development and lexical retrieval. It focuses on
developing automaticity and on making connections in learning.
Left-hemisphere processing difficultiesGalaburda had studied
brains in 1985 and associated this phonological difficulty and slow
processing of speech sounds with brain-cortical malformations.
Generally left-hemispheric functioning is described as a relative
weakness in Dyslexics who tend to think in terms of the big
picture; rather than detail. This also implies right-hemisphere
strengths which we often see in Dyslexics prediction and search for
meaning using context, creativity, spatial awareness. These can all
be built on in education using techniques such as mind mapping and
a valuing of individual strengths. Geschwind and Galaburda did not
view dyslexia entirely as a disorder though:The pattern of cortical
development may well reflect a mechanism that is advantageous to
the population as a whole, since it leads to a greater diversity of
patterns of patterns of talentGeschwind and Galaburda 1987 p
143They argue that context determines whether dyslexia is an
advantage or disadvantage. The very condition which makes most
mainstream school experience difficult also gives the advantage
that means a high proportion of entrepreneurs, artists, inventors
and architects are dyslexic. I will discuss at length later in this
essay the advantages that have been described as being attributed
to the dyslexic mind and ways education can adapt and get the best
of dyslexic students, both in terms of their talents and making
education an inspirational and positive experience for all. It
should be added however that more recent fMRA scans have not showed
the predicted right brain emphasis this theory would expect
although similar cognitive styles could be produced by other
causes. Additionally, neuroscience has now discredited the left and
right brain personality type concept which underlay many of the
right brain emphasis theories.
Cerebellar ImpairmentThis relatively recent theory proposes to
explain why dyslexia is a more wide ranging condition than merely a
phonological one. The cerebellum, according to recent research,
plays a major role in language acquisition from birth on. The
cerebellum helps control phonology, speech processing, motor
control, co-ordination, balance, handwriting, organisation etc and
a deficit would explain many features of dyslexia. Studies by
Fawcett and Nicolson (2001) identified a significant number of
dyslexics with symptoms typical of cerebellar impairment. However
the sample size was small and more research is needed in this area.
Additionally, not all dyslexics have symptoms typical of cerebellar
impairment and Fawcett and Nicolson did write that there may be
several sub-types One learning implication is that dyslexics may
need to repeat a procedure many, many more times for it to become
automatic than non-dyslexics even though they may appear to quickly
understand a concept. This difficulty with procedural learning
means that often procedures have to be undertaken more mindfully.
Some have argued that this mindfulness in following procedures
makes dyslexics more likely to produce innovations in the
procedures. Another implication of cerebellar impairment would be
the importance of kinaesthetic learning. ComorbidityNo discussion
of contemporary theories on dyslexia would be complete without
considering the great value in recent years in understanding the
prevalence of comorbidity of conditions on understanding dyslexia.
Comorbidity with dyspraxia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, ADHD or autism
is very common and one reason for the great variance of dyslexic
symptoms. In addition, each of these conditions can be affected by
protective and environmental factors. Valerie Muter gives the
figure of 75% for the incidence of comorbidity with other
conditions in dyslexics. The incidence of dyslexia alone is much
less common and the pattern of strength and weaknesses for each
dyslexic individual will be relatively unique.Sub-typesMany
researchers, from Stein to Fawcett and Nicolson have suggested that
the overall picture may be far more complex than an individual
biological or cognitive explanation for dyslexia. Many propose that
there are subtypes of dyslexia such as the phonological subtypes or
the cerebellar subtypes.
Impacts of dyslexia
Dyslexia has been said by various researchers to affect between
4 and 20% of the population. However, Peck (1985) found that 50% of
children under age 15 who committed suicide in Los Angeles County
over a 3-year period had been diagnosed as learning disabled. In
the US dyslexia falls under this umbrella term. There is a real
threat to the well-being of dyslexic children. Many hold themselves
in low regard because of their relative weaknesses in the skills
valued in school: fact memorisation, fluent reading and spelling.
There is an increasing body of evidence to show that children with
difficulties of a dyslexic nature are at particular risk of
developing distorted or damaged self-concepts as a result of their
marginalized status, particularly if the specific nature of their
difficulties is not recognised at an early stage in their school
careers. Robert Burden (2005) p2A multitude of studies have linked
dyslexia with low self esteem, depression, Examples include
Gjessing and Karlsen (1985) linking dyslexia and low self-esteem,
Gerber (1990), Fairhurst and Pumfrey (1992), Riddick (1999) finding
poor readers feel lower self-esteem, more anxious and less
confident, and Lerner (2000) finding that dyslexic students suffer
socio-emotional problems, struggle to make and keep friends, can
develop learned helplessness, low motivation, and maladaptive
behaviour. Glazzard (2010) found that the most significant factor
that contributed to students' self-esteem was a positive diagnosis
of 'dyslexia' and ownership of the label. Similarly with adult
dyslexics, Bynner and Ekynsmith (1994) found significantly links
between perceived literacy difficulties and adult depression in a
longitudinal study.
In Dyslexia & self-Concept (Seeking a Dyslexic Identity
(2005), Dr Robert Burden summarised research on the relationship
between self concept and educational achievement. He examined
theoretical frameworks underlying self-concept and motivation;
Interviewed fifty dyslexic boys in depth at a private residential
dyslexia school giving case studies and data; gave some voice to
the boys feelings as dyslexics (at length); and recommended some
ways forward.Although Burdens research sample was small and fairly
unrepresentative of the whole population, the findings are still
fascinating given the length of the interviews and the extent to
which Burden uncovered how the students viewed their dyslexia.
Given this sample was from pupils at a private dyslexia boarding
school, 34% wished they werent dyslexic, 14% often felt depressed
and 12% viewed dyslexia as a curse. Most newer boys to the school
expressed negative feelings about themselves than those who had
attended the school for a while. So given this, we can assume this
specialist school experience generally improved pupil self- esteem.
Given that, such a high proportion expressing feelings of
depression about dyslexia is alarming as it suggests that the
figure might be much higher for dyslexics in society at large.What
Burden found in the boys who were newer to the school was higher
levels of learned helplessness and lower levels of self-efficacy
following their experiences in mainstream education. They did not
view themselves as learners and needed a programme to encourage
their own reliance on themselves. In this context we should
consider the psychological term locus of control which expresses
the degree with which the learner feels able to take charge of
their own learning (internal locus of control) or the degree they
are dependent on others (external locus of control). What is
important for dyslexic learners is we develop programmes that not
only reframe their dyslexia in a positive sense and reclaim the
students skills for them but that actively develop their own
ability to make the most of their own abilities.
The Dyslexia Advantage
Dr Brock Eide and Dr Fernette Eide published The Dyslexic
Advantage in 2011. It sought to bring a different perspective to
the subject and reframe dyslexia in terms of advantage rather than
deficit. It examined research finding that a high proportion of
entrepreneurs, inventors and architects are dyslexic and tried to
counter the idea that they succeeded in spite of their dyslexia,
rather, it considers the proposal that they might have been
successful partly because of other strengths owing to dyslexia.At
length, they describe four types of thinking which are more highly
developed in many dyslexics constructing the acrostic MIND as a
suitable mnemonic.
M-strengths mechanical ability and three dimensional spatial
reasoning material reasoning I strengths ability to perceive
relationships such as analogies, metaphors, paradoxes,
similarities, differences, and implications interconnected
reasoningN- strengths ability to recall important personal
experiences and to understand abstract material in terms of
specific examples narrative reasoningD- strengthsability to
perceive subtle patterns in complex and constantly shifting data
dynamic reasoning The theoretical basis for these strengths lie in
suggested differences in brain structure.Ever since Roger Sperry
discovered in the 1970s and 1980s that the different hemispheres of
brain had different functions, there has been much research into
this. Generally it has been presented that the right hemisphere is
associated with the large scale, the global, the big picture and
the gist; and the left hemisphere with fine details and logic. As
mentioned before, dyslexics tend to have more of what has been
regarded historically as a right brain approach although such
simplistic concepts have since been discredited.In 2005, Dr Mark
Beeman found differences in the ways the hemispheres process
language finding the right hemisphere more involved in distant
connections, different views of meanings of one sentence, synonyms,
antonyms, ironic meanings and a broader rather than a narrower
field. Dr Manuel Casanova at the University of Kentucky (2010) saw
similar results to right brain cognitive style of dyslexia but
typified not by use of one hemisphere over another rather by
differences by broad spacing of functional cluster minicolumns of
neurons in brains cortex. Tightly spaced minicolumns tend to make
connections nearby neurons, wider spaced more distant connections.
This bias might explain bias toward detail tasks or big picture.
Shorter connections match right brain cognitive style model and
vice versa What Casanova describes is a different model to
left/right brain differences but another model that can explain the
same differences especially where fMRA scans have not necessarily
indicated the right brain emphasis proposed by the earlier
theories.
According to Dr Casanova, the dyslexic bias towards
long-distance connections leads to the emergence of the big picture
processing skills weve mentioned and to weaknesses in fine detail
processing. One fine detail task that Dr Casanova cited as often
being particularly hard for individuals with dyslexia is
phonological processing, which as we described in the last chapter,
involves distinguishing highly similar sounds. Eide and Eide 2011
p40This difference means that while non-dyslexic brains might excel
at precision, accuracy, automaticity, focus and detailed expertise,
dyslexic brains might excel at seeing the gist or essence,
understanding of variety of perspective, seeing new or unusual
connections, inference and general inventiveness. Of course this is
a massive generalisation. The issue is does school make use of
these advantages? Given the many anecdotal stories in The Dyslexia
Advantage of inventors, entrepreneurs, novelists and artists who
found school an ordeal but excelled in working life, how could we
ensure that firstly dyslexic students potential is tapped, secondly
that they are not so damaged and depressed by the experience of
schooling.Mindset
Considering improving the self-esteem, learning ability and
self-reliance of dyslexic students, its important to consider the
work of Dr Carol Dweck at Stanford University. Studying the
psychology of learners in the US, Dr Dweck discovered the
importance of the concept she calls Mindset. Essentially this
describes your view of yourself in terms of whether you view your
talent/intelligence as a fixed gift or a measure which could
develop or change over time. She shows how ones view of oneself in
terms of intelligence seen as fixed or growth model is the biggest
factor in future success and has demonstrated this repeatedly in
research.Having a fixed or growth mindset will determine how you
view success and failure, whether you see problems as challenges or
more negatively, how much you rely on affirmation and whether you
value critical advice. It will influence how you view competition
and whether you view mistakes as positive or negative in learning.
Also, a person with a fixed mindset might see working hard as a
sign they are not good enough to coast where a person with growth
mindset may see it as a sign they are working towards something new
and worthwhile.If we are to equip dyslexics with the resilience to
cope with mistake making, setbacks and difficulties it is vital we
help them develop a growth mindset. They need positive examples of
dyslexic success and classroom environments where having a go at
something difficult is valued more than showing what you already
know. If we are to achieve this, we have to engender a focus on
process as more important than product in education. Some might see
this as contrary in a world of league tables and exams but how are
we to achieve in these measures if we do not develop the learning
potential to the maximum rather than rewarding what the students
can already do. Personally I have had some success, teaching the
concept of mindset explicitly to Primary school students and having
them discuss and debate these theories in communities of enquiry
set up using the Philosophy 4 Children model.One other aspect of
this to consider is what Dweck discovered about the effect of
praise on learning. An experiment was set up where two groups of
students were given identical tests consisting of a set of
straightforward questions. Both groups performed similarly.
Afterwards one group was praised for being intelligent You must
have been intelligent to do so well. The second group was praised
for effort. Both groups were then given a choice of a more
difficult test or one of a similar level. The group praised for
effort were far more likely to choose the latter. Then the students
were given an impossible test. The group initially praised for
intelligence were more likely to become frustrated and give up but
the group praised for effort tended to enjoy it and view it as a
challenge. Finally, the two groups were given tests of a similar
level to that of the first challenge. This time, the group
initially praised for effort now scored significantly higher. It is
important to remember here that this is merely a subtle change of a
few words of praise, but it achieved dramatically different
results.So what does a fixed mindset do? It forces us to live up to
an expectation of a certain level of intelligence and we can then
be embarrassed about not living up to them. Dweck even found
students with fixed mindset more likely to be deceptive about their
scores. Whereas, what does a growth mindset do? It allows us to
respond to challenge, to view setbacks as challenges to overcome,
it also fits neatly with what we are learning about the brains
ability to make new connections of neurones throughout our lives.
What better model to teach dyslexic students that they can overcome
their own difficulties and achieve whatever they want to
achieve?
Philosophy for Children
Having learned about the strengths of many dyslexics, we would
want to maximise those strengths to develop learning to a full
capacity; this capacity of dyslexics for creative thought,
imaginative connection, wide cognitive leaps, interconnected and
narrative reasoning leads us to consider the potential role of
Philosophy for Children (or P4C the acronym was developed in the UK
as it was felt the word children was unsuitable for Secondary
School). This focus on thinking is especially important considering
we are educating students who by definition are far more
intelligent than their spelling, writing or reading might indicate.
Surely the best way to harness that ability in developing their
learning is to use their thinking skills rather than patronising
them with context reduced remedial programs designed for far
younger children.Matthew Lipman is recognised as the founder of
Philosphy for Children. In the 1970s he realised the value of
teaching logic and reasoning in children after witnessing
underdeveloped reasoning skills in his students at Colombia
University. Ever since, organisations such as the Institute for the
Advancement of Philosophy for Children (IAPC) and SAPERE (Society
for the Advancement of Philosophical Enquiry and Reflection in
Education) in the UK have developed philosophical enquiry and
Socratic reasoning in schools. In some, for example in Gallions
Primary School in Newham, the regular implementation of P4C in all
age groups and classes led to dramatic, sustained improvements in
exam results in all subjects with students making connections
between their learning and the development of their thinking having
impacts in all curriculum areas.In 2007 in Scotland, Topping and
Trickey led research into the effects of regular P4C sessions.
Children in the experimental group had a P4C session once a week.
Even this intervention led to a statistically significant increase
in childrens IQ scores over a year, compared with no increase in
the scores of the control group. The same research demonstrated
significant gains in verbal and non-verbal reasoning, improvements
in communication, listening, behaviour, reasoning, questioning,
reading and understanding. One of the key impacts in schools is in
improving teacher use of questioning. Also key is the effect on
self-esteem, in a study in Canada in 1994, Sasseville found that
the pupils gaining the most in terms of self-esteem and logical
reasoning from P4C were those with the lowest self-esteem on
entry.SAPERE are developing evidence from case studies that regular
involvement in a community of enquiry helps close the gap by
disproportionately benefitting the lower achievers and children
with specific learning difficulties. Using P4C can develop critical
thinking, questioning, listening, valuing of opinions and
difference, creative problem solving and collaborative learning.
One of the key aspects is that P4C emphasises community of enquiry
that is classes enquire together as everyone has an equal voice,
and contributing does not depend necessarily on spelling or
literacy skill it develops inclusion more completely than most
educational strategies.The key concepts developed by Philosophy for
Children are critical thinking, creative thinking, caring thinking
and collaborative thinking. Students respond to a stimulus by
developing philosophical questions in response to that stimulus,
voting on a question to explore and then discussing, debating and
enquiring in a process facilitated by the teacher either allowing
the students to own the discussion at times, or developing the
discussion by asking probing or thought provoking questions at key
points. All participants are given opportunity to express final
thoughts on the question. During the enquiry, the facilitator can
call for others who might agree or disagree, call for distinction
or clarification, for examples or criteria, for connections or for
analogies. So how does this emphasis on thinking, embodied by a P4C
approach help dyslexic learners? In the Dyslexic Advantage,
discussed earlier, Eide and Eide listed strengths of dyslexics
including interconnected reasoning (ability to perceive
relationships such as analogies, metaphors, paradoxes,
similarities, differences, and implications), narrative reasoning
(ability to recall important personal experiences and to understand
abstract material in terms of specific examples) and dynamic
reasoning (ability to perceive subtle patterns in complex and
constantly shifting information). As Eide and Eide see it,
dyslexics have a possible brain structure advantage in
philosophical enquiry. Not only does it play to their potential
strengths, it allows them to excel without being dependent on
literacy skills and it can help develop their ability to make
connections between different aspects of learning. Additionally it
can raise their self-esteem and build a growth mindset.
For dyslexic brains, excellent function typically means traits
like the ability to see the gist or essence of things or to spot
the larger context behind a given situation or idea;
multidimensionality of perspective; the ability to see new, unusual
or distant connections; inferential reasoning and ambiguity
detection; the ability to recombine things in novel ways; and a
general inventiveness; and greater mindfulness and intentionality
during tasks that others take for grantedEide and Eide 2011 p42When
it comes to narrative reasoning strengths of some dyslexics, they
can make use of the episodic memory which uses fragments of memory
of experience to imagine future scenarios, solve problems, test
ideas and create imaginary stories. Interconnected reasoning ties
in closely with the skills needed in philosophical study. Moral
philosopher, CEO and dyslexic Dov Seidman tells in The Dyselxic
Advantage of struggling at school until encountering philosophy. He
found it catered to his strengths pondering one idea rather than
reading hundreds of pages. Eide and Eie explain that philosophy is
at its core a search for gist. It involves making connections of
many kinds. It primarily focuses on a big-picture rather than
fine-detail view, fitting the cognitive strengths of many dyslexics
well. Of course, there are also the material reasoning strengths of
many dyslexics so we need to ensure learning is multisensory and
opportunities for kinaesthetic and spatial orientated learning are
catered for.Ways forward
Having explored some current theories as to the biological and
cognitive origins of dyslexia, the impacts on dyslexia on
self-esteem, possible advantages in types of reasoning that might
be afforded by dyslexic brain structure and current theories on the
influence of mindset on learning, it important to consider more
fully how dyslexic students might be better catered for. Philosophy
for Children is one effective strategy but what else should be
considered to optimise learning and self-esteem for
dyslexics?Clearly diagnosis and assessment in themselves make a
huge difference. For many, it is the beginning or clarification of
developing more in-depth self-knowledge in terms of cognitive
strengths and weaknesses and awareness of their own effective
learning style. The more clarity regarding an individuals strengths
and needs, the more effective learning can be. Of course for this
to be successful, the diagnosis also has to be framed positively in
terms of relative strengths and specific needs.Specialist teachers
need to help dyslexics develop awareness of what works for them in
terms of overcoming working memory, phonological or processing
difficulties. Its an extension of the teach a man to fish analogy
but we need to remember that students learn as much or more outside
direct instruction as in. They need to own the learning and to see
their own capabilities and next steps in terms of that
learning.This may mean carefully building students independence as
their self-esteem improves, developing their self-efficacy and
locus of control within their own capabilities. In my experience
this often develops from the teacher initially taking the lead in
activities to the teacher consciously developing learning to allow
the student to take control.Considering the relative weaknesses
many dyslexics face - spelling, fluent accurate reading and
sometimes handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics, sequencing,
organisation and rote memory these need addressing through
programmes that build on the same individuals relative strengths:
creativity, reading and oral comprehension, material,
interconnected, narrative and dynamic reasoning. For example, a
student of mine loved art and learned very visually so having her
create humourous cartoons to help remember ideas was a useful
strategy, she also learned much more by using the senses
together.Indeed, visual strategies are often a way in to represent
dyslexic students thoughts. Mindmapping is often a way to record
the sophisticated connections a dyslexic student might make with
the more flexibility of connection type and colour coding the
better. Creative ways of representing ideas have always been
developed by dyslexics and this should be encouraged. Oliver Wests
Footnotes system in his book In Search of Words is one example.
Profoundly dyslexic, he developed he system as a way of
representing his thoughts and offers it to share with others,
howeverat best, students develop and refine their own systems to
match their own cognitive style.Multisensory learning is most
effective. When I have involved students sense of taste, smell,
touch, sight and hearing in an activity has been when they have
proved most memorable. Clearly these types of activities are vital
for effective learning but we must also equip our learners to learn
for themselves and engage their thinking in their
learning.Carefully targeted multisensory phonics teaching is
important for many young dyslexic learners but many times older
students who have phonological, working memory and processing
difficulties and have had phonics based teaching for years are
given more of the same. Unfortunately sometimes even programmes
designed for younger children are given which can be even more
damaging for self-esteem. Often it is much better to utilise the
dyslexic pupils strengths in reasoning and teach spelling more in a
morphological manner, as described in Rescuing Spelling by Melvin
Ramsden. Reading Ramsden and Spell it Out (The Singular Story of
English Spelling) by David Crystal, one becomes aware of the huge
possibility of teaching English spelling intelligently and
logically and also by breaking spelling down into morphological
rather than phonological units making use of the chunking technique
for building words. Where the phonology of English orthography is
confusing, using morphological units it is possible to build
accurate spellings and make connections logically.By definition,
dealing with dyslexic students we are working with people of
greater intelligence than spelling ability and that intelligence
can be put to use, explaining the influence of Norman scribes on
English spelling, the ways English scribes attempted to indicate
short and long vowels, and how the etymology of a word might give
clues to its spelling. Teaching using a morphological approach
makes sense as it builds on the dyslexic students strengthsIn
Dyslexia and Self-Concept, Burden recommends a number of ways
forward, very much recommending an approach based on mediated
learning experiences (MLE) as described by Reuven Feuerstein and
his colleagues. Feuerstein identified 12 principles of effective
mediated learning. Intentionality and reciprocity: making
intentions clear and ensuring learners are on board Mediating for
meaning: the activity has significance and meaning for the learner
Transcendence: learning experience should transcend beyond the here
and now Mediation of feelings of competence: developing a sense of
self efficacy by providing informative feedback and carefully
targeted, specific praise Seeing problems as challenges: making the
learner active in solving their own problem relates directly to
Dwecks growth mindset Goal seeking, goal setting and goal
achieving: motivating learners to achieve realistic and relevant
learning outcomes and to set their own personal goals The mediation
of the need to see ones behaviour as within ones control:: the
learner attributing success or failure as within their control
having a strong internal locus of control. At first many dyslexic
students may constantly seek help with their work but they need to
be gradually weaned off their dependency Fostering awareness of
change: help learners reflect on how they have changed
Individuation: the recognition of the individual as a unique
person, dyslexics often have to be helped to feel special and that
they have talents and abilities that override their specific
difficulties Sharing with others: learners need to be encouraged to
share problems and strategies with others empowering both
themselves and others, developing pride in themselves Mediation of
a sense of belonging: here is the importance of successful
inclusion in the mainstream school. The need to foster a belief in
optimistic alternatives: developing an optimistic learning outlook,
again this fits with Dwecks growth mindset theory well.If we take a
mediated learning approach to specialist teaching in this manner
and develop targeted teaching that is multisensory, develops
students abilities to be metacognitive and reflective learners and
build in a high level of teaching of thinking skills we can help
students achieve their potential and value themselves as learners
provided we factor in an appropriate degree of success and
personalised to the interests of the students. The metacognitive
aspect is vital. If they are to know their strengths they must
understand the specific nature of their individual difficulties and
the specific nature of strategies they personally can use to learn
efficientlyEide and Eide describe internal and external supports in
the Dyslexic Advantage in terms of factors the dyslexic adults they
interviewed considered critical for their emotional, learning and
professional success. Internal supports included tenacity,
confidence, positive self-image, acceptance of struggle especially
in aspects of education (resilience) and a personal focus on
individual strengths and interests. External supports included
supportive home and school environments and a supportive network of
friends. As educators we can play a role in enabling dyslexic
students to develop all of these and we need to make sure we make
every use of dyslexic learners positive strengths in order to
develop their potential to the full.Focussing on strengths of
dyslexic learners allows them to develop self-esteem and utilise
their thinking skills and creativity to maximise this potential.
Instead of seeing school as an ordeal, or dyslexia as an obstacle
to overcome, education can become a more natural, positive learning
experience that allows the learner to build on their successes and
thrive.
One of the most important things students with dyslexia can do
is to identify their ideal learning style, which consists of their
best methods of information input, information output, memory and
attention. By funnelling information towards areas of cognitive
strength and away from areas of weakness, students with dyslexia
can learn and express knowledge as efficiently and effectively as
possible.Eide and Eide 2011 p236
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15Phil Wain Dyslexia and Thinking Skills
