DTP CLEP Humanities Study Guide and Practice Test

7/30/2019 DTP CLEP Humanities Study Guide and Practice Test

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Humanities

The purpose of this study guide is to familiarize yourself with the

terms you will study in class.

This study guide alone will not allow you to pass your exam. You

must attend the prep-course.



** The purpose of this study guide is to familiarize yourself with the terms you will study in class.

This study guide alone will not allow you to pass your exam. You must attend the prep-course. **

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Table of Contents

Greek History pg. 3

Greek Drama pg. 3-4

Sophocles pg. 4-5

Oedipus Rex pg. 5-7

Oedipus at Colonus pg. 7Antigone pg. 7

Greek Gods pg. 7-8

Aristotle pg. 8-9

Mythology pg. 9-10Romans and War pg. 10-11

Hamlet pg. 11-12

Henry IV part 1 pg. 13-14Julius Caesar pg. 14-15

King Lear pg. 15-16

Macbeth pg. 16-17Merchant of Venice pg. 17-19

The Merry Wives of Windsor pg. 19-20

Romeo and Juliet pg. 20-21

Shakespeare’s Poetry pg. 21

Gothic Age Architecture pg. 21

Practice Test pg. 22-29Answer Key pg. 30





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Greek History

Excavations show that the first settlement dates from the Paleolithic era (11,000-3,000 BC).During the second millennium BC, Greece gave birth to the great civilization of the Minoans

(2600-1500 BC), the Mycenaeans (1500-1150 BC) and the Cycladic civilization.

The Classical Period of the Greek history (6th-4th centuries BC) is the most famousworldwide. The peak of the classical period is the 5th century BC, when the foundations of

western civilization were put in Athens. This city-state became the greatest naval power of

Greece that time and developed all domains of culture, including philosophy, music, drama,rhetoric and a new regime, democracy.

Then, the history of Greece is a succession of various invasions and dominations. In 334 BC,Alexander the Great invaded the Persian Empire and his army conquered all the way tillIndia. However, in 323 BC, the great general dies in Babylon and his Macedonian empire is

torn apart and governed by his heirs. In 168 BC onwards, the Romans conquer Greece and a

new period starts for the Greek history.

In the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire is cut in two pieces, the Eastern and the Western

Roman Empire. While the Western Roman Empire was gradually invaded by barbaric North-European tribes, the Eastern Roman Empire with Constantinople as capital developed and

became the Byzantine Empire that lasted for about 1,000 years.

In 1453 BC, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and gradually the rest of Greece,which had already been dominated by the Venetians. The country suffered a lot under the

Ottoman occupation and people tried to rebel many times. However, all rebels were

suspended, until March 1821 when the Greek War of Independence started . The country

finally got its freedom in 1829, when the first independent Greek state was formed andIoannis Kapodistrias was set as governor.

After Kapodistrias was assassinated in 1831, prince Otto from Bavaria became the first kingof Greece, followed by George I from Denmark in 1863. That time, the Ionian Islands were

given to Greece by Britain, and then Thessaly was attached to the Greek state by the Turks.In the early 20th century, Macedonia, Crete and the Eastern Aegean islands were also

attached to the Greek state. This was the time when the figure of an important Greek politician raised, Eleftherios Venizelos.

Greece resisted a lot of the Axis forces during the Second World War, but it eventually lostthe war. Most of the Greek territory was conquered by the Germans and some parts by the

Italians. After the Second World War, the Dodecanese islands also became part of the Greek

state. Three decades of political turmoil followed, including a military junta from 1967 till1974. Since 1975, the regime of Greece is Parliamentary Republic.

(http://www.greeka.com/greece-history.htm)

Greek Drama The art of drama developed in the ancient Greek city-state of Athens in the late sixth century

B.C. From the religious chants honoring Dionysus arose the first tragedies, which centered

on the gods and Greece’s mythical past.

In the fifth century, Greek audiences enjoyed the works of four master playwrights; of these, three—Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides—were tragedians.

The early works focused on the good and evil that existed simultaneously in the world aswell as the other contradictory forces of human nature and the outside world.

http://www.greeka.com/greece-history.htm






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All three tragic playwrights drew their material from Greek myths and legends; they each brought new developments to the art form.

Aeschylus, whose Oresteia trilogy examines the common tragic themes of vengeance and justice, brought tragedy to the level of serious literature.

Sophocles wrote perhaps the greatest tragic work of all time, Oedipus the King . Euripides,questioned traditional values and the ultimate power of the gods. In plays suchas Medea and Antigone, Euripides explores the choices that humans make under difficult

situations.

Sophocles’ Oedipus the King expresses a truly sorrowful course of events and how one man,though his life is devastated, forges a new identity and learns to live with himself. The myth

of Orestes, as seen in Aeschylus’s Oresteia trilogy and Euripides’ Orestes introduces other

major themes in Greek tragedy, namely justice (divine, personal, and communal) andvengeance.

Comedy most likely also developed out of the same religious rituals as tragedy.

Aristophanes was the greatest writer of comedies in the early period known as Old Comedy.

He used biting satire in plays such as Birds and Lysistrata to ridicule prominent Athenianfigures and current events.

Later comedy relied less on satire and mythology and more on human relations among the

Greek common people.

Greek drama created an entirely new art form, and over the centuries, the works of theseancient Greek writers have influenced and inspired countless writers, philosophers,

musicians, and other artists and thinkers. Greek drama, with its universal themes and

situations, continues to hold relevance for modern audiences. http://www.enotes.com/greek-drama-fs

Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus and Antigone

Sophocles

One of the most influential writers of Ancient Greece, was most likely born in 497/6 B.C., afew years before the Battle of Marathon. In 490 B.C. probably, his place of birth is inAttica. www.sophocles.net

Like many good Athenian citizens, he was also a politician, priest and military leader.

Sophocles was born in Colonus, not far from Athens, the city whose culture would shape thedramatist.

His father Sophillus, owned a business, which probably manufactured armor.

Sophocles’s musical education led to his recognition as a master of song

In 443 or 442 BCE, Sophocles became a treasurer of Athena. In this role, Sophocles was

responsible for the collection of tribute from Athens’s subjected territories. Within a couple of years of holding that post, Sophocles was also elected a general in the

suppression of the revolt on Samos.

In this role, he served under Pericles in 413, he would return to military service as one of thegenerals selected to fight against Syracuse. The respect from the Athenian people also placed

him in a position to be given one of the special commission implemented to deal with the

state of emergency after the military failure in Syracuse.

http://www.enotes.com/greek-drama-fs


http://www.sophocles.net/








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Sophocles died before the conclusion of the Peloponnesian War. Aeschylus is said to havehelped train the young Sophocles in the arts of tragedy.

Sophocles most famous surviving work includes the Theban plays: Oedipus Rex (sometimes called Oedipus Tyrannus ) Oedipus at Colonus , and Antigone . Although these

plays deal with the similar subjects, it has been conjectured that they in fact come fromdifferent collections of works and the three plays should not be seen as a trilogy.

Oedipus Rex

When the play opens, Thebes is suffering a plague which leaves its fields and women barren. Oedipus, the king of Thebes, has sent his brother-in-law, Creon, to the house of

Apollo to ask the oracle how to end the plague. Creon returns, bearing good news: once the

killer of the previous king, Laius, is found, Thebes will be cured of the plague (Laius

was Jocasta's husband before she married Oedipus).

Hearing this, Oedipus swears he will find the murderer and banish him. The Chorus

(representing the people of Thebes) suggests that Oedipus consult Teiresias, the blind

prophet. Oedipus tells them that he has already sent for Teiresias. When Teiresias arrives, he seems reluctant to answer Oedipus's questions, warning him that

he does not want to know the answers. Oedipus threatens him with death, and finally

Teiresias tells him that Oedipus himself is the killer, and that his marriage is a sinful union.Oedipus takes this as an insult and jumps to the conclusion that Creon paid Teiresias to say

these things. Furious, Oedipus dismisses him, and Teiresias goes, repeating as he does, that

Laius's killer is right here before him - a man who is his father's killer and his mother's

husband, a man who came seeing but will leave in blindness.

Creon enters, asking the people around him if it is true that Oedipus slanderously accusedhim. The Chorus tries to mediate, but Oedipus appears and charges Creon with treason.

Jocasta and the Chorus beg Oedipus to be open-minded: Oedipus unwillingly relents and

allows Creon to go. Jocasta asks Oedipus why he is so upset and he tells her what Teiresias prophesied.

Jocasta comforts him by telling him that there is no truth in oracles or prophets, and she has proof.

Long ago an oracle told Laius that his own son would kill him, and as a result he and Jocastagave their infant son to a shepherd to leave out on a hillside to die with a pin through its

ankles. Yet Laius was killed by robbers, not by his own son, proof that the oracle was wrong.

But something about her story troubles Oedipus; she said that Laius was killed at a placewhere three roads meet, and this reminds Oedipus of an incident from his past, when he

killed a stranger at a place where three roads met.

He asks her to describe Laius, and her description matches his memory. Yet Jocasta tells him

that the only eyewitness to Laius's death, a herdsman, swore that five robbers killed him.Oedipus summons this witness.

While they wait for the man to arrive, Jocasta asks Oedipus why he seems so troubled.

Oedipus tells her the story of his past.

Once when he was young, a man he met told him that he was not his father's son. He asked

his parents about it, and they denied it.

http://www.gradesaver.com/character.html?character=19287












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Still it troubled him, and he eventually went to an oracle to determine his true lineage. Theoracle then told him that he would kill his father and marry his mother. This prophecy so

frightened Oedipus that he left his hometown and never returned. On his journey, he

encountered a haughty man at a crossroads - and killed the man after suffering an insult.

Oedipus is afraid that the stranger he killed might have been King Laius, his father. If thisis the case, Oedipus will be forever banished both from Thebes (the punishment he swore for

the killer of Laius) and from Corinth, his hometown.

If this eyewitness will swear that robbers killed Laius, then Oedipus is exonerated. He prays

for the witness to deliver him from guilt and from banishment. Oedipus and Jocasta enter the palace to wait for him.

Jocasta comes back out of the palace, on her way to the holy temples to pray for Oedipus. A

messenger arrives from Corinth with the news that Oedipus's father Polybus is dead.

Overjoyed, Jocasta sends for Oedipus, glad that she has even more proof in the uselessness of oracles. Oedipus rejoices, but then states that he is still afraid of the rest of the oracle's

prophecy: that he will marry his mother.

The messenger assures him that he need not fear approaching Corinth - since Merope, hismother, is not really his mother, and moreover, Polybus wasn't his father either. Stunned,

Oedipus asks him how he came to know this.

The messenger replies that years ago a man gave a baby to him and he delivered this baby to

the king and queen of Corinth - a baby that would grow up to be Oedipus the King.

The injury to Oedipus's ankles is a testament to the truth of his tale, because the baby's feethad been pierced through the ankles.

Oedipus asks the messenger who gave the baby to him, and he replies that it was one of Laius's servants. Oedipus sends his men out to find this servant. The messenger suggests that

Jocasta should be able to help identify the servant and help unveil the true story of Oedipus's

birth.

Suddenly understanding the terrible truth, Jocasta begs Oedipus not to carry through with hisinvestigation. Oedipus replies that he swore to unravel this mystery, and he will followthrough on his word. Jocasta exits into the palace.

Oedipus again swears that he will figure out this secret, no matter how vile the answer is. TheChorus senses that something bad is about to happen and join Jocasta's cry in begging themystery to be left unresolved.

Oedipus's men lead in an old shepherd, who is afraid to answer Oedipus's questions. Butfinally he tells Oedipus the truth. He did in fact give the messenger a baby boy, and that baby boy was Laius's son - the same son that Jocasta and Laius left on a hillside to die because of

the oracle's prophecy.

Finally the truth is clear, Oedipus killed the stranger who happened to be his father King

Laius and then married his mother Jocasta. Oedipus exits into the palace. A messenger reveals that he grabbed a sword and searched for Jocasta with the intent to kill her.

Upon entering her chamber, however, he finds that she has hanged herself.

He takes the gold brooches from her dress and gouges his eyes out. He appears onstage

again, blood streaming from his now blind eyes.





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He cries out that he, who has seen and done such vile things, shall never see again. He begsto be killed and Creon comes in after hearing him. Oedipus begs to let him leave the city, but

Creon wants to consult Apollo first.

Oedipus tells him that banishment was the punishment he declared for Laius's killer, and

Creon agrees with him. Before he leaves forever, however, Oedipus asks to see his daughters and begs Creon to take

care of them. Oedipus is then led away, while Creon and the girls go back in the palace. The

Chorus, alone, laments Oedipus' tragic fate and his doomed lineage.

(http://www.gradesaver.com/oedipus-rex-or-oedipus-the-king/study-guide/short-summary/)

Oedipus is the protagonist of both Oedipus the King and Oedipus at Colonus. Antigone is the

protagonist of Antigone.

Antigone’ s major conflict is between Creon and Antigone. Creon has declared that the bodyof Polynices may not be given a proper burial because he led the forces that invaded Thebes,

but Antigone wishes to give her brother a proper burial nevertheless. The major conflict

of Oedipus the King arises when Tiresias tells Oedipus that Oedipus is responsible for the

plague and Oedipus refuses to believe him. The major conflict of Oedipus at Colonus is between Oedipus and Creon. Creon has been told by the oracle that only Oedipus’s return

can bring an end to the civil strife in Thebes—Oedipus’s two sons, Eteocles and Polynices,

are at war over the throne. Oedipus, furious at Creon for exiling him, has no desire to return.

The rising action of Oedipus the King occurs when Creon returns from the oracle with thenews that the plague in Thebes will end when the murderer of Laius, the king before

Oedipus, is discovered and driven out. The rising action of Oedipus at Colonus occurs whenCreon demands that Oedipus return to Thebes and tries to force him to do so. The rising

action of Antigone is Antigone’s decision to defy Creon’s orders and bury her brother.

The climax of Oedipus the King occurs when Oedipus learns, quite contrary to his

expectations, that he is the man responsible for the plague that has stricken Thebes—he is the

man who killed his father and slept with his mother. The climax of Oedipus at Colonus happens when we hear of Oedipus’s death. The climax of Antigone is when Creon,too late to avert tragedy, decides to pardon Antigone for defying his orders and burying her

brother. http://www.sparknotes.com/drama/oedipus/facts.html

Greek Gods

Aphrodite - Goddess of love and beauty. Her son was Eros, the god of love. She is also believed to have kept a watchful eye over sailors.

Apollo - Beautiful god of the light, medicine and music. Apollo represents order, harmony,and civilization

Ares - God of war. He had an affair with Aphrodite, and was father to many children.

Artemis - Goddess moon, forest, childbirth and the hunt. Although she was associated withchildbirth and children, Artemis was a virgin.

Athena - (Athene) Daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom and war and the patron goddessof Athens. Like Artemis, she was a virgin goddess too.

Hades - God of the Underworld.

Hephaestus - God of fire and the forge. Mated to Aphrodite.

Hera - Queen of the Gods, wife of Zeus, protector of marriage.

http://www.gradesaver.com/oedipus-rex-or-oedipus-the-king/study-guide/short-summary/

http://www.sparknotes.com/drama/oedipus/facts.html







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Hermes - The messenger of the gods, god of business. He was a very smart child, inventingthe lyre by using a tortoise's shell when he was only a newborn baby.

Hestia - Goddess of home, symbolized by the hearth which holds the ever-burning flame.

Poseidon - God of the sea and earthquakes. As god of the seas Poseidon held great power,

and could calm the waves or create terrible storms. He had an unreliable temper, and used his powers to generate fear and punishment on people as revenge.

Zeus - King of the Gods, god of the sky, symbolized by the thunderbolt . As the ruler of theOlympian gods, Zeus held enormous power and almost absolute authority. His role was

primarily to watch over the activities of the other gods, and make sure they weren't exceedingtheir powers.

The Titans, also known as the elder gods, ruled the earth before the Olympians overthrewthem.The ruler of the Titans was Cronus who was de-throned by his son Zeus.

Prometheus - He stole the sacred fire from Zeus and the gods.

Atlas - Zeus punished him to forever bear the heavens upon his shoulders.

Dione - The mother of Aphrodite. Gaea - was the Earth goddess. She mated with her son Uranus and gave birth to the

remaining Titans. Often misspelled "Ghea."

Uranus - was the sky god and first ruler, the son of Ghea.

Cronus - Son of Uranus. His wife was Rhea (his sister). He was the father of Zeus.

Rhea - was the wife of Cronus.

Oceanus - is the unending stream of water encircling the world.

Mnemosyne - was the goddess of memory and the inventor of words.

Tethys - was the wife of Oceanus.

Themis - was the god of justice and order.

Iapetus - was the father of Epimetheus, Menoetius, Prometheus and Atlas.

Coeus - was the Titan of Intelligence.

Phoebe - the Titan of the Moon.

Crius - He represented the tremendous power of the sea.

Hyperion - means "he who goes before the sun."

Thea - Hyperion's wife and sister.

Epimetheus - means "afterthought" is the opposite of his brother Prometheus ("forethought").

Metis - was the first wife of Zeus. She ruled over all wisdom and knowledge.

Aristotle

Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) numbers among the greatest philosophers of all time.

Judged solely in terms of his philosophical influence, only Plato is his peer: Aristotle's worksshaped centuries of philosophy from Late Antiquity through the Renaissance, and even today

continue to be studied with keen, non-antiquarian interest. A prodigious researcher and writer, Aristotle left a great body of work, perhaps numbering as

many as two-hundred treatises, from which approximately thirty-one survive.

His extant writings span a wide range of disciplines, from logic, metaphysics and philosophyof mind, through ethics, political theory, aesthetics and rhetoric, and into such primarily non-





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philosophical fields as empirical biology, where he excelled at detailed plant and animalobservation and taxonomy.

In all these areas, Aristotle's theories have provided illumination, met with resistance,sparked debate, and generally stimulated the sustained interest of an abiding readership.

(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/)

Mythology

The first purpose of mythology was to explain the unexplainable.

Since the beginning of humankind's existence, myths have functioned as rationalizations for

the fundamental mysteries of life, questions such as: Who made the world? How will it end?

Where do we come from? Who was the first human? What happens when we die? Why doesthe sun travel across the sky each day? Why does the moon wax and wane? Why do we have

annual agricultural cycles and seasonal changes? Who controls our world, and how can we

influence those beings so our lives are easier?

A Universal Need

In the absence of scientific information, long ago societies all over the world devised creationmyths, resurrection myths, and complex systems of supernatural beings, each with specific

powers, and stories about their actions.

Since people were often isolated from each other, most myths evolved independently, but thevarious myths are surprisingly similar, in particular creation myths.

So the need for myth is a universal need. Over time, one version of a myth would become the

accepted standard that was passed down to succeeding generations, first through story-

telling, and then, much later, set down in written form. Inevitably myths became part of

systems of religion, and were integrated into rituals and ceremonies, which included music,dancing and magic.

The second function of myth is to justify an existing social system and to account for its rites

and customs. One constant rule of mythology is whatever happens among the gods reflectsevents on earth. In this way, events such as invasions and radical social changes became

incorporated into myths.

Some myths, especially those from the Greco-Roman and medieval periods, also serve toillustrate moral principles, frequently through feats of heroism performed by mortals.

The most detailed account of Greek Myth Creation comes from Theogony, a poem composed

by Hesiod, a Greek poet. Greek Mythology starts with the Creation of the universe and the

human race.

To the Greeks, everything in the world began with Chaos, a primordial void of darkness.

After Chaos came Gaia, the Earth which was born from Chaos or appearing on its own. After

Chaos and Gaia, came Tartarus, which is deep inside the Earth and the lowest level of the

Underworld. Then came Eros, the most beautiful of all immortals. All else came into being after these four have emerged. Chaos gives birth to Erebus

(Darkness) and Nyx (Night). While sleeping, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (God of the Sky and

Sky himself) and Pontus (God of the Sea and Sea). Uranus was the first son of Gaia and later became her husband.

After the emergence of Erebus, Nyx, Uranus and Pontus, all the rest of Creation came frommating. Uranus, the sky, grew as huge as Gaia and enveloped her. Fertile rain fell to the earth

and Gaia then gave birth to the rest of the physical world, mountains, oceans, flowers and

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/






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trees. Their children included 12 children - the Titans, three Cyclops and three hundredhanded Giants. This is how the world came about in Greek Mythology.

There were many tales of where the first humans came from. One of the most convincingtales credited one of the elder Greek Gods (a Titan), Prometheus, who created humans out of

mud in the image of the gods. In the early history of man, an argument emerged on which portion of a sacrificial bull must

be given to the gods. The Olympians asked Prometheus to arbitrate. Prometheus then created

two piles of meat, one pile had the choicest flesh, but with the unappetizing looking stomachon top and the other pile had only bones and was covered with a layer of juicy fat.

Prometheus then asked the supreme Greek God Zeus to choose which portion should go tothe gods. Zeus saw through the deception, but still chose the fat-covered bones in order tocreate an eternal enmity between gods and humans.

Zeus was furious that Prometheus tried to trick him and therefore decided to withdraw the

gift of fire to humankind. Man can get the best part of the meat, but will have to eat it raw.

However, Prometheus stole the fire away from the flaming chariot of Helius (the Sun) and

hid in the hollow stalk of a plant. He then happily sped to man with this heavenly gift of fire. Zeus’ rage shook the heavens when he found out that Prometheus stole the fire. To punish

Prometheus and mankind, he instructed Hephaestus (God of fire, artisans, smiths) to create a

woman of stunning beauty from clay and water.

Pandora, the first woman was thus created. She was then given a final gift, a jar which shemust not open. Hermes then swiftly brought her down to Epimetheus, the brother of

Prometheus. Though Prometheus had foreseen that Zeus will retaliate and warned his brother against accepting the gift. Epimetheus did not heed the warning as he was attracted to the

great beauty of Pandora.

Pandora stayed on earth for a while before she became curious about the jar the gods gave

her. When she opened it, all the misfortune of the world overflowed to the earth. The gifts

were in fact labor, old age, evil, plague - brought only trouble to mankind. Panicked, she thenquickly replaced the jar lid just before Hope could come out. The rest of the evils and diseasewere already out causing humans much pain and hurt thereafter.

According to Hesiod, not only did the first woman Pandora, release the evils upon the world,she also became the mother of all wicked women. (http://www.greek-mythology-gods.com/origin.html)

Romans and War (http://www.heritage-history.com/www/sample/sample_battles.pdf)

The Roman Army was extremely important in explaining the success of the Romans and theexpansion of the Roman Empire. The Roman Army, at the peak of its power, conquered what

we now call England/Wales, Spain, France, most of Germany, the northern coast of Africa,

the Middle East and Greece. The Roman Army is recognized by historians as an extremely effective fighting machine.

Ironically, its success also led to its downfall. The lowest level of soldier in the Roman Armywas the legionnaire. Between 5000 and 6000 legionaries made up a legion that was

commanded by a legatus. Legionnaires were trained to fight in a disciplined and coordinated

manner. A whole legion could be punished for failing to fight well in battle - even if the

Romans did win the battle itself! Training was brutal and tough, but it paid huge dividendsfor the Romans.

http://www.greek-mythology-gods.com/pandora.html


http://www.greek-mythology-gods.com/origin.html


http://www.heritage-history.com/www/sample/sample_battles.pdf

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/a_history_of_ancient_rome.htm

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/roman_empire.htm

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/roman_empire.htm

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A legionnaire went into battle equipped with three main weapons, the pilum, gladius, and

pugio.

The Pilum was similar to a javelin today. The legionaries would throw it at the enemy asthey ran at them. It was not for hand-to-hand fighting. The main purpose of the pilum was to

disrupt the defense of the enemy. They would be too concerned worrying about avoiding theincoming weapons to focus on what the legionnaires themselves were doing. By the time the

enemy had re-organized itself, the Romans were upon them. If a pilum did hit you, it could

do serious damage as the thinner top section would crumble into you on impact andremoving it would be very painful. The wooden stock of the pilum was also re-useable as the

Romans only had to add another spear head to it.

The gladius was the main weapon for the Roman soldier when he got into close quarter fighting. This was a sword which was kept razor sharp. Anyone on the receiving end of a

blow from a gladius would suffer severe injuries.

The pugio was a small dagger used in combat if all else had been lost .

Along with these weapons, the legionnaire carried a curved shield called a scutum. This

gave the Roman soldier a great deal of protection as it curved around his body. It was alsoused by the Romans when they used what was known as a tortoise formation to move

forward to a target that was well defended. A 'tortoise' was when the soldiers lifted the

scutums flat above their heads so that they effectively interlocked and protected them fromany missiles thrown at them from on high.

Hamlet

On a dark winter night, a ghost walks the ramparts of Elsinore Castle in Denmark.Discovered first by a pair of watchmen, then by the scholar Horatio, the ghost resembles the

recently deceased King Hamlet, whose brother Claudius has inherited the throne and married

the king’s widow, Queen Gertrude.

When Horatio and the watchmen bring Prince Hamlet, the son of Gertrude and the dead king, to see the ghost, it speaks to him, declaring ominously that it is indeed his father’s

spirit, and that he was murdered by none other than Claudius.

Ordering Hamlet to seek revenge on the man who usurped his throne and married his wife,the ghost disappears with the dawn.

Prince Hamlet devotes himself to avenging his father’s death, but, because he iscontemplative and thoughtful by nature, he delays, entering into a deep melancholy and evenapparent madness. Claudius and Gertrude worry about the prince’s erratic behavior and

attempt to discover its cause.

They employ a pair of Hamlet’s friends, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, to watch him. WhenPolonius, the pompous Lord Chamberlain, suggests that Hamlet may be mad with love for

his daughter, Ophelia, Claudius agrees to spy on Hamlet in conversation with the girl. Butthough Hamlet certainly seems mad, he does not seem to love Ophelia: he orders her to enter

a nunnery and declares that he wishes to ban marriages.

A group of traveling actors comes to Elsinore, and Hamlet seizes upon an idea to test hisuncle’s guilt. He will have the players perform a scene closely resembling the sequence by

which Hamlet imagines his uncle to have murdered his father, so that if Claudius is guilty,

he will surely react. When the moment of the murder arrives in the theater, Claudius leaps

up and leaves the room.





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Hamlet and Horatio agree that this proves his guilt . Hamlet goes to kill Claudius but findshim praying. Since he believes that killing Claudius while in prayer would send Claudius’s

soul to heaven, Hamlet considers that it would be an inadequate revenge and decides to wait.

Claudius, now frightened of Hamlet’s madness and fearing for his own safety, orders that

Hamlet be sent to England at once. Hamlet goes to confront his mother, in whose bedchamber Polonius has hidden behind a

tapestry. Hearing a noise from behind the tapestry, Hamlet believes the king is hiding there.

He draws his sword and stabs through the fabric, killing Polonius. For this crime, he isimmediately dispatched to England with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.

However, Claudius’s plan for Hamlet includes more than banishment, as he has givenRosencrantz and Guildenstern sealed orders for the King of England demanding that Hamlet be put to death.

In the aftermath of her father’s death, Ophelia goes mad with grief and drowns in the river.

Polonius’s son, Laertes, who has been staying in France, returns to Denmark in a rage.

Claudius convinces him that Hamlet is to blame for his father’s and sister’s deaths.

When Horatio and the king receive letters from Hamlet indicating that the prince has returnedto Denmark after pirates attacked his ship en route to England, Claudius concocts a plan to

use Laertes’ desire for revenge to secure Hamlet’s death.

Laertes will fence with Hamlet in innocent sport, but Claudius will poison Laertes’ blade sothat if he draws blood, Hamlet will die. As a backup plan, the king decides to poison a goblet,

which he will give Hamlet to drink should Hamlet score the first or second hits of the match.

Hamlet returns to the vicinity of Elsinore just as Ophelia’s funeral is taking place. Stricken

with grief, he attacks Laertes and declares that he had in fact always loved Ophelia. Back at

the castle, he tells Horatio that he believes one must be prepared to die, since death can comeat any moment.

A foolish courtier named Osric arrives on Claudius’s orders to arrange the fencing match

between Hamlet and Laertes. The sword-fighting begins. Hamlet scores the first hit, but declines to drink from the king’s

proffered goblet. Instead, Gertrude takes a drink from it and is swiftly killed by the poison.

Laertes succeeds in wounding Hamlet, though Hamlet does not die of the poison

immediately. First, Laertes is cut by his own sword’s blade, and, after revealing to Hamletthat Claudius is responsible for the queen’s death, he dies from the blade’s poison.

Hamlet then stabs Claudius through with the poisoned sword and forces him to drink downthe rest of the poisoned wine. Claudius dies, and Hamlet dies immediately after achieving hisrevenge.

At this moment, a Norwegian prince named Fortinbras, who has led an army to Denmark andattacked Poland earlier in the play, enters with ambassadors from England, who report that

Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead. Fortinbras is stunned by the gruesome sight of theentire royal family lying sprawled on the floor dead.

He moves to take power of the kingdom. Horatio, fulfilling Hamlet’s last request, tells himHamlet’s tragic story. Fortinbras orders that Hamlet be carried away in a manner befitting afallen soldier.





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Henry IV, Part 1

The play opens with military news interrupting the aging King Henry’s plans to lead acrusade. The Welsh rebel Glyndwr has defeated King Henry’s army in the South, and the

young Harry Percy (nicknamed Hotspur), who is supposedly loyal to King Henry, is refusing

to send to the King the soldiers whom he has captured in the North. King Henry summonsHotspur back to the royal court so that he can explain his actions.

Meanwhile, Prince Harry, King Henry’s son is a disappointment because his behavior consisting of hanging in bars and associating with criminals and vagrants is unbefitting toroyalty. His closest friend, Falstaff, a fat lying thief who is a sort of substitute father for

Harry is witty and lives with great gusto. Harry claims that his spending time with these men

is actually part of a scheme on his part to impress the public when he eventually changes hisways and adopts a more noble personality.

Falstaff’s friend Poins arrives at the inn and announces that he has plotted the robbery of a group of wealthy travelers. Although Harry initially refuses to participate, Poins explains

to him in private that he is actually playing a practical joke on Falstaff. Poins’ plan is to hide

before the robbery occurs, pretending to ditch Falstaff. After the robbery, Poins and Harrywill rob Falstaff and then make fun of him when he tells the story of being robbed, which he

will almost certainly fabricate.

Hotspur arrives at King Henry’s court and details the reasons that his family is frustratedwith the King: the Percys were instrumental in helping Henry overthrow his predecessor, but

Henry has failed to repay the favor. After King Henry leaves, Hotspur’s family members

explain to Hotspur their plan to build an alliance to overthrow the King.

Harry and Poins, meanwhile, successfully carry out their plan to dupe Falstaff and have agreat deal of fun at his expense. As they are all drinking back at the tavern, however, a

messenger arrives for Harry. Harry’s father has received news of the civil war that is brewing

and has sent for his son; Harry is to return to the royal court the next day.

Although the Percys have gathered a formidable group of allies around them—leaders of large rebel armies from Scotland and Wales as well as powerful English nobles and

clergymen who have grievances against King Henry—the alliance has begun to falter.Several key figures announce that they will not join in the effort to overthrow the King, and

the danger that these defectors might alert King Henry of the rebellion necessitates going to

war at once.

Heeding his father’s request, Harry returns to the palace. King Henry expresses his deep

sorrow and anger at his son’s behavior and implies that Hotspur’s valor might actually givehim more right to the throne than Prince Harry’s royal birth. Harry decides that it is time to

reform, and he vows that he will abandon his wild ways and vanquish Hotspur in battle in

order to reclaim his good name. Drafting his tavern friends to fight in King Henry’s army,

Harry accompanies his father to the battlefront. The civil war is decided in a great battle at Shrewsbury. Harry boldly saves his father’s life in

battle and finally wins back his father’s approval and affection. Harry also challenges and

defeats Hotspur in single combat. King Henry’s forces win, and most of the leaders of thePercy family are put to death. Falstaff manages to survive the battle by avoiding any actual

fighting.

Powerful rebel forces remain in Britain, however, so King Henry must send his sons and hisforces to the far reaches of his Kingdom to deal with them. When the play ends, the ultimate





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outcome of the war has not yet been determined; one battle has been won, but another remains to be fought (Shakespeare’s sequel to this play, 2 Henry IV, begins where 1 Henry

IV leaves off).

Julius Caesar The action begins in February 44 BC. Julius Caesar has just entered Rome in triumph after a

victory in Spain over the sons of his old enemy, Pompey the Great. A spontaneous

celebration has interrupted and been broken up by Flavius and Marullus, two politicalenemies of Caesar. It soon becomes apparent from their words that powerful and secret

forces are working against Caesar.

Caesar appears, attended by a train of friends and supporters, and is warned by a soothsayer to "beware the ides of March," but he ignores the warning and leaves for the games and races

marking the celebration of the feast of Lupercal.

After Caesar's departure, only two men remain behind — Marcus Brutus, a close friend of Caesar, and Cassius, a long time political foe of Caesar's. Both men are of aristocratic origin

and see the end of their ancient privilege in Caesar's political reforms and conquests. Enviousof Caesar's power and prestige, Cassius cleverly probes to discover where Brutus' deepest

sympathies lie. As a man of highest personal integrity, Brutus opposes Caesar on principle,despite his friendship with him. Cassius cautiously inquires about Brutus' feelings if a

conspiracy were to unseat Caesar; he finds Brutus not altogether against the notion; that is,

Brutus shares "some aim" with Cassius but does not wish "to be any further moved." The two

men part, promising to meet again for further discussions.

In the next scene, it is revealed that the conspiracy Cassius spoke of in veiled terms is alreadya reality. He has gathered together a group of disgruntled and discredited aristocrats who are

only too willing to assassinate Caesar. Partly to gain the support of the respectable element of

Roman society, Cassius persuades Brutus to head the conspiracy, and Brutus agrees to do

so. Shortly afterward, plans are made at a secret meeting in Brutus' orchard. The date isset: It will be on the day known as the ides of March, the fifteenth day of the month.

Caesar is to be murdered in the Senate chambers by the concealed daggers and swords of

the assembled conspirators.

After the meeting is ended, Brutus' wife, Portia, suspecting something and fearing for her husband's safety, questions him. Touched by her love and devotion, Brutus promises to

reveal his secret to her later.

The next scene takes place in Caesar's house. The time is the early morning; the date, thefateful ides of March. The preceding night has been a strange one — wild, stormy, and full of

strange and unexplainable sights and happenings throughout the city of Rome. Caesar's wife,

Calphurnia, terrified by horrible nightmares, persuades Caesar not to go to the Capitol,

convinced that her dreams are portents of disaster. By prearrangement, Brutus and the other conspirators arrive to accompany Caesar, hoping to fend off any possible warnings until they

have him totally in their power at the Senate. Unaware that he is surrounded by assassins andshrugging off Calphurnia's exhortations, Caesar goes with them.

Despite the conspirators' best efforts, a warning is pressed into Caesar's hand on the very

steps of the Capitol, but he refuses to read it. Wasting no further time, the conspirators move

into action. Purposely asking Caesar for a favor they know he will refuse, they move closer,





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as if begging a favor, and then, reaching for their hidden weapons, they kill him before theshocked eyes of the senators and spectators.

Hearing of Caesar's murder, Mark Antony, Caesar's closest friend, begs permission to speak at Caesar's funeral. Brutus grants this permission over the objections of Cassius and delivers

his own speech first, confident that his words will convince the populace of the necessity for Caesar's death. After Brutus leaves, Antony begins to speak. The crowd has been swayed by

Brutus' words, and it is an unsympathetic crowd that Antony addresses. Using every

oratorical device known, however, Antony turns the audience into a howling mob, screamingfor the blood of Caesar's murderers. Alarmed by the furor caused by Antony's speech, the

conspirators and their supporters are forced to flee from Rome and finally, from Italy. At this

point, Antony, together with Caesar's young grandnephew and adopted son, Octavius, and awealthy banker, Lepidus, gathers an army to pursue and destroy Caesar's killers. These three

men, known as triumvirs, have formed a group called the Second Triumvirate to pursue the

common goal of gaining control of the Roman Empire.

Months pass, during which the conspirators and their armies are pursued relentlessly into the

far reaches of Asia Minor. When finally they decide to stop at the town of Sardis, Cassiusand Brutus quarrel bitterly over finances. Their differences are resolved, however, and plans

are made to meet the forces of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus in one final battle. Against hisown better judgment, Cassius allows Brutus to overrule him: Instead of holding to their well-

prepared defensive positions, Brutus orders an attack on Antony's camp on the plains of

Philippi. Just before the battle, Brutus is visited by the ghost of Caesar. "I shall see thee at

Philippi," the spirit warns him, but Brutus' courage is unshaken and he goes on.

The battle rages hotly. At first, the conspirators appear to have the advantage, but in theconfusion, Cassius is mistakenly convinced that all is lost, and he kills himself. Leaderless,

his forces are quickly defeated, and Brutus finds himself fighting a hopeless battle. Unable toface the prospect of humiliation and shame as a captive (who would be chained to the wheels

of Antony's chariot and dragged through the streets of Rome), he too takes his own life. As the play ends, Antony delivers a eulogy over Brutus' body, calling him "the noblest

Roman of them all." Caesar's murder has been avenged, order has been restored, and, most

important, the Roman Empire has been preserved.

King Lear

Lear, the aging King of Britain, decides to step down from the throne and divide hisKingdom evenly among his three daughters. First, however, he puts his daughters through a

test. He wants each to tell him how much she loves him. Goneril and Regan, Lear’s older

daughters, give their father flattering answers. Cordelia, Lear’s youngest and favorite

daughter, remains silent, saying that she has no words to describe how much she loves her

father. Lear flies into a rage and disowns Cordelia. The King of France, who has courtedCordelia, says that he still wants to marry her even without her land, and she accompanies

him to France without her father’s blessing.

Lear quickly learns that he made a bad decision. Goneril and Regan swiftly begin toundermine the little authority that Lear still holds. Unable to believe that his beloved

daughters are betraying him, Lear slowly goes insane. He flees his daughters’ houses to

wander on a heath during a great thunderstorm, accompanied by his Fool and by Kent, aloyal noble man in disguise.





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Meanwhile, an elderly noble man named Gloucester also experiences family problems . His

illegitimate son, Edmund, tricks him into believing that his legitimate son, Edgar, is trying

to kill him. Fleeing the manhunt that his father has set for him, Edgar disguises himself as a

crazy beggar and calls himself “Poor Tom.” Like Lear, he heads out onto the heath.

When the loyal Gloucester realizes that Lear’s daughters have turned against their father, hedecides to help Lear in spite of the danger. Regan and her husband, Cornwall, discover him

helping Lear, accuse him of treason, blind him, and turn him out to wander the countryside.

He ends up being led by his disguised son, Edgar, toward the city of Dover, where Lear hasalso been brought.

In Dover, a French army lands as part of an invasion led by Cordelia in an effort to save her father. Edmund apparently becomes romantically entangled with both Regan and Goneril,whose husband, Albany, is increasingly sympathetic to Lear’s cause. Goneril and Edmund

conspire to kill Albany.

The despairing Gloucester tries to commit suicide, but Edgar saves him by pulling the

strange trick of leading him off an imaginary cliff. Meanwhile, the English troops reach

Dover, and the English, led by Edmund, defeat the Cordelia-led French. Lear and Cordeliaare captured. In the climactic scene, Edgar duels with and kills Edmund; we learn of the

death of Gloucester; Goneril poisons Regan out of jealousy over Edmund and then kills

herself when her treachery is revealed to Albany; Edmund’s betrayal of Cordelia leads to her needless execution in prison; and Lear finally dies out of grief at Cordelia’s passing. Albany,

Edgar, and the elderly Kent are left to take care of the country under a cloud of sorrow and

regret.

Macbeth

Set in medieval Scotland and partly based on a true historical account, Macbeth charts the bloody rise to power and tragic downfall of the warrior Macbeth. Already a successful

soldier in the army of King Duncan, Macbeth is informed by Three Witches that he is to become King. As part of the same prophecy, the Witches predict that future Scottish Kings

will be descended not from Macbeth but from his fellow army captain, Banquo. Although

initially prepared to wait for Fate to take its course, Macbeth is stung by ambition andconfusion when King Duncan nominates his son Malcolm as his heir.

Returning to his castle, Macbeth allows himself to be persuaded and directed by hisambitious wife, who realizes that regicide — the murder of the King — is the quickest wayto achieve the destiny that her husband has been promised. A perfect opportunity presents

itself when King Duncan pays a royal visit to Macbeth's castle. At first Macbeth is loathe to

commit a crime that he knows will invite judgment, if not on earth then in heaven. Once

more, however, his wife prevails upon him. Following an evening of revelry, Lady Macbeth

drugs the guards of the King's bedchamber; then, at a given signal, Macbeth, although filledwith misgivings, ascends to the King's room and murders him while he sleeps. Haunted by

what he has done, Macbeth is once more reprimanded by his wife, whose inner strengthseems only to have been increased by the treacherous killing. Suddenly, both are alarmed by

a loud knocking at the castle door.

A drunken porter of Macbeth's castle opens the door to Macduff, a loyal follower of the

King, who has been asked to awake Duncan in preparation for the return journey. Macbeth

indicates the location of the King's room, and Macduff discovers the body . When the





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murder is revealed, Macbeth swiftly kills the prime witnesses, the sleepy guards of the King's bedchamber, and Lady Macbeth faints. The assembled lords of Scotland, including Macbeth,

swear to avenge the murder. With suspicion heavy in the air, the King's two sons flee the

country: Donalbain to Ireland and Malcolm to raise an army in England.

Macbeth is duly proclaimed the new King of Scotland, but recalling the Witches' second prophecy, he arranges the murder of his fellow soldier Banquo and his son Fleance, both of

whom represent a threat to his Kingship according to the Witches' prophecy. The hired

murderers kill Banquo but mistakenly allow Fleance to escape. At a celebratory banquet thatnight, Macbeth is thrown into a state of horror when the ghost of the murdered Banquo

appears at the dining table. Again, his wife tries to strengthen Macbeth, but the strain is

clearly beginning to show.

The following day, Macbeth returns to the same Witches who initially foretold his destiny.This time, the Witches not only confirm that the sons of Banquo will rule in Scotland, but

they also add a new prophecy: Macbeth will be invincible in battle until the time when the

forest of Birnam moves towards his stronghold at Dunsinane and until he meets an enemy

"not born of woman." Dismissing both of these predictions as nonsense, Macbeth preparesfor invasion.

When he is told that Macduff has deserted him, Macbeth begins the final stage of his tragicdescent. His first move is the destruction of Macduff's wife and children. In England,

Macduff receives the news at the very moment that he swears his allegiance to the young

Malcolm. Malcolm persuades him that the murder of his family should act as the spur to

revenge.

Meanwhile, in Scotland, Lady Macbeth has been taken ill: she walks in her sleep and seemsto recall, in fragmentary memories, the details of the murder. Now, in a series of alternating

scenes, the action of the play moves rapidly between the advancing army of Malcolm and the

defensive preparations of Macbeth. When Malcolm's army disguise themselves with sawn-

off branches, Macbeth sees what appears to be a wood moving towards his stronghold atDunsinane. And when he finally meets Macduff in single combat, his sworn enemy reveals

that he came into the world by cesarean section; he was not, precisely speaking, "born of

woman." On hearing this news, Macbeth rejects one final time the Witches' prophecy. With aloud cry, he launches himself at Macduff and is slain. In the final scene, Malcolm is crowned

as the new King of Scotland, to the acclaim of all.

Merchant of Venice

Antonio, a leading merchant of Venice, is a wealthy, respected, and popular man. Among hismany friends is a young man named Bassanio, who owes Antonio a good deal of money.

Bassanio would like to repay his friend, but so far he has been unable to do so. However, he

now feels that he may have found a way — but he will again need a loan from Antonio. In Belmont, Bassanio tells Antonio, there lives a beautiful, young and wealthy heiress, Portia. Bassanio feels sure that he can win her hand in marriage, but he cannot go courting "hands-hanging." If he is to make a good impression, he has to appear at least as well off as her other

wealthy suitors. Antonio tells his young friend that he would gladly lend him whatever

amount of money he needs, but at the present time he himself is short of cash. All of his

money is tied up in his merchant ships, which are still at sea. However, Antonio will not





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disappoint Bassanio. He knows of a moneylender who will probably lend him the necessaryamount, and Bassanio can use Antonio's good name as security for the loan.

At Belmont, Portia speaks to Nerissa, her confidante, telling her how tired she is of theconstant stream of suitors, and how she wishes to be free of the perverse obligation of her

father's will: Portia cannot choose her own husband; she can marry only the man whochooses the correct one of three caskets — one gold, one silver, and one lead; one contains

her portrait and that one is the lucky casket. So far, none of her suitors has decided to risk

choosing one of the caskets, which is all for the good, because Portia has no liking for any of them. However, when Nerissa mentions the name of Bassanio, a possible suitor, Portia's

mood brightens. He was once a visitor at Belmont, and Portia was impressed with him.

Meanwhile in Venice, Shylock, a rich Jewish moneylender who harbors a secret hatred for Antonio, has agreed to lend Bassanio three thousand ducats for three months, on Antonio's

bond. Foregoing his usual high interest rate, Shylock demands instead that if the day for

payment falls due and the money is not returned, he may cut off one pound of flesh from

Antonio's body. Antonio agrees because all of his ships are due back in Venice a full month

before the bond falls due. A romantic subplot develops when Lorenzo, a close friend of Antonio and Bassanio, falls in

love with Shylock's daughter, Jessica. He manages to elope with her by disguising her as a boy, and she manages to take with her a goodly amount of her father's ducats. Of course, this

infuriates Shylock, and he vows revenge. Shortly thereafter, Bassanio and Gratiano leave for

Belmont, where the "fair Portia" has just sent away the Prince of Morocco and the Prince of

Arragon, two more disappointed, unsuccessful suitors. When Bassanio asks to choose one of the caskets, Portia falls immediately in love with him, and she begs him to wait a few days

before choosing one of the caskets. He has fallen in love with Portia and insists on taking his

chances. He rejects the gold one, then the silver one; he chooses, finally, the lead casket, andon opening it, he finds a portrait of Portia. Both he and Portia are overjoyed, and they make

plans to be married at once, along with Nerissa and Gratiano, who have also fallen in love.Happiness reigns in Belmont until Bassanio is brought a letter from Antonio bidding him

farewell since his ships have been lost at sea and since it is impossible that he will live after Shylock collects his pound of flesh. Horrified, Bassanio leaves instantly for Venice with

money which Portia gives him to pay the bond.

In Venice, Shylock is no longer interested in the mere payment of the money due him. He

wants revenge. A Christian stole his daughter (and she took his money), and nothing will

satisfy Shylock except the legal fulfillment of the bond. In the court of justice, presided over by the Duke of Venice, Shylock faces his enemy, Antonio. Antonio is surrounded by his

friends and is quietly resigned to death. On all sides, Shylock is surrounded by enemies.

Bassanio pleads with Shylock to accept double the money due him, but Shylock refuses.

At this point, Portia, disguised as a lawyer, and Nerissa, dressed as her law clerk, enter thecourt and tell the Duke that they have been sent from Padua by a learned attorney, Doctor

Bellario, to plead the defendant's case. Portia entreats Shylock to be merciful, but he will notlisten. She offers the moneylender triple the amount owed him, but again Shylock will have

none of it. She then solemnly informs the court that Shylock is entirely within his lawful

rights. She then informs Shylock that he must be very careful. He must cut off exactly one

pound of flesh, and he must not spill one drop of Antonio's blood. If he fails, all of Shylock'slands and goods will be confiscated. Shylock hastily decides that he will accept the triple





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payment of the bond, but Portia says no; Shylock then offers to take only the original threethousand ducats, but again Portia refuses, reminding him that it was he himself who

demanded the strict interpretation of the law. Furthermore, she says, the law has another hold

on him. Since he is an alien in Venice and since he tried to "seek the life" of a Venetian

citizen, all his wealth can be divided between the citizens whom he attempted to destroy andthe public treasury; in addition, Shylock's own life is in peril because of what he attempted to

do.

The Duke decides to spare Shylock's life, but he does give half of Shylock's money toAntonio, and he gives the rest of it to the state. Antonio says that he will not accept the

money if Shylock will agree to become a Christian and if, in his will, he will agree to leave

his money to his daughter, Jessica, and her new husband, Lorenzo. Shylock, broken anddefeated, agrees to all these conditions and leaves the court. Overjoyed, Antonio and his

friends offer to pay the young lawyer whatever they can, but, oddly enough, the lawyer

wishes only a certain ring which Bassanio is wearing. Bassanio is embarrassed because his

wife gave this ring to him and asked him to wear it always. But the lawyer insists and,

finally, Bassanio reluctantly gives away Portia's ring. Nerissa likewise cleverly manages toget from Gratiano a ring she gave him. The two ladies then hasten back to Belmont to tease

their husbands about the rings.

When Bassanio and Gratiano, along with Antonio, return to Belmont, their wives inquireabout the missing rings. Portia and Nerissa insist that the men no doubt gave the rings away

to two other women. The husbands swear that it is not true, and it is not until Portia and

Nerissa have put their husbands through some long, comically agonizing moments of discomfort that they confess that they themselves were the "learned doctor" and the "clerk" to

whom the rings were given. Thus all ends happily, as Portia gives Antonio a letter informing

him that three of his ships have arrived safely in port.

The Merry Wives of Windsor The Merry Wives of Windsor is the most purely farcical of all of Shakespeare's plays. It

depends on lightning-quick timing between the actors and the carefully choreographedactions. The "meaning" cannot be separated from the "performance."

The incidents themselves are as follows: There is a main plot in which Sir John Falstaff

conspires to seduce Mrs. Page and Mrs. Ford, the wives of two prominent Windsor

citizens. The women play along with him in order to expose him as a preposterous lecher .

Then, to complicate matters, the insanely jealous Mr. Ford disguises himself as one "Mr.Brook" and hires Falstaff to procure Mrs. Ford for him in order to (so he plans) reveal her

suspected infidelity. But Mrs. Ford and Mrs. Page dupe both Falstaff and Mr. Ford. On one

occasion, Falstaff is tricked into hiding in a basket of dirty clothes, then dropped into the

river ("I have a kind of alacrity in sinking," he says); on another occasion, he must disguisehimself as a fat old woman, a "witch" much hated by Mr. Ford, who summarily pummels

"her"/him.

Finally, both husbands join their "merry wives" in an elaborate masque-like entertainment,the high point of which is the humiliation of Falstaff, who has this time disguised himself as

the ghostly "Herne the Hunter," complete with a massive set of horns on his head.

The secondary plot concerns the comical antics of a pair of would-be suitors for the hand of the lovely Anne Page. Doctor Caius, a quick-tempered French doctor, and Slender, the stupid





20


nephew of Justice Shallow, vie for Anne's favor, while she finds both of them abhorrent. Sir Hugh Evans, a friend to Shallow and a supporter of Slender's cause, comes into conflict with

Doctor Caius, and because the Welshman Evans and the Frenchman Caius persistently garble

the English language, their meetings and arguments give special pleasure to all present.

In the end, Anne Page marries her true-love, a poor young gentleman named Fenton. Mr.Ford promises to desist from being jealous of his wife, Falstaff is made a laughing stock, and

then he is reconciled to the group. The spirit of the comedy is best summed up in Mrs. Page's

last lines:Master Fenton

Heaven give you many, many merry days!

Good husband, let us every one go home,And laugh this sport o'er by a country fire;

Sir John and all. (253-57)

Romeo and Juliet

A long-standing feud between the Montague and Capulet families continues to disrupt the peace of Verona, a city in northern Italy. A brawl between the servants of the feuding

households prompts the Prince to threaten both sides to keep the peace on pain of death.

Benvolio advises his lovesick friend Romeo, (son of Montague), to abandon his unrequitedlove for Rosaline and seek another.

That night, Capulet holds a masked ball to encourage a courtship between his daughter,

Juliet, and Paris, a relative of the Prince. Concealing their identities behind masks, Romeo

and Benvolio go to the ball, where Romeo and Juliet fall in love at first sight, but at the endof the evening discover their identities as members of the opposed families. On his way home

from the feast, Romeo climbs into Capulet's orchard to glimpse Juliet again. Juliet appears at

her balcony, and the couple exchange vows of love, agreeing to marry the next day.

Romeo asks Friar Laurence to perform the marriage ceremony. Though initially reluctant,he finally agrees, hoping to reconcile the families, and marries Romeo and Juliet that

afternoon.

Meanwhile, Tybalt, Juliet's cousin, sends Romeo a challenge to a duel. Romeo refuses tofight when Tybalt confronts him because they're now related. However, Mercutio, Romeo's

quick-tempered friend, intervenes and accepts the challenge. Romeo tries to part the other

two as they fight, but Mercutio is fatally wounded under Romeo's arm. To avenge

Mercutio's death, Romeo kills Tybalt and then flees.

The Prince announces Romeo's banishment for Tybalt's murder. Romeo, in hiding at the

Friar's cell, becomes hysterical at the news of his sentence and tries to kill himself, but the

Friar promises to make Romeo's marriage to Juliet public and gain the Prince's pardon.

Romeo and Juliet celebrate their wedding night before he leaves at dawn for Mantua. That morning, Juliet discovers that her father has arranged for her to marry Paris on

Thursday. The Capulets, unaware that Juliet is grieving for Romeo's exile rather than Tybalt's

death, believe the wedding will distract her from mourning. Distressed at the prospect of afalse marriage and isolated from her family, Juliet seeks advice from Friar Laurence, who

offers her a sleeping potion to make her appear dead for 42 hours. During this time, the Friar

will send a message to Romeo in Mantua so that Romeo can return to Verona in time for

Juliet to awake.





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Juliet returns home and agrees to marry Paris. In a moment of euphoria, Capulet brings thewedding forward from Thursday to Wednesday, thereby forcing Juliet to take the potion that

night and reducing the time for the message to reach Romeo.

Wednesday morning, Juliet's seemingly lifeless body is discovered and placed in the family

tomb. Due to an outbreak of the plague the Friar's messenger is prevented from leavingVerona and Romeo receives news of Juliet's death instead. Desperate, Romeo buys poison

from an apothecary and returns to Verona.

Late that night, Romeo enters the Capulet tomb, but is confronted by Paris, whom he fights

and kills.

Still unaware that Juliet is in fact alive, Romeo takes the poison and dies. The Friar,

arriving too late, discovers the bodies as Juliet begins to stir. He begs her to leave with him,

but Juliet refuses, and then stabs herself with Romeo's dagger.

As dawn breaks, the Watch arrives, closely followed by the Prince, who demands a fullinquiry into what has happened. The two families then arrive, and the Friar comes forward to

explain the tragic sequence of events. The deaths of Romeo and Juliet finally bring the feud

to an end as Montague and Capulet join hands in peace.

Shakespeare’s Poetry

Shakespeare's sonnets comprise 154 poems in sonnet form that were published in 1609 butlikely written over the course of several years. The sonnets deal with themes such as the

passage of time, love, beauty and mortality, first published in a 1609 quarto entitled SHAKE-

SPEARES SONNETS. The quarto ends with "A Lover's Complaint", a narrative poem of

47 seven-line stanzas written in rhyme royal .

The first 17 poems, traditionally called the procreation sonnets, are addressed to a young manurging him to marry and have children in order to immortalize his beauty by passing it to the

next generation. Other sonnets express the speaker's love for a young man; brood upon

loneliness, death, and the transience of life; seem to criticize the young man for preferring arival poet; express ambiguous feelings for the speaker's mistress; and pun on the poet's name.

The final two sonnets are allegorical treatments of Greek epigrams referring to the "little

love-god" Cupid.

Gothic Age Architecture

Middle Ages Gothic architecture and decoration originally emerged in France. It was

initially called "The French Style". The name Gothic which is used to describe this style of

Middle Ages architecture was a derisive term alluding to the Barbaric Goths who sacked

Rome in 410AD. The name Gothic architecture was coined by people who were appalled at

the abandonment of classical Romanesque lines and proportions.

The History of Gothic architecture evolved over a period of 300 years. The results were bright and airy interiors with soaring spaces, a focus on the vertical using pointed arches,

spires and pinnacles. More emphasis was placed on decorative ornaments and stone work

carvings. Gothic architecture spread throughout Europe although the history of EnglishGothic architecture moved more slowly retaining heavy walls and tall windows. The earliest

and most famous applications of Gothic architecture in England are at Canterbury

Cathedral and Westminster Abbey.





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Dantes Test Prep Humanities Practice Test

1. The most famous period of Greek history is (pg. 3).

a. The Paleolithic Era

b. The Classical Period

c. When Alexander the great invaded the Persian Empired. Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and gradually the rest of Greece, which had

already been dominated by the Venetians.

2. The Greek War of Independence started in (pg. 3).

a. 1453 BC

b. 2600 BCc. March 1821

d. 1829

3. In the fifth century, Greek plays were focused on (pg. 3).a. Drama

b. Comedy

c. Tragedy

d. Magic

4. Greek playwrights drew their material from (pg. 4).

a. Things happening in their community

b. Things happening in their livesc. Greek myths and legends

d. Comedy

5. Greek plays based on comedy developed out (pg. 4).a. Religious rituals

b. Politics

c. War d. All of the above

6. Sophocles one is most know for his play (pg. 5).a. Oedipus Rex

b. Oedipus at Colonus

c. Antigone

d. All of the above

7. In the play Oedipus Rex, Thebes is suffering a plague which leaves its fields and women

barren. An oracle claims that the only way Thebes can be cured of the plague is (pg. 5).a. Laius the king of Thebes will be killed by his son

b. The killer of the previous King Laius is found

c. Oedipus must gouge out his eyes

d. Oedipus must kill his mother





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8. Oedipus, in search of the previous King Lauis’ killer realizes (pg. 6).

a. Oedipus was the son of King Lauis

b. Oedipus killed his father

c.

Oedipus married his mother d. All of the above

9. In the play the character Jocasta is (pg. 6).a. Oedipus’ maid

b. Oedipus mother and wife

c. Oedipus’ daughter

d. Oedipus’ niece

10. At the end of the play, Oedipus Rex (pg. 6).

a. Jacosta kills Oedipus and rules Thebes

b. Oedipus kills Jacosta and commits suicidec. Jacosta commits suicide by hanging herself and Oedipus gouges out his eyes and

blinds himself

d. Oedipus is killed by robbers

11. The goddess of love and beauty is (pg. 7).

a. Ares b. Apollo

c. Aphrodite

d. Athena

12. The god of the sea and earthquakes is (pg. 8).

a. Zeus b. Poseidon

c. Artemis

d. Hestia

13. The king of the Gods, god of the sky, symbolized by the thunderbolt is (pg. 8).

a. Atlas

b. Zeus

c. Hyperiond. Iapetus

14. Hyperion means (pg. 8).a. God of War

b. God of justice and order

c. He who goes before the sund. The sky of god and the first ruler





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15. The son of Uranus and the father of Zeus is (pg. 8).a. Oceanus

b. Themis

c. Cronus

d.

Epimetheus

16. The first wife of Zeus, she ruled over all wisdom and knowledge (pg. 8).

a. Aphrodite b. Athena

c. Thea

d. Metis

17. One of the greatest philosophers of all time (pg. 8).

a. Antigone

b. Aeschylus

c. Euripidesd. Aristotle

18. What is true about mythology (pg. 9)?a. It is based on the history of the Greeks

b. The first purpose was to explain the unexplainable

c. Functioned as rationalizations for the fundamental mysteries of life.d. b and c

19. One constant rule of mythology is _____ (pg. 9).a. whatever happens among the gods reflect events on earth

b. They always included singing and dancing

c. Someone always diedd. Many myths were not similar to one another

20. To the Greeks, everything in the world began with _____ (pg. 9).

a. Adam and Eve b. The creation of the world by Zeus

c. Chaos

d. Darkness

21. The Roman Army is recognized by historians as _____ which also led to its downfall

(pg. 10).

a. One of the weakest armies b. Having the lowest level of soldiers

c. An extremely effective fighting machine

d. Not very successful





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22. The three main weapons for soldiers in the Roman Army included (pg. 11).

a. Sword, pilum, and a pugio

b. A Knife, gladius, and helmet

c.

A knife, helmet and dagger d. A pilum, gladius, and a pugio

23. In the play Hamlet, Prince Hamlet seeks to avenge the death of his _____ (pg. 11).a. Son

b. Uncle

c. Father

d. Mother

24. Prince Hamlet finds out who killed his father from _____ (pg. 11).

a. The watchmen

b. The scholar Horatioc. A ghost who resembles his father

d. Claudius

25. The killer of King Hamlet is revealed to be _____ (pg. 11).

a. Prince Hamlet, his own son

b. Queen Gertrude, his wifec. Claudius, his brother

d. Polonius

26. Who is King Henry’s son (pg. 13)?

a. Hotspur

b. Poinsc. Harry

d. Fallstaff

27. Which character plots to rob wealthy travelers (pg. 13)?a. Poins

b. Prince Harry

c. Fallstaff d. King Henry

28. Hotspur’s family members plan to _____ (pg. 13).

a. throw the King a party b. overthrow the King

c. steal from the King

d. kidnap the King’s son





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29. ___ persuades Marcus Brutus to lead the crusade in assassinating Caesar (pg. 14).a. Calphurnia

b. Cassius

c. Mark Antony

d. Portia

30. He delivers a eulogy over Brutus’ body claiming him to be the “noblest Roman of them

all” (pg. 15).a. Cassius

b. Octavius

c. Mark Antony

d. Ledipus

31. This child of King Lear says there are no words to describe the love for her father, thus

enraging him and causing him to disown her (pg. 15).

a. Cordelia b. Regan

c. Goneril

d. Edgar

32. ___ is the illegitimate son of Gloucester convinces him that his legitimate son is trying to

kill him (pg. 16).a. Edmund

b. Edgar

c. Regand. Goneril

33. Macbeth takes place in _____ (pg. 16).a. London

b. France

c. Germany

d. Scotland

34. Who discovers King Duncan’s dead body (pg. 16)?

a. Macbeth

b. Lady Macbethc. Macduff

d. Banquo

35. After Macbeth is slain, who is crowned King of Scotland (pg. 17)?

a. Banquo

b. Malcomc. Fleance

d. Donalbain





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36. _____ is a beautiful and wealthy heiress whom Bassanio wants to court (pg. 17).

a. Nerissa

b. Portia

c. Antoniad. Bethina

37. Shylock agrees to lend Bassanio money, but if he is not repaid, he is allowed to (pg. 18).a. take Antonio’s merchant ships

b. cut off one pound of flesh from Antonio’s body

c. triple his interest rate until the money is paid off

d. kill Bassanio

38. Mrs. Ford and Mrs. Page plan on revealing ______ to be a preposterous lecher (pg. 19).

a. Sir John Falstaff

b. Fentonc. Shallow

d. Mr. Ford

39. Sir John Falstaff is tricked into hiding in a _____ (pg. 19).

a. closet

b. cavec. basket of dirty laundry

d. horse stables

40. Anne page marries _____ , her true love, a young, poor gentleman (pg. 20).

a. Fenton

b. Shallowc. John Falstaff

d. Slender

41. Romeo asks ______ to perform the marriage ceremony for him and Juliet (pg. 20).a. Tybalt

b. Friar Laurence

c. Benvolio

d. Paris

42. Romeo kills Tybalt in order to avenge this character’s death (pg. 20).

a. Mercutio b. Benvolio

c. Rosaline

d. Paris





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43. What does Romeo do when he finds Juliet’s lifeless body (pg. 21)?a. stabs himself

b. shoots himself

c. poisons himself

d. jumps off Juliet’s balcony

44. Shakespeare’s sonnets comprise of _____ poems (pg. 21).

a. 82 b. 514

c. 154

d. 541

45. The final two sonnets refer to allegorical treatments of _____ epigrams (pg. 21).

a. French

b. English

c. Germand. Greek

46. The quarto ends with the poem _____ (pg. 21).a. The Rape of Lucrece

b. Venus and Adonis

c. Phoenix and the Turtle d. A Lover’s Complaint

47. Middle Ages Gothic architecture and decoration originally emerged in (pg. 21).a. London

b. France

c. Italyd. Greece

48. The name Gothic which is used to describe this style of Middle Ages architecture was a

derisive term alluding to the _____ (pg. 21).a. Barbaric Goths

b. Renaissance Age

c. Golden Age

d. painter Giorgio Vasari

49. The earliest and most famous applications of Gothic architecture in England are at

_____(pg. 21).a. Windsor Castle

b. Kings College, Cambridge

c. Westminster Abbeyd. Tower of London





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50. Middle Ages Gothic architecture and decoration was initially called _____ (pg. 21).

a. The French Style

b. The Romanesque Style

c. The Renaissance Styled. The Eastern Style





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Answer Key

1. B) The Classical Period

2. C) March 1821 3. C) Tragedy

4. C) Greek myths and Legends

5. A) Religious Rituals

6. D) All of the Above

7. B) The killer of the previous King

Laius is found

8. D) All of the above

9. B) Oedipus mother and wife

10. C) Jacosta commits suicide by

hanging herself and Oedipus gouges

out his eyes and blinds himself 11. C) Aphrodite

12. B) Poseidon

13. B) Zeus

14. C) He who goes before the Sun

15. C) Cronus

16. D) Metis

17. D) Aristotle

18. D) b and c19. A) Is whatever happens among the

gods reflect events on earth

20. C) Chaos21. C) An extremely effective fighting

machine

22. D) A pilum, gladius, and a pugio

23. C) Father 24. C) A ghost who resembles his father

25. C) Claudius, his brother

26. C) Harry

27. A) Poins28. B) Overthrow the King29. B) Cassius

30. C) Mark Anthony

31. A) Cordelia32. A) Edmund

33. D) Scotland

34. C) Macduff

35. B) Malcom36. B) Portia

37. B) Cut off one pound of flesh from

Antonio’s body38. A) Sir John Falstaff

39. C) Basket of dirty laundry

40. A) Fenton

41. B) Friar Laurence42. A) Mercutio

43. C) Poisons himself

44. C) 154

45. D) Greek 46. D) A Lover’s Complaint

47. B) France

48. A) Barbaric Goths49. C) Westminster Abbey

50. A) The French Style





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References








http://www.sophocles.net

















Documents

DTP CLEP Humanities Study Guide and Practice Test