Upload
others
View
1
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Dynamic Assessment Model for Academic and Language Contexts
• Overview: Dynamic Assessment (DA) is a fluid evaluation process that changes with
development and learning versus a static model that identifies knowledge previously learned.
• Purpose: DA an assist in describing a student’s ability to learn, retain, and transfer
learned information or concepts. DA can reflect the gap between the student’s actual development and the their developmental potential. This is referred to as the “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD).
§ The size of the “zone” can be determined by using a “test-teach-retest” format.
The number of prompts given in the teaching phase and the transfer effect helps determine the Zone of Proximal Development.
§ DA can assist clinicians/educational staff in determining when and how to
intervene. For example, children who show limited change during the assessment may require extensive assistance in order to facilitate changes in language or academic behavior. In contrast, children who show significant changes during the assessment, and who can maintain those changes, may not need specialized academic or language services.
• One type of a DA approach: Test – Teach – Retest
Within this paradigm, the examiner first identifies deficient or emerging skills that may or may not be related to a lack of experiences with that skill. The examiner then provides an intervention or lesson designed to modify the child’s level of functioning in the targeted areas. By teaching the principles of the task, the test situation changes from an evaluative interaction (typical of traditional test situations) to a teaching interaction where the examiner maximizes the child’s feelings of competence. The performance on the posttest (retest phase) serves as an indicator of the child’s modifiability following multiple teaching experiences. It should be noted that even though this approach is of non-standardized research from Pena reflects that both the specificity and sensivity are within accepable parameters. However, it should be noted that the fideltiy of implementation may impact the validity of the results, the reliabiliy is grounded by the included criteria rubric for both the learning strategies checklist and modofiability scale.
§ Clinicians/educational staff should also use qualitative data to describe changes in the pertaining to the student’s responses. This may include the types of scaffolding and supports required during the teaching activity.
§ A rating scales checklist can help staff identify differences that relate to limited educational opportunity (rather than disorder). The scales are also helpful to determine what it takes to effect change, such as the amount of effort/intensity, time, type of cue, and type of modification that may be needed for the student to complete the task. This scale can be developed using a Likert-type of rating scales (e.g., none of the time, some of the time, etc…) for a variety of variables. The data can also be noted anecdotally.
• Validity and Reliability: It should be noted that Dynamic Assessment is a non-standardized approach to identify how a student learns, retains, and transfers information. However, according to Pena’s research, the specificity rate (e.g, the classification of a traditional learner) was 95.3% (good – Plante & Vance, 1994) and the sensitivity rate (the classification of low langauge ability) was 77.8% (fair – Plante &Vance, 1994). In addition, the reliability was noted at .82 and higher. Pena also noted that gains were not due to the “practice effect” but due to the MLE treatment. However, it should be noted that fidelity of instruction can impact the validity and reliability of results.
• When an appropriate teaching experience is provided, children who are different, but typical language learners, are capable of demonstrating efficient response to intervention (i.e., ability to learn, retain, and transfer new information). On the other hand, students with language-learning disabilities may benefit from a targeted teaching session, but will demonstrate little quantitative change or need significant accommodations and modifications to complete the task. Students with language-learning disabilities have a difficult time learning, retaining, and transferring new information in an efficient manner.
• Conclusion: The measure of learning change, such as MLE score changes, ratings of modifiability, and qualitative changes, may be useful in differentiating language differences from disorder, identifying targeted learning strategies for a specific student, and assist in the decision-making process to address a student’s individualized needs.
This document is made up of excerpts from the following sources
Gutierrez-Clellen, V.F., & Pena, L (2001). Dynamic Assessment of Diverse Children: A tutorial.
Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32, 212-224. Lewis, J (1991). Innovative Approaches in Assessment. In R. Samuda, S. Konk, J. Cummins, J. Pascual-
Leone, & L. Lewis (Eds.), Assessment and Placement of Minority Students (pp. 123-142). Toronto, Ontario: C.J. Hogrefe and ISSP
Pena, E. (2000). Measurement of modifiability in children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 21 (2), 87-97.
Recommended Steps in a Dynamic Assessment (Test – Teach – Retest Format)
I. Pretest • Identify skill area deficits (this can be obtained from one or more of the following)
o Observation o ESL test data o Second Language Acquisition checklist results o Teacher report o Work samples o Standardized or criterion-based measures o Curriculum-based measures o Language sample
• Set up mechanism to establish baseline data
o Develop a criterion-based assessment tool o Use raw or standardized scores from language or academic instrument
II. Teaching Phase (i.e., Mediated Learning Experience) • Ideally a minimum of 3 – 5 sessions
o Can start after the pre-test o Minimum of 30-minute sessions o Sessions should be at least 1-2 days apart and not more than 1 week. o Session should be individual or in small group (note: when in small group,
comparison to other students may assist in data collection) • Pre-test items used during the teaching phase
o It’s OK to use some of the items o The teach phase should include targeted concepts not listed in pre-test
• The focus of the teaching phase is to teach a targeted concept (e.g., labeling, verb
tense, sound-symbol relationships, etc…) not to be content specific for the 3 sessions (e.g., only teach animal names).
• Be able to scaffold a concept to assist the student at their learning level and within their
“Zone of Proximal Development” o Move from an expressive task to a receptive task o Use visuals or manipulatives o Break task down into discrete hierarchical parts
Over • Lesson should include the main components of “mediation”
o Intentionality: Statement of goal and purpose of interaction) o Meaning: Why concept is important and how it relates to student) o Transcendence: Develop metacognitive skills – asking “what if questions”) o Panning/Competence: Children think about what they have learned and how they
will use that skill the next time they are asked to complete a similar task) o Transfer: Summarize a lesson and help children think about how they will
generalize the skill they have been learning to other situations) • Dynamic assessment focuses on the cognitive functions and processes (e.g., attention,
maintenance, impulse regulation, and strategy application). • Following each teaching session, the clinician/educator rates the child on the Learning
Strategies Checklist (LSC) and Modifiability Scale (MS). o On the LSC, the clinician notes the child’s responsivity and ability to apply
learned strategies o Note accommodations, modifications, and scaffold techniques used in order for
student to be successful o The MS is used to summarize the clinician’s judgment of overall student change
(i.e., examiner effort, student response, transfer). • Use the Dynamic Assessment Observational Checklist if needed for additional data • Dynamic assessment can be used to target a communication concept (i.e., content, form,
and use), a reading concept (i.e., phonemic awareness, word attack skills, comprehension skills, etc.), math skills (i.e., calculation & reasoning), and writing skills (i.e., orthographic, organization, etc.).
III. Post-Test • No more than 2 days from the final teaching session • Use same tool and items from pre-test to determine student growth Remember: Transfer of knowledge from pre to post-test provides only one dimension of information. The multidimensional utility of Dynamic Assessment is to identify “how a student learns information, how they retain information, and how they transfer information.”
Concepts of the Dynamic Assessment Teaching Session (i.e., Mediated Learning Experience)
During the teaching session, the clinician/educator carefully supports the child’s learning at a level that is somewhat above what they are able to do without support (ie. ZPD). Examiners do this by pointing out: • The learning goal • Explaining why that goal is important • Helping children develop and follow a plan for learning • Helping children think about possible relationships between the learning goal and everyday situations and
events. During a teaching session, the examiners observe the strategies children use to meet the demands of the learning goal. Examiners ask four main questions: • Are children able to form a more complete or more coherent answers with examiner support? • Do children pay attention to and include more elements of the targeted concept when the examiner uses
interactive teaching? • How hard does the examiner have to work in order for children to make positive changes? • Is learning quick and efficient of is it slow and labored?
The answers to these questions become the basis for determining whether initial low performance is likely due to a language-learning disorder, lack of experience, or a language difference.
5 Basic Components of the Teaching (i.e., Mediation) Phase Intentionality: Strategies are used to explain the goal of the activity to the student. It is important for the student to understand the goal(s) of each teaching session. Understanding the goal helps the student maintain focus on the target task and ignore irrelevant stimuli. The examiner should periodically remind the student of the goal or ask if the student remembers the goal.
Example: Today we are going to talk about different parts of a story. Meaning: Strategies are used to explain to the student why the task or goal is important. This helps the student attend to the important features of the task and understand task relevance.
Example: (When teaching sequencing and use of temporal prepositions within the context of a story): When we tell or write a story, it’s helpful to use words that describe the order of when things happened. This helps the listener or the reader to understand and remember what and when things happened. We use words like first, next, then, last, before, and after.
Transcendence: Teaching strategies are used to help a student develop metacognitive and metalingusitic skills related to a task. The examiner may engage the student with concepts pertaining to who, what, when, where, and why related questions. In addition, the examiner should introduce “what if” questions to facilitate thinking about alternative strategies and answers. Students may also discuss with the examiner the relative benefits of alternative scenarios or strategies. This type of teaching encourages independent, hypothetical thinking and learning.
Example: Lets talk about who was in the beginning of the story. When we talk about “who” is in the story, we call that person or animal a character in the story. Where did the story take place? We call the place where the story took place the setting.
Planning: The student verbalizes or uses strategies to engage or complete a targeted task. Example: We can use our fingers to remember the 5 “Ws”: Who, What, When, Where, Why Transfer: A summary of the session is discussed to help the student think about using their new skills in related settings or situations (i.e., story time, creative writing, answering teacher questions, etc…).
Example: Tell me the important parts of a story again. Tell me a word that we learned that describes when things happened in the story?
Over
Example Supports and Scaffolding Techniques the Examiner Can Use during the Teaching Session (or Mediated Learning Experience)
• Provide a model or example of the concept, idea, or linguistic structure the student needs to learn. • Shorten the directions given to the student. • Require the student to restate the directions. • Give the student extra time to organize their thoughts. • Give the student cues to assist in word retrieval. • Provide a more elaborate explanation of questions and instructions. • Use expansions of the student’s statements. • Encourage elaboration by asking questions. • Use simple terms when explaining concepts. • Respond positively to the student’s verbal attempts. • Teach the student some strategies for asking for assistance and/or clarification. • Give instructions and examples on using descriptive language. • Use questions to help the student make connections between old and new information. • Use semantic maps of stories and expository texts. • Pair pictures and objects with directions or explanations of concepts. • Simplify the questions posed to the student.
Dynamic Assessment Scoring Sheet Content Target:
Student Name: Teaching Session #: Examiner’s Name: Date:
Learning Strategy Checklist Scoring Criteria (Circle One) Comments Attention • Student exhibits an
orienting response and focus to task-relevant stimuli
1 2 3 4 5
Task Specific Performance • Student performs features
of the target task (e.g., answer questions, describing, sequencing, use comparative relationships, summarizing, etc.)
1 2 3 4 5
Planning • Student verbalizes or uses
systematic strategy to task 1 2 3 4 5
Self Regulation / Awareness • Student waits for
instructions, seeks help when needed, corrects self, or rewards self
1 2 3 4 5
Motivation • Student shows enthusiasm
for task & persists in the face of frustration
1 2 3 4 5
Interaction with Adults • Seeks help when needed &
changes responses according to adult cues
1 2 3 4 5
Total Learning Strategy Score__________ (Use score for Analysis on Reverse Side) Modifiability Scale (Note: overall performance after each teaching session) Examiner Effort Extreme (1) High – Moderate (2) Moderate-Slight (3) Slight-None (4) Student Responsivity None (1) Slight (2) Moderate (3) High (4) Transfer None (1) Low (2) Moderate (3) High (4) Total Modifiability Score___________ (Use Score for Analysis on Reverse Side) Note: See Attached Scoring Criteria Description for Assistance
Over
Differentiation Criteria
Learning Strategies Checklist: 6 Points Profound Learning Challenges 7-12 Points Severe Learning Challenges 13-18 Points Moderate Learning Challenges 19-24 Points Mild Learning Challenges 25-30 Points Typical Learning Characteristics (i.e., Efficiently Learns, Retains, & Transfers Information)
Modifiability Scale: 3 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Atypical & Severe 4-6 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Atypical & Moderate 7-9 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Atypical & Mild 10-12 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Typical
Note: To maximize the validity of the Dynamic Assessment results, the teaching lessons need to be within the student’s “zone of proximal development” (i.e., within their developmental range). If a targeted lesson is too easy or challenging, the results of the Dynamic Assessment can be compromised.
Adapted from: Gutierrez-Clellen, V., Brown, S., Conboy, B., and Robinson-Zanartu, C. (1998). Modifiability: A dynamic approach to
assessing immediate language change. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 19 (2), 31-43. Pena, E. (2000). Measurement of modifiability in children from culturally and linguistically diverse
backgrounds. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 21 (2), 87-97.
Additional Comments: (Also note changes between pre- and post-testing data)
Dyn
amic
Ass
essm
ent S
cori
ng C
rite
ria
L
earn
ing
Stra
tegi
es C
heck
list
Att
entio
n: T
he st
uden
t exh
ibits
an
orie
ntin
g re
spon
se a
nd fo
cus t
o ta
sk-r
elev
ant s
timul
i (i.e
., ig
norin
g irr
elev
ant s
timul
i), th
roug
hout
leng
th o
f tas
k.
Stud
ent w
ho is
dis
tract
ible
may
nee
d gr
eate
r rep
etiti
on o
f ins
truct
ion
and
may
requ
ire m
ore
med
iatio
n (i.
e. d
irect
inst
ruct
ion)
to le
arn.
5.
Orie
ntin
g re
spon
se a
nd o
n-ta
sk b
ehav
ior w
ithou
t pro
mpt
s. 4.
A
ttent
iona
l pro
mpt
s nee
ded
only
at t
he b
egin
ning
of m
edia
tion
sess
ion.
3.
Pr
ompt
ing
/ rep
etiti
on n
eede
d be
twee
n 10
– 3
0% o
f the
tim
e.
2.
Prom
ptin
g / r
epet
ition
nee
ded
mor
e th
an 4
0-70
% o
f the
tim
e 1.
H
igh
dist
ract
ibili
ty a
nd m
inim
al a
ttent
ion
75-1
00%
of t
he ti
me.
T
ask
Spec
ific
Perf
orm
ance
: Th
is a
ctiv
ity ta
rget
s the
spec
ific
teac
hing
and
stud
ent r
espo
nse
of a
targ
eted
lear
ning
task
. Thi
s may
incl
ude
basi
c re
cept
ive
and
expr
essi
ve ta
sks.
How
ever
, it c
an a
lso
incl
ude
teac
hing
mor
e ad
vanc
ed la
ngau
ge a
nd a
cade
mic
task
s tha
t req
uire
bot
h m
etac
ogni
tive
and
met
alin
gusi
tic sk
ills r
elat
ed to
a ta
sk.
The
exam
iner
/teac
her m
ay e
ngag
e th
e st
uden
t with
con
cept
s per
tain
ing
to w
ho, w
hat,
whe
n, w
here
, and
why
re
late
d qu
estio
ns.
In a
dditi
on, t
he e
xam
iner
cou
ld a
lso
intro
duce
“w
hat i
f” q
uest
ions
to fa
cilit
ate
thin
king
abo
ut a
ltern
ativ
e st
rate
gies
and
ans
wer
s.
Stud
ents
may
als
o di
scus
s with
the
exam
iner
the
rela
tive
bene
fits o
f alte
rnat
ive
scen
ario
s or s
trate
gies
. Th
is ty
pe o
f tea
chin
g en
cour
ages
inde
pend
ent,
hypo
thet
ical
thin
king
and
lear
ning
.
Lev
el
Lea
rner
A
war
enes
s L
earn
er In
depe
ndan
ce
Perf
orm
ance
Des
crip
tors
Pe
rfor
man
c A
ccur
acy
5. E
xper
t •
Ref
lect
s on
the
task
pe
rfor
man
ce
• Sp
onta
neou
sly
uses
ta
rget
beh
avio
rs
• Pe
rfor
ms a
t a m
atur
e ag
e/gr
ade
leve
l •
Alw
ays a
ppro
pria
te
• A
lway
s con
sist
ent
• A
lway
s pre
cise
•
Alw
ays c
ompl
ete
• A
lway
s spo
ntan
eous
•
Alw
ays i
ndep
ende
nt
• H
as 0
-1 e
rror
s or m
inor
de
viat
ions
(whi
ch a
re a
ge
appr
opria
te)
• C
lear
ly c
onve
ys m
eani
ng
4. C
ompe
tent
•
Is c
onsc
ious
of
the
task
pe
rfor
man
ce
• R
egul
arly
use
s tar
get
beha
vior
s •
Perf
orm
s at a
n es
tabl
ishe
d le
vel
• U
sual
ly a
ppro
pria
te
• U
sual
ly p
reci
se
• U
sual
ly c
ompl
ete
• U
sual
ly sp
onta
neou
s •
Usu
ally
inde
pend
ent
• H
as 2
-3 e
rror
s or s
ever
al
min
or d
evia
tions
(whi
ch
whi
ch a
re a
ge a
ppro
pria
te)
•
Erro
rs ra
rley
inte
rfer
e w
ith
mea
ning
3. A
dvan
ced
B
igin
ner
• Is
an
activ
e le
arne
r •
Act
ivel
y pa
rtici
apte
s in
the
targ
eted
task
• So
met
imes
use
s tar
get
beha
vior
s, or
use
s ta
rget
beh
avio
rs w
ith
supp
ort
• U
ses r
ules
and
pat
tern
s at a
n em
ergi
ng le
vel,
not f
irmly
es
tabl
ishe
d •
Som
etim
es a
ppro
pria
te
• So
met
imes
inco
nsis
tant
•
Som
etim
es im
prec
ise
• So
mes
times
inco
mpl
ete
• So
met
imes
nee
ds p
rom
pts
• So
met
imes
nee
ds su
ppor
t
• H
as 2
-3 m
ajor
err
ors,
seve
ral
min
or d
evia
tions
(whi
ch a
re
not a
ge a
ppro
pria
te)
• Er
rors
hav
e so
me
effe
ct o
n m
eani
ng b
ut m
ain
idea
s are
co
nvey
ed.
2. B
egin
ner
• Is
not
self-
dire
cted
•
May
requ
ire
dela
yed
mod
els
• R
arel
y us
es ta
rget
be
havi
ors
• U
ses p
atte
rns a
nd ru
les r
ando
mly
, if
at a
t all
• U
sual
ly in
appr
iate
•
Usu
ally
inco
nsis
tant
•
Usu
ally
impr
ecis
e
• U
sual
ly in
com
plet
e •
Usu
ally
nee
ds p
rom
pts
• U
sual
ly n
eeds
supp
ort
• H
as 4
-6 m
ajor
err
ors a
nd
man
y m
inor
dev
iatio
ns
(whi
ch a
re n
ot a
ge
appr
opria
te)
• Er
rors
pre
vent
the
cohe
rent
tra
nsm
issi
on o
f mea
ning
1.
Lim
ited
Lang
uage
and
/or
Aca
dem
ic S
kills
• R
equi
res
repe
ated
di
rect
m
odel
ing
• D
oes n
ot u
se ta
gete
d be
havi
or in
an
expr
essi
ve m
anne
r.
•
Prim
ary
mod
e of
co
mm
uniti
on m
ay b
e at
a
rece
ptiv
e le
vel.
• R
arel
y us
es p
atte
rns a
nd ru
les
• R
ecur
rent
ly in
appr
iate
•
Rec
urre
ntly
inco
nsis
tant
•
Rec
uren
tly im
prec
ise
•
Rec
urre
ntly
inco
mpl
ete
• R
ecur
ently
nee
ds p
rom
pts
• R
ecur
ently
nee
ds su
ppor
t
• H
as 7
or m
ore
maj
or a
nd
min
or e
rror
s (w
hich
are
not
ag
e ap
prop
riate
) •
Erro
rs p
reve
nt th
e tra
nsm
issi
on m
eani
ng o
r re
cept
ive
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
co
nten
t bei
ng ta
rgte
d Pl
anni
ng:
The
stud
ent v
erba
lizes
or u
ses a
syst
emat
ic st
rate
gy to
eng
age
or c
ompl
ete
targ
eted
task
.
5.
Use
or v
erba
lizat
ion
of sy
stem
atic
stra
tegy
to ta
sk w
ith m
inim
al d
iffic
ulty
or p
rom
ptin
g.
4.
Use
or v
erba
lizat
ion
of sy
stem
atic
stra
tegy
to ta
sk b
etw
een
50-9
0% o
f the
tim
e w
ith p
rom
ptin
g.
3.
Use
or v
erba
lizat
ion
of sy
stem
atic
stra
tegy
to ta
sk b
etw
een
25-5
0% o
f the
tim
e w
ith p
rom
ptin
g.
2.
Use
or v
erba
lizat
ion
of sy
stem
atic
stra
tegy
to ta
sk le
ss th
an 2
5% o
f the
tim
e w
ith p
rom
ptin
g.
1.
No
syst
emat
ic st
rate
gy u
sed
for t
he ta
sk.
Self-
Reg
ulat
ion:
The
stud
ent d
emon
stra
tes s
elf-
awar
enes
s and
self-
regu
latio
n sk
ills.
For
exa
mpl
e, th
e st
uden
t wai
ts fo
r ins
truct
ions
, ask
s for
ass
ista
nce
whe
n ta
sk b
ecom
es d
iffic
ult,
resp
onds
to in
stru
ctio
n w
ith m
inim
al p
rom
pts,
is a
war
e of
cor
rect
ness
of o
wn
resp
onse
s, an
d m
ay u
se se
lf-re
war
ding
be
havi
or.
5.
C
onsi
stan
t use
of s
elf-
corr
ectio
ns a
nd se
lf-re
war
ds fo
r acc
urat
e re
spon
se a
fter i
nitia
l fee
dbac
k.
Wai
ts fo
r ins
truct
ion
thro
ugho
ut se
ssio
n.
4.
Use
of s
elf-
corr
ectio
n an
d se
lf-re
war
d be
twee
n 50
-90%
of t
he ti
me.
Wai
ts fo
r ins
truct
ion
thro
ugho
ut
the
sess
ion.
3.
M
inim
al u
se o
f sel
f-co
rrec
tion
or se
lf-re
war
d. O
ccas
iona
l im
puls
ive
resp
onse
. 2.
Im
puls
ivity
and
fidg
ety
50%
of t
he ti
me
with
repe
ated
impu
lsiv
e re
spon
ses
1.
Impu
lsiv
ity a
nd fi
dget
y th
roug
hout
the
sess
ion
with
rand
om im
puls
ive
resp
onse
s. M
otiv
atio
n: T
he st
uden
t sho
ws e
nthu
sias
m fo
r the
task
and
per
sist
s in
the
face
of f
rust
ratio
n.
5.
Hig
h en
thus
iasm
abo
ut ta
sk a
s not
ed b
y ve
rbal
izat
ion,
bod
y la
ngua
ge, a
nd/o
r fac
ial e
xpre
ssio
ns.
4.
Will
ingn
ess t
o try
mos
t tas
ks th
roug
hout
the
sess
ion,
des
pite
diff
icul
ty.
3.
Occ
asio
nal a
ttem
pts t
o en
d th
e te
achi
ng a
ctiv
ity a
ctiv
ity.
2.
Freq
uent
atte
mpt
s to
end
the
teac
hing
act
ivity
. 1.
R
efus
al to
par
ticip
ate
in th
e te
achi
ng a
ctiv
ity.
Inte
ract
ion
with
Adu
lts: T
he st
uden
t see
ks h
elp
whe
n th
e ta
sk b
ecom
es d
iffic
ult.
The
stud
ent c
hang
es re
spon
ses a
ccor
ding
to a
dult
cues
and
feed
back
.
5.
Con
sist
ent u
se o
f ver
bal /
non
verb
al re
ques
ts fo
r hel
p w
hen
task
bec
omes
diff
icul
t. R
espo
nse
co
nsis
tent
ly c
hang
es b
ased
upo
n ad
ult i
nput
. 4.
U
se o
f req
uest
s for
hel
p m
ost o
f the
tim
e. O
ccas
iona
l rep
etiti
on o
f old
err
ors i
n sp
ite o
f adu
lt in
put (
betw
een
10-2
0% o
f the
tim
e).
3.
Inco
nsis
tent
cha
nge
in re
spon
ses d
espi
te a
dult
feed
back
(bet
wee
n 20
-50%
of t
he ti
me)
. 2.
Fr
eque
nt re
petit
ion
of o
ld e
rror
s des
pite
adu
lt fe
edba
ck (b
etw
een
50-8
0% o
f the
tim
e).
1.
Min
imal
cha
nge
in re
spon
se e
ven
afte
r adu
lt fe
edba
ck (b
etw
een
80-1
00%
of t
he ti
me)
.
Mod
ifiab
ility
Sca
le
Exa
min
er E
ffor
t: U
sing
the
data
from
the
lear
ning
stra
tegi
es c
heck
list,
iden
tify
the
amou
nt a
nd in
tens
ity o
r eff
ort r
equi
red
to in
duce
cha
nge
durin
g th
e te
achi
ng se
ssio
n.
1.
Sl
ight
– N
one
(0-2
5% o
f the
tim
e)
3.
Mod
erat
e –
Slig
ht (2
5-50
% o
f the
tim
e)
2.
Hig
h –
Mod
erat
e (5
0-75
% o
f the
tim
e)
1.
Extre
me
(> 7
5% o
f the
tim
e)
Stud
ent’
s Res
pons
e to
Tea
chin
g: U
sing
the
data
from
the
lear
ning
stra
tegi
es c
heck
list,
rate
the
stud
ent’s
ove
rall
resp
onsi
vene
ss to
the
exam
iner
’s
teac
hing
dur
ing
the
less
on.
4.
H
igh
(0-1
err
ors w
ith n
o or
min
al re
peat
ed su
ppor
ts)
5.
Mod
erat
e (2
-3 e
rror
s with
serv
al m
inor
dev
iatio
ns w
ith p
erio
dic
need
ed sc
affo
ldin
g)
2.
Slig
ht (4
-6 m
jor e
rror
s with
seve
ral m
inor
dev
iatio
ns w
ith re
peat
ed sc
affo
ldin
g an
d de
laye
d m
odel
ing)
1.
N
one
(7 o
r mor
e m
ajor
err
ors,
with
seve
ral m
inor
err
ors,
that
requ
ire re
peat
ed sc
affo
ldin
g an
d di
rect
mod
elin
g)
Abi
lity
to T
rans
fer:
Usi
ng th
e da
ta fr
om th
e le
arni
ng st
rate
gies
che
cklis
t, ra
te h
ow th
e st
uden
t app
lies t
he le
arne
d st
rate
gies
to a
new
task
.
4.
H
igh
(0-1
err
ors w
ith n
o or
min
al re
peat
ed su
ppor
ts)
2.
Mod
erat
e (2
-3 e
rror
s with
serv
al m
inor
dev
iatio
ns w
ith p
erio
dic
need
ed sc
affo
ldin
g)
2
Low
(4 -6
mjo
r err
ors w
ith se
vera
l min
or d
evia
tions
with
repe
ated
scaf
fold
ing
and
dela
yed
mod
elin
g)
1.
Non
e (7
or m
ore
maj
or e
rror
s, w
ith se
vera
l min
or e
rror
s, th
at re
quire
repe
ated
scaf
fold
ing
and
dire
ct m
odel
ing)
A
dapt
ed fr
om:
Gut
ierr
ez-C
lelle
n, V
., B
row
n, S
., C
onbo
y, B
., a
nd R
obin
son-
Zana
rtu, C
. (19
98).
Mod
ifiab
ility
: A d
ynam
ic a
ppro
ach
to
asse
ssin
g im
med
iate
lang
uage
cha
nge.
Jou
rnal
of C
hild
ren’
s Com
mun
icat
ion
Dev
elop
men
t, 19
(2),
31-4
3.
Pena
, E. (
2000
). M
easu
rem
ent o
f mod
ifiab
ility
in c
hild
ren
from
cul
tura
lly a
nd li
ngui
stic
ally
div
erse
ba
ckgr
ound
s. C
omm
unic
atio
n D
isor
ders
Qua
rter
ly, 2
1 (2
), 87
-97.
W
iig, E
. H.,
Lars
on, V
., an
d O
lson
, J. (
2004
). S-
Map
s: R
ubri
cs fo
r cur
ricu
lum
-bas
ed a
sses
smen
ts a
nd in
terv
entio
ns fo
r gra
des k
-12.
Wis
cons
in: T
hink
ing
Publ
icat
ions
.
Questions to Help Determine How a Student Processes or Learns Information
Use a Frame of Reference in Assessing Students
• Does the student attempt to paraphrase information when having difficulty understanding information? Yes / No
• Does the student use rehearsal of the information as a method of remembering
information? Yes / No • Is the student frequently unaware of errors in understanding (processing)
information? Yes / No • Does the student frequently ask questions when unsure? Yes / No
• Does the student try to understand information when he/she is having difficulty
processing it, or does he/she give up? Yes / No • Does the student ask for help when struggling? Yes / No
• Is the student confused by long, complex, and/or embedded information? Yes / No
• Does the student require frequent repetitions in order to understand the material?
Yes / No • Does the student have difficulty following multi-stage instructions? Yes / No
• Does the student need additional cues (visual, manipulative, auditory, etc.) to
understand the information? Yes / No • Does the student show irritability towards others when having difficulty? Yes / No
• Does the student show frustration when learning new information?
Yes / No
Possible Indicators of a Language-Learning Disability Culturally and linguistically diverse student with language-learning disabilities demonstrate problems in both their primary language and English. These problems may be observed in the following areas:
• Difficulty in learning language at a normal rate, even with special assistance in both languages
• Deficits in vocabulary • Short mean length of utterance • Communication difficulties at home • Communication difficulties when interacting with peers from a similar
background • Auditory processing problems (e.g., poor memory, poor comprehension) • Lack of organization, structure, and sequence in spoken and written language;
difficulty conveying thoughts • Slow academic achievement despite adequate academic English proficiency • Family history of special education/learning difficulties • Slower development of siblings (as per parent report) • Reliance on gestures rather than speech to communicate • Inordinate slowness in responding to questions • General disorganization and confusion • Difficulty paying attention • Need for frequent repetition and prompts during instruction • Need for a program of instruction that is more structured than that used with most
other students • Need for a program of instruction that is more structured than that used with most
other students • Difficulties impacting grammar and sentence structure • Difficulties in the use of precise vocabulary and overuse of words such as stuff,
things, you know, etc… • Inappropriate social use of language (e.g., interrupts frequently, digresses from
topic, is insensitive to the needs or communication goals of conversational partners, cannot stay on the topic of discussion, cannot take turns in conversation)
• Poor sequencing skills. Communication is disorganized, incoherent, and leaves listener confused
• Overall communication skills that are substantially poorer than those of peers * Excerpt taken from Rosberry-McKibbin, C (2002). Multicultural Students with Special
Language Needs (2nd Ed.). Oceanside, CA: Academic Communication Associates.
The Warning Signs of Learning Disabilities
Susan Bergert, December 2000 ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education
(References included with original publication)
(Below are excerpts from Ms. Bergert’s Article)
I. Warning Signs in Preschool Children: Although growth patterns vary among individuals, uneven development or significant delays in development can suggest characteristics of a specific learning disability. It is important to keep in mind that the behaviors listed below must persist over time to be considered warning signs. Any child may occasionally exhibit one or two of these behaviors during the course of normal development. Language • Slow development in speaking words or sentences • Pronunciation problems • Difficulty learning new words • Difficulty following simple directions • Difficulty understanding questions • Difficulty expressing wants and desires • Difficulty rhyming words • Lack of interest in story telling
Motor Skills • Clumsiness • Poor balance • Difficulty manipulating small objects • Awkwardness with running, jumping, or climbing • Trouble learning to tie shoes, button shirts, or perform other self-help activities • Avoidance of drawing or tracing
Cognition • Trouble memorizing the alphabet or days of the week • Poor memory for what should be routine (everyday) procedures • Difficulty with cause and effect, sequencing, and counting • Difficulty with basic concepts such as size, shape, color
Attention • High distractibility • Impulsive behavior • Unusual restlessness (hyperactivity) • Difficulty staying on task • Difficulty changing activities • Constant repetition of an idea, inability to move on to a new idea (perseveration)
Social Behavior • Trouble interacting with others, playing alone • Prone to sudden and extreme mood changes • Easily frustrated • Hard to manage, has temper tantrums
II. Warning Signs in Elementary School Children: It is during the elementary school years that learning problems frequently become apparent as disabilities interfere with increasingly demanding and complex learning tasks. Difficulties in learning academic subjects and emotional and/or social skills may become a problem. Warning signs for this age group may include any of those listed above for the preschool children in addition to the following. Language / Mathematics • Slow learning of the correspondence of sound to letter • Consistent errors in reading or spelling • Difficulty remembering basic sight words • Inability to retell a story in sequence • Trouble learning to tell time or count money • Confusion of math signs ( +, -, x, / , = ) • Transposition of number sequences • Trouble memorizing math facts • Trouble with place value • Difficulty remembering the steps of mathematic operations such as long division Motor Skills • Poor coordination, or awkwardness • Difficulty copying from the chalkboard • Difficulty aligning columns (math) • Poor handwriting
Attention / Organization • Difficulty concentrating or focusing on a task • Difficulty finishing work on time • Inability to follow multiple directions • Unusual sloppiness, carelessness • Poor concept of direction (left, right) • Rejection of new concepts, or changes in routine
Social Behavior • Difficulty understanding facial expressions or gestures • Difficulty understanding social situations • Tendency to misinterpret behavior of peers and/or adults • Apparent lack of “common sense”
III. Warning Signs in Secondary School Children: Some learning disabilities go undetected until secondary school. Physical changes occurring during adolescence and the increased demands of middle and senior high school may bring the disabilities to light. Previously satisfactory performance declines. Inappropriate social skills may lead to changes in peer relationships and discipline problems. Increased frustration and poor self-concepts can lead to depression and/or angry outbursts. Warning signs of learning disabilities in secondary students include the following, which again, should occur as a pattern of behaviors, to a significant degree, and over time. Language / Mathematics / Social Studies • Avoidance of reading and writing • Tendency to misread information • Difficulty summarizing • Poor reading comprehension • Difficulty understanding subject area textbooks • Trouble with open-ended questions • Continued poor spelling • Poor grasp of abstract concepts • Poor skills in writing essays • Difficulty learning a foreign language • Poor ability to apply math skills
Attention / Organization • Difficulty staying organized • Trouble with test formats such as multiple choice • Slow work pace in class and in testing situations • Poor note taking skills • Poor ability to proofread or double check work
Social Behavior • Difficulty accepting criticism • Difficulty seeking or giving feedback • Problems negotiating or advancing for oneself • Difficulty resisting peer pressure • Difficulty understanding another person’s perspectives