Dynamic Text Comprehension - David N. Rapp & Paul Van Den Broek

8/10/2019 Dynamic Text Comprehension - David N. Rapp & Paul Van Den Broek

1/5

Dynamic Text Comprehension: An Integrative View of ReadingAuthor(s): David N. Rapp and Paul van den Broek

Reviewed work(s):Source: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 14, No. 5 (Oct., 2005), pp. 276-279Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.on behalf of Association for Psychological ScienceStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20183043.

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2/5

CURRENT

DIRECTIONS

IN

PSYCHOLOGICAL

SCIENCE

Dynamic

Text

Comprehension

An

Integrative

View

of

Reading

David

N.

Rapp

and

Paul

van

den

Broek

Department

of

Educational

Psychology,

University of

Minnesota

ABSTRACT?Reading

is

one

of

the

most

complex

and

uniquely

human

of

cognitive

activities.

Our

understanding

of

the

processes

and

factor

s

involved

in

text

comprehension

is

quite

impressive,

but

it also is

fragmented,

with

a

pro

liferation

of

mini-theories

for specific

components

that

in

reality

are

intertwined and

interact with

one

another.

Theories

of

dynamic

text

comprehension

(DTC)

aim

to

capture

the

integration of

these

components.

They

depict

reading

comprehension

as an

ongoing

process

involving

fluctuations

in the activation

of

concepts

as

the

reader

proceeds

through

the

text,

resulting

in

a

gradually

emerging

interpretation of

the material. Features

of

texts

and characteristics

of

the reader

jointly

and

interactively

affect

these

fluctuations,

influencing

and

being influenced

by

the

reader's

understanding

and

memory

of

what is

read.

We illustrate

the

DTC

approach by

describing

one

theory,

called the

Landscape

model,

and

summarize

how its sim

ulations

match

empirical

data.

We

conclude

with

some

implications

of

the DTC

framework

for

basic

and

applied

reading

research.

KEYWORDS?reading;

text

processing;

text

comprehension;

computational

models

Reading

is

one

of the

most

complex

and

uniquely

human of

cognitive

activities.

Psychological

research

has

greatly

en

hanced

our

understanding

of the

cognitive

processes,

mental

structures,

and textual

properties

that

contribute

to

successful

reading

by

identifying

numerous

factors

that influence

com

prehension

(e.g.,

the reader's

background

knowledge,

the diffi

culty

of

the

text,

individual differences

in

reading

skill,

and

so

on).

Unfortunately,

the

success

of this

research

has created

problems

of

its

own.

First,

each

factor

tends

to

be studied

in

relative

isolation,

resulting

in

a

large

number

of mini-theories

about

the contribution

of individual

factors,

with little

consid

eration

of how

they

operate

alongside

each other and

in

mutually

interactive

ways.

Second,

at

times

this

proliferation

of theories

has

resulted

in

debates

about the

validity

of

one

theory

over

another. We will

argue,

however,

that the different

theories

may

account for

complementary

and even

mutually

supportive

as

pects

of

reading

comprehension.

A

major

reason

for the

fragmented

nature

of

reading

research

is

that

attempts

to

investigate

multiple

factors

in

traditional

experimental

studies

quickly

become

unwieldy,

both in

design

and

interpretability,

when

considering

multidimensional

inter

actions

(for

example,

assessing

interactions

among

readers'

memory

and

language

skills,

readers'

prior knowledge,

the dif

ficulty

of

a

text,

and

demographic

variables

of

populations

of

interest).

In

this

article

we

exemplify

the limitations of

focus

on

mini-theories,

and

consider

how

reading

research has

attempted

to

address

the

problem.

We

introduce

a

conceptual

framework,

dynamic

text

comprehension (DTC),

that focuses

on

multiple

factors and

their

interactions

during

reading.

We

illustrate

this

framework

through

a

particular

instance,

the

Landscape

model,

which

captures

a

range

of

empirical

data

and

phenomena

in

reading comprehension.

The

convergence

of

findings

from

the

model and

behavioral

data

provide

evidence

for

the

validity

and

necessity

of the DTC framework. We close

with

a

discussion of

some

theoretical and

practical

implications

of

a

DTC

view.

LIMITATIONS OF

CURRENT

APPROACHES

Examples

of the limitations inherent

to

investigating

isolated

aspects

of

reading

are

not

hard

to

find. One

specific

example

that

has received considerable recent interest in the field of text

comprehension

concerns

theoretical

accounts

of

how informa

tion is

activated

(or

reactivated)

from

background

knowledge

during reading.

The

research

on

this

issue has resulted

in

hy

potheses

that

seemingly

are

in

competition

but

in

reality likely

describe

different

aspects

of

the

reading

process.

Two

types

of

mechanisms have

been

proposed.

From

a

memory-based

per

spective,

each

word,

phrase,

or

concept

that

a

reader

processes

triggers

an

automatic

spread

of activation

to

other,

related

words

and

concepts

in

memory

for

the

text

read

so

far

and

background

knowledge.

In

this

account,

the

reader has

little

or

no

control

Address

correspondence

to

David N.

Rapp,

Department

of

Educa

tional

Psychology,

206

Burton

Hall,

178

Pillsbury

Drive

S.E.,

Uni

versity

of

Minnesota,

Minneapolis,

MN,

55455;

e-mail:

rappx009@

umn.edu.

276

Copyright

?

2005 American

Psychological

Society

Volume

14?Number 5


3/5

David

N.

Rapp

and

Paul

van

den

Broek

over

the information that

is

activated

at

any

point during

reading

(Gerrig

&

McKoon, 1998;

O'Brien,

Rizzella,

Albrecht,

&

Halleran,

1998).

From

a

constructionist

perspective,

readers'

goals

and

strategies

play

a

central role

in

the activation

of

in

formation from

memory. Readers, according

to

this

view,

are

described

as

actively

striving

to

achieve

understanding

of

the

text,

strategically

activating

information

to

satisfy

their search

for

meaning

(Graesser, Singer,

&

Trabasso,

1994).

Although

both

types

of

processes

intuitively

seem

necessary

during

compre

hension,

because

they

are

often

studied

separately they

have

traditionally

been

presented

as

competing

accounts

of under

lying reading

mechanisms.

Indeed,

the

competition

between

these

accounts

has,

at

times,

led

to

acrimonious

interchanges

among

researchers.

Only recently

have

memory-based

and

constructionist

proc

esses

been

explicitly

considered

as

complementary

and

perhaps

mutually

supportive

(see

Gu?raud &

O'Brien,

2005).

In

fact,

theoretical

accounts

now

suggest

that

a

failure

to

incorporate

both mechanisms results

in

impoverished

theories

(e.g.,

Kin

tsch,

1998;

van

den

Broek,

Rapp,

&

Kendeou,

2005).

For

ex

ample, leaving

out

more

automatic

mechanisms fails

to

explain

how

multiple,

at

times

even

irrelevant

meanings

are

quickly

activated

during

reading

(Kintsch,

1998;

O'Brien,

et

al.,

1998).

Additionally, ignoring strategic

components

such

as

the reader's

specific goals

or

particular

demands

of the

task

(e.g.,

Linderholm

&

van

den

Broek,

2002)

fails

to account

for how those irrelevant

meanings

may

fall

away during

comprehension.

As

we

will

show,

DTC

models have the

potential

to

specify

how

multiple

processes,

such

as

the automatic and

strategic

activation

of in

formation from memory, might be combined in a single theo

retical framework.

A

second,

more

general example

of

the limitations

of mini

theories

is

the

fact

that

some are

concerned

exclusively

with

the

process

of

reading,

whereas others

are

concerned with

reading

products.

The former describe

how

cognitive activity

fluctuates

during

reading,

how

working-memory

limitations

or

textual

fea

tures

influence such

cognitive

activity,

and

so on.

Typical

meth

ods

used

to

investigate

these

processes

include

on-line

measures

(i.e.,

measures

assessed

during moment-by-moment reading,

as

opposed

to

afterward)

such

as

reading

times,

tasks

measuring

the

amount

of

time

it

takes

to

respond

to

related

or

unrelated

stimuli,

and

eye

movements. In

contrast,

product-driven

research

aims

to

describe the

nature

of

text

representations

in

memory

once

reading

is

completed,

quantitative

and

qualitative

differences

in

those

representations

based

on

experimenter-manipulated

vari

ables

(e.g.,

task

requirements

or

text

differences),

and

so on.

Typical

methods

for

investigating

these

products

include

off-line

measures

such

as

recall,

question-answering

tasks,

and the

ap

plication

of

knowledge

to

novel

situations.

Exclusive focus

on

either

process

or

product

ignores

the ob

vious

fact

that

the

two

must

be

closely

connected.

First,

what

happens

during

reading

must

somehow be the foundation

for

what

the

reader retains

afterward,

so

it

is

incumbent

upon

re

searchers

to

investigate

this

relationship.

Second,

and

more

subtly,

readers do

not

wait

until

reading

is

complete

to start

constructing

their mental

representations.

If

interrupted

in

the

middle of

a

text,

readers

readily

report

what the

text

was

about

up

to

that

point. Thus,

construction of

an

eventual

product

is

al

ready underway

as

processes

continue

to

play

out.

Indeed,

in

most accounts

of

on-line

processing,

it is

implicitly

assumed

that

partial

representations

exist

and

can

influence the

on-line

processing

of

subsequent

text.

As

we

will

see,

DTC models make

these

assumptions

explicit by

including

both

process

and

product,

and their

interrelations,

in

a

single

account.

DYNAMICTEXT

COMPREHENSION

DTC

addresses

the

aforementioned limitations

by

extending

research

in

several

ways:

It

(a)

integrates multiple

factors

(e.g.,

concept

activation,

inference

construction,

individual

differ

ences,

text

properties,

characteristics

of

memory

representa

tions)

and their

interactions in

a

single

framework;

(b)

attempts

to account

for

the

dynamic

fluctuations

in

activation

of

concepts

during

moment-by-moment comprehension

of the entire

text;

(c)

takes into consideration

both

the

processes

and the

products

of

comprehension (and,

in

some

cases,

the recursive relation be

tween

them); (d)

often

involves

computational

simulation

of

behavioral data

to

examine

these

factors

and mechanisms

(e.g.,

Goldman

&

Varma, 1995;

Kintsch,

1988;

Langston

&

Trabasso,

1998);

and

(e)

in

some

cases

allows

seemingly

competing

hy

potheses

to

be

integrated (e.g.,

in

DTC

theories,

memory-based

and constructionist

processes

operate

interactively).

THE

LANDSCAPE

MODEL

To

illustrate the

DTC

framework,

we

describe

one

exemplar,

the

Landscape

model

of

reading (to

access

the

model,

see

http://

education.umn.edu/EdPsych/Projects/LandscapeModel/default.

html).

The

Landscape

model

incorporates

multiple

cognitive

and

textual factors

influencing comprehension

and

is

intended

to

capture

cognitive activity

during

reading

as

well

as

the mental

representation

that is

gradually

constructed

over

the

course

of

the

reading experience.

According

to

the

model,

a

reader

pro

ceeds

through

the

text

in

cycles,

with each

cycle

corresponding

to

a

clause

or

sentence.

From

cycle

to

cycle,

concepts

fluctuate

in

activation

as a

function of

four

sources:

(a)

text

input

in

the

current

cycle, (b)

residual

information

from

the

preceding cycle,

(c)

the

memory

representation

constructed

for

the

text

read

so

far,

and

(d)

the reader's

prior

knowledge.

These fluctuations

result

in

a

landscape

of

activations,

with

concepts

waxing

and

waning

in

activation

over

the

course

of

reading.

The

patterns

of

activa

tion in

the model

are

determined

by

an

array

of reader and

text

characteristics: attentional

or

working-memory capacity,

amount

and

content

of

background

knowledge, goals

and

strategies

the

reader

brings

to

the

task,

the

organization

of the

text,

and

so

on.

Thus,

the

model

incorporates

multiple

factors

simultaneously.

Volume 14?Number 5

277


4/5

Dynamic

Text

Comprehension

From

the

very

first

reading cycle,

the

patterns

of

activation

result

in

a

memory

representation

that

is

continually

updated

with

each

subsequent

cycle,

eventually leading

to

a

stable

representation

once

reading

is

completed.

Specifically,

each

individual

concept

that

is

activated is

added

to

the

representa

tion

of the

text

in

memory

or,

if

the

concept

already

was

part

of the

representation,

its

representation

is

strengthened.

Similarly,

co

activation

of

concepts

leads

to

the

generation

or

strengthening

of

connections

between those

concepts.

For

each of these

partic

ular

cases,

the

amount

of

change

in

the

memory

representation

is

a

function

of

the

amount

of activation

of the

concept

or

concepts

and of the

existing

memory

strength.

The

result

is

a

gradually

emerging

network

representation

of the

text

ideas and

their

in

terconnections.

The

Landscape

model

is

dynamic

in

several

respects.

First,

it

describes the

cognitive

processes

involved

in

comprehension

throughout

the

duration

of

the

reading

of

a

text,

not

just

at

spe

cific

points

selected

to

capture

the effect of

a

particular

factor.

Second,

it

captures

the

interactive effects of

multiple

factors.

Third,

it

posits

that

at

each

cycle

the

memory

representation

constructed

during preceding cycles

is

a

source

of

activation

and,

hence,

influences

subsequent

activation

patterns;

in

turn,

these

cyclical

and

dynamically

fluctuating

activations

modify

the

existing representation, resulting

in

the

gradual

emergence

of

a

final

episodic

representation

(i.e.,

accumulated

memory

for

the

text

experience).

Thus,

the traditional distinction between

process

and

product

is

replaced by

a

recursive

interaction

be

tween

the

two.

To

describe

text

comprehension,

the

Landscape

model

also

integrates multiple processes (in addition to multiple factors).

For

example,

it

includes

memory-based

and constructionist

processes

by postulating

two

mechanisms. The first

is

cohort

activation:

When

a

concept

is

activated

during

reading,

other

concepts

associated with it

(its cohort)

are

also activated.

Co

horts either

pre-exist

in

semantic

memory

(i.e., prior

knowledge)

or

are

constructed

during reading

as

concepts

concurrently

ac

tivated

during

a

cycle

become associated

in

the

episodic

memory

representation

for the

text.

The second mechanism

is

coherence

based

retrieval,

a

strategic

mechanism

by

which information

is

retrieved with the

specific

aim

of

meeting

a

reader's standards

for

coherence.

Again,

such retrieval

can

be from the

episodic

rep

resentation

constructed thus

far

or

from

prior

knowledge.

The

model

posits

that both cohort activation and coherence-based

retrieval take

place simultaneously

and,

hence,

that the

infor

mation

retrieved

through

one

mechanism

influences the

exe

cution of

the

other mechanism.

Thus,

the

model

assigns

complementary

roles

to

both

types

of

mechanisms

rather than

considering

them

as

competing hypotheses.

EMPIRICAL

TESTS OF

THE LANDSCAPE MODEL

This brief

overview

of

the

Landscape

model illustrates

how

a

DTC

framework

can overcome

the

conceptual

limitations

of

mini-theories

noted

earlier. To be

useful and

valid, however,

any

new

psychological

framework

must

also be able

to

account

for

human

performance

in

ways

that its

predecessors

cannot.

We

illustrate the

utility

of

DTC

using

examples

from the

Landscape

model.

Comparisons

between the

Landscape

model's

predictions

and

behavioral

data

indicate that the

model

is

a

valid

predictor

of

reading

activity.

With

regard

to

the

moment-by-moment

acti

vation

of

concepts

during

the

reading

of

narratives,

activation

patterns

produced by

the model

are

strongly

related

to

patterns

of

activation

obtained from real readers

(van

den

Broek,

Young,

Tzeng,

&

Linderholm,

1999).

For

example,

the model

can

be

used

to

simulate

what

happens

when

readers

process

a

text

that

contains inconsistencies.

O'Brien

et

al.

(1998)

have

reported

an

impressive

array

of

findings

on

the circumstances

for

which

readers

do

or

do

not

detect

inconsistencies

in

texts.

When the

Landscape

model

is

used

to

simulate these

circumstances,

its

predictions

accurately

capture

those

findings. Additionally,

with

expository

texts,

the model

has been found

to

predict

the cir

cumstances

under which readers notice

conflicts between their

own

misconceptions

and

correct

textual

information,

as

reflected

in

their

reading

rates

and

their

verbal

descriptions

of what

they

think

the

text

is

about

as

they

read

(i.e.,

think-aloud

responses;

Kendeou &

van

den

Broek,

2005;

van

den

Broek

et

al.,

2005).

With

regard

to

reading products,

the

Landscape

model

predicts

both the

probability

that

different

parts

of the

text

will be

re

called

by

actual readers and the order

in

which

they

recall

that

information

(van

den

Broek

et

al.,

2005).

Importantly,

the

predictive

power

of the

Landscape

model

is

greater than that of any of the mini-theories that form its basis.

This is

reflected

in

direct

comparisons

of different

components

of

the model.

To

return to

our

earlier

example

of

the

competition

between

memory-based

and

constructionist

views,

the relative

contribution of each of

these

types

of

processes

to

reading

was

assessed

by selectively removing

each

from

the model. The

predictions

for

memory

for

expository

texts

employing

a

model

that included both constructionist and

memory-based

processes

were

very

strong

and

were

significantly

more

accurate

than the

predictions

of

models

in

which either

component

had

been

re

moved.

An

identical

pattern

of results

was

observed for

memory

for

narrative

texts

as

well.

Thus,

the inclusion of both

sets

of

processes

not

only

makes

intuitive

sense,

it

also

leads

to

more

accurate

predictions

and

to

data that

align

more

closely

with

actual reader

performance.

IMPLICATIONSOR THEORYAND PRACTICE

DTC theories

provide

a

framework for

considering

multiple

factors

during reading.

Moreover

they

attempt

to

generalize

across

different

text

types,

bridging

theories,

for

example,

about

narrative and

expository

text

comprehension.

Such

an

integrated

view is

more

parsimonious

than

positing

completely separable

mechanisms

for

small subsets

of factors.

Additionally,

including

278

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5/5

David N.

Rapp

and

Paul

van

den Broek

multiple

factors

in

any

theory

or

model

necessitates

identifying

exactly

how

those

factors

interact.

Thus,

DTC

promotes

in

creased

specification

when

examining

such

factors,

particularly

in

the

implementation

of

computational

models

designed

to

simulate human

performance.

DTC

views,

therefore,

challenge

researchers

in

the

field of discourse

processing

to

expand

both

the breadth and

depth

of their

theorizing.

Although

this discussion

has focused

on

the

theoretical

con

tributions of

DTC,

there

are

practical

implications

as

well.

In

educational

settings,

the

assessment

of students'

reading

abili

ties and the evaluation of traditional

interventions often

con

centrate

on

the

products

of

reading, through

tests

that

take

place

after

a

reading

task has been

completed. Recently,

educational

researchers

have

urged

that increased

attention be

given

to

the

underlying

cognitive

processes

involved

in

reading

and

their

causal

relationships

to

differences

in

reading

outcomes

(e.g.,

Pearson &

Hamm,

2005).

Indeed,

interventions benefit

from

a

consideration of the activities inwhich readers engage, or fail to

engage,

as

they

proceed

through

a

text.

Readers who fail

to

ad

equately

comprehend

what

they

are

reading

may

engage

in

qualitatively

different

processes

than readers who

succeed do.

Thus,

interventions

are more

likely

to

be

effective

if

they

manage

to

improve

the

processes

that take

place

during

reading.

Several

reading

interventions

place

an

emphasis

on

such

a

view,

sup

porting

the

usefulness

of DTC

frameworks

(e.g.,

Jenkins, Fuchs,

van

den

Broek,

Espin,

&

Deno, 2003; Linderholm,

et

al.,

2000).

DTC

provides

the theoretical foundation

to

address

these

sorts

of

practical

issues.

Recommended

Reading

Kintsch,

W.

(1998). (See

References)

Rapp,

D.N.,

&

Taylor,

H.A.

(2004).

Interactive

dimensions

in

the

con

struction

of

mental

representations

for

text.

Journal

of Experi

mental

Psychology: Learning,

Memory,

and

Cognition,

30,

988?

1001.

van

den

Broek, P.,

Rapp,

D.N.,

&

Kendeou,

P.

(2005). (See References)

Acknowledgments?Preparation

of

this

manuscript

was

supported

by

the Institute of Education

Sciences,

Grant R305G040021.

REFERENCES

Gerrig, R.J., & McKoon, G. (1998). The readiness is all: The func

tionality

of

memory-based

text

processing.

Discourse

Processes,

26,

67-86.

Goldman, S.R.,

&

Varma,

S.

(1995).

CAPping

the construction-inte

gration

model

of discourse

comprehension.

In C

Weaver,

S.

Mannes,

&

C.

Fletcher

(Eds.),

Discourse

comprehension: Essays

in

honor

of

Walter Kintsch

(pp.

337-358).

Hillsdale,

NJ:

LEA.

Graesser,

A.,

Singer,

M.,

&

Trabasso,

T.

(1994). Constructing

inferences

during

narrative

comprehension. Psychological Review, 101,

371-395.

Gu?raud,

S.,

&

O'Brien,

E.J.

(Eds.). (2005).

Components

of

compre

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A

convergence

between

memory-based

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explanation-based

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[Special

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Discourse

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39(2-3).

Jenkins,

J.R.,

Fuchs, L.S.,

van

den

Broek, P.,

Espin,

C.L.,

&

Deno,

S.L.

(2003).

Sources

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reading comprehen

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reading

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Journal

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Kendeou,

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van

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Dynamic Text Comprehension - David N. Rapp & Paul Van Den Broek