Drama in the Classroomt - core.ac.uk · drama in foreign language teaching and give an example of a detailed lesson plan with ... The diploma paper deals with teaching English

Univerza v Mariboru

Filozofska fakulteta

Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko

Diplomsko delo

Drama in the Classroom

Dramatisation of Texts in Lower Grades of Primary School

Mentorica: docentka dr. Darja Hribar Študentka: Petra Hribernik

Somentorica: lektorica dr. Melita Kukovec

Maribor, 2009

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my mentors, professors Darja Hribar and Melita Kukovec, for

their help and support, and for setting a good example through out my studying

years.

I would also like to thank my family and friends for putting up with me during my

studies and writing this paper.

I Z J A V A

Podpisani-a Petra Hribernik, rojen-a 4. 7. 1976 študent-ka Filozofske fakultete Univerze v

Mariboru, smer Angleški jezik s književnostjo in pedagogika, izjavljam, da je diplomsko delo z

naslovom Drama in the Classroom – Dramatisation of Texts in Lower Grades Of Primary

School pri mentorju-ici doc. dr. Darji Hribar, avtorsko delo.

V diplomskem delu so uporabljeni viri in literatura korektno navedeni; teksti niso prepisani

brez navedbe avtorjev.

__________________________________

(podpis študenta-ke) Maribor, 21. 8. 2009

SUMMARY

The purpose of this diploma paper is to present the advantages of including drama in

foreign language teaching using different references to support the idea, and give an

example of a lesson plan with drama games, activities, and different drama

techniques, which can be used, in a classroom. Through drama activities, students

learn the target language within a context instead of learning mere rules and

wordlists (language does not have to be the focus of learning all the time; students

can “pick it up” as they go along – through games), and they develop social skills as

well since drama requires a lot of verbal and non-verbal interaction. One of the

advantages of preparing a lesson with drama activities is also in developing students’

multiple intelligence (teamwork develops interpersonal intelligence, the verbal

interaction helps with linguistic intelligence, coordination of movements supports the

bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence can be developed through

singing and chanting, etc.). In addition, it encourages creativity and flexibility in

students and in teachers, too. Contemporary textbooks contain a certain amount of

drama activities but if the students respond to them well, there is no reason why

teachers should not put even more drama in their lessons.

Key words: dramatisation, lesson plan, younger learners, drama games/activities,

multiple intelligences theory

POVZETEK

Namen diplomskega dela je s pomočjo literature predstaviti prednosti drame v

razrednih aktivnostih pri pouku tujega jezika in podati primer učne priprave, v katero

so vključene različne igre, aktivnosti in tehnike, ki temeljijo na drami. Pri dramatizaciji

besedil se učenci tujega jezika učijo znotraj konteksta in ne le v obliki pravil in

seznamov besed (jezik je lahko včasih postavljen na stranski tir; učenci se ga naučijo

»mimogrede«, ob igri). Ob drami razvijajo tudi socialne spretnosti, saj dialogi temeljijo

na verbalni, kot tudi neverbalni komunikaciji. Še ena od prednosti dramatizacije

besedil je v razvijanju več inteligenc (timsko delo razvija interpersonalno inteligenco,

verbalna komunikacija razvija lingvistično inteligenco, koordinacija gibov spodbuja

gibalno inteligenco, glasbena inteligenca se razvija skozi petje, itn.). Poleg tega

spodbuja kreativnost in fleksibilnost učencev, kot tudi učiteljev. V sodobnih učbenikih

je dramatizacija do neke mere že zajeta, vendar ni razloga, da učitelji ne bi v svoje

ure vključevali še več drame, če opazijo, da imajo učenci te vaje radi.

Ključne besede: dramatizacija, učna priprava, mlajši učenci, dramske vaje in

aktivnosti, teorija o več inteligencah

INDEX

1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 8

2 Drama in the classroom.................................................................................... 10

2.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory ................................................................10

2.1.1 The theory in the classroom ............................................................................................ 12 2.1.2 What’s your intelligence?................................................................................................. 13 2.1.3 Other ways to get information about students' multiple intelligences.............................. 15

2.2 Cognitive and learning styles ................................................................................16

2.2.1 Learning styles according to David Kolb ......................................................................... 17 2.2.2 Using learning style differences in the classroom ........................................................... 21

2.3 A child learns a language.......................................................................................21

2.3.1 What can we expect from children aged eight to ten? .................................................... 23 2.3.2 Early learning, natural approach and performing in a play.............................................. 23

2.4 Methodology and drama.........................................................................................26

2.4.1 Lesson planning............................................................................................................... 26 2.4.2 Methods and techniques in EFL and drama related activities......................................... 27

2.5 Drama in general.....................................................................................................32

2.5.1 Two good reasons in favour of drama ............................................................................. 33 2.5.2 The teacher’s role ........................................................................................................... 34 2.5.3 Planning and timing ......................................................................................................... 35 2.5.4 Getting started ................................................................................................................. 36 2.5.5 Drama-oriented activities: Role-playing and improvisation ............................................. 38

2.6 Drama games ..........................................................................................................40

2.6.1 “Spicing up” the course book ........................................................................................... 42 2.6.2 Say “draaa-maaa”............................................................................................................ 44 2.6.3 The exercises................................................................................................................... 44

2.7 Spoken communication skills................................................................................48

3 Purpose.............................................................................................................. 50

4 HypothesIs......................................................................................................... 50

5 Methodology...................................................................................................... 50

6 Planning a lesson.............................................................................................. 51

6.1 About the text..........................................................................................................51

6.2 About the class.......................................................................................................51

6.3 About the classroom ..............................................................................................52

6.4 The teacher’s role vs. the students’ role...............................................................52

6.5 Lesson aims............................................................................................................53

6.6 Lesson aids and materials .....................................................................................53

6.7 Activities..................................................................................................................54

6.8 Anticipated problems and solutions .....................................................................55

6.9 Self-evaluation ........................................................................................................56

6.10 The original text ......................................................................................................56

6.11 No kidding, a lesson plan!......................................................................................59

7 Conclusion......................................................................................................... 63

References .............................................................................................................. 65

Supplementary pages ............................................................................................ 66

Petra Hribernik: Drama in the Classroom

8

1 INTRODUCTION

The main purpose of this diploma paper is to present the advantages of including

drama in foreign language teaching and give an example of a detailed lesson plan

with examples of games, activities, and different drama techniques which can be

used in a classroom. The focus of the diploma paper is on the elementary level of

foreign language proficiency; however, most of the activities mentioned in the paper

are not restricted to young learners and the beginners’ level, but can be used in

upper-level classes and with older students (or adults) as well.

The first part of the paper deals with different theories; Gardner’s multiple

intelligences theory, Kolb’s learning styles theory, and several methods of FLT which

can be applied in this context. They support ideas like: team work, the importance of

personal experience in learning; the use of games and both verbal and non-verbal

exercises in the classroom, the individual approach to teaching, social environment,

and encouraging creativity in the classroom –in teachers and students alike.

References used in this diploma paper should confirm the assumptions that drama

helps students overcome the barrier of speaking in the target language; it makes

students feel more confident and safe to use their knowledge and experience in a

foreign language class. With drama students can learn the target language in real life

situations in which they can learn to communicate and not only reproduce the rules

they have learned.

The diploma paper deals with teaching English language to beginner students. How

can a teacher make lessons more interesting, fun and at the same time get the

students to learn what they are supposed to? Modern teaching methodology

suggests various ways and drama is one of them. In a beginners’ class it is

practically impossible to put on a whole play however, there are ways to pass on

drama to these students. Drama is based on dialogues and through conversations,

the teacher can introduce new vocabulary or a grammar point. This way, students

learn the target language within a context instead of learning rules and words.

Adopting a new identity is also a pre-play activity, which can bring the shy students

out of their shells and make them feel more comfortable speaking a foreign

language. Role-play is a bit more difficult, it requires some previous knowledge of

vocabulary but it also gives students an opportunity to express themselves more

freely. The next step might be a short play in which all students can express their

creativity – either as players or costume designers, building the scene, making


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posters, singing, dancing – everybody gets their chance to show their talent and be a

part of a group project. Teamwork is definitely something drama can bring into the

classroom. Language does not have to be the focus of learning all the time; students

can “pick it up” as they go along. Another advantage of preparing a lesson with

drama activities is that it supports and helps develop students’ multiple intelligences.

Working with others develops interpersonal intelligence, the dialogue interaction

helps with linguistic intelligence, coordination of movements on stage maybe there is

dancing in the play as well) supports the bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, spatial

intelligence can be developed through making the scene and posters, and musical

intelligence can be developed through singing and chanting.

Today most textbooks already contain a certain amount of drama but if the students

accept it, there is no reason why teachers should not use more drama in their

lessons.


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2 DRAMA IN THE CLASSROOM

2.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory1

Most people consider intelligence to be a static concept, something that tells us how

“smart” a person is. Gardner takes on a completely new perspective; he says we

possess several different intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical,

bodily-kinaesthetic, spatial, intrapersonal and interpersonal. The first two have been

typically valued in schools; the next three are usually associated with the arts; and

the last two with personality. Later on, one more made it to the original list – the

naturalist intelligence. There has been some discussion whether or not another

should be added (existential intelligence), but the jury is still out on that one.

Linguistic intelligence is connected with words, spoken or written. People with well-

developed linguistic intelligence have a gift for words and languages. They are good

readers, writers, storytellers and easily memorise words and dates. They tend to

learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and via discussion and

debate. They are good at explaining, teaching and can be quite persuasive. They

learn foreign languages with ease as they have high verbal memory, and an ability to

understand and manipulate syntax and structure. Writers, poets, lawyers,

philosophers, journalists, politicians and teachers are among those that Howard

Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

Logical-mathematical intelligence has to do with logic, abstractions, inductive and

deductive reasoning, and numbers. By definition skills associated wit this intelligence

are reasoning capabilities, abstract pattern recognition, scientific thinking and

investigation, and the ability to perform complex calculations; which is beyond

mathematics, chess, computer programming and other logical or numerical activities

traditionally associated with logic. Careers, which suit those with this intelligence,

include scientists, mathematicians, engineers, doctors and economists.

Musical intelligence is all about rhythm, music, and hearing. Those who have a high

level of musical-rhythmic intelligence display greater sensitivity to sounds, rhythms,

tones, and music. They normally have good pitch, and are able to sing, play musical 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences


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instruments, and compose. Those who are strongest in this intelligence may learn

best via lecture, will often use songs or rhythms to learn and memorize information,

and may work best with music playing in the background. According to Howard

Gardner, musical intelligence runs almost parallel to linguistic intelligence. Most

instrumentalists, singers, conductors, and composers have highly developed musical

intelligence.

Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence is associated with movement and doing. In this

category, people are generally skilled sportsmen or dancers. They may enjoy acting

or performing, and in general they are good at building and making things. They often

learn best by physically doing something, rather than reading or hearing about it.

Those with strong bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed

muscle memory; i.e., they remember things through their body, rather than through

words (verbal memory) or images (visual memory). According to Gardner mental and

physical activity are related. Careers which suit those with this intelligence include

athletes, dancers, actors, surgeons, comedians, builders, soldiers and artisans.

Spatial intelligence is related to vision and spatial judgment. People with strong

visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualising and mentally manipulating objects.

They generally have a strong visual memory and a very good sense of direction and

may have very good hand-eye coordination (though this feature is usually assigned

to bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence). Artists, engineers, and architects usually have a

well-developed spatial intelligence.

Intrapersonal intelligence – introspective and self-reflective capacities. Those with

this intelligence are typically introverts and prefer to work alone and learn best when

allowed to concentrate on the subject by themselves. They are usually highly self-

aware and capable of understanding their own emotions, goals and motivations.

There is often a high level of perfectionism associated with this intelligence. Jobs that

might agree with intrapersonal intelligence include philosophers, psychologists,

theologians, writers and scientists.

Interpersonal intelligence is interaction with others. People in this category are

usually extroverts and are highly sensitive to others' moods, feelings, temperaments

and motivations. That makes them good team workers who enjoy discussion and

debate. They communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be


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either leaders or followers. They might find satisfaction in politics, management,

teaching, social work or diplomacy.

Naturalist intelligence is about nature, nurturing and relating information to one's

natural surroundings. Those with it are said to have greater sensitivity to nature and

their place within it, the ability to nurture and grow things, and greater ease in caring

for, taming and interacting with animals. They may also be able to detect changes in

weather or similar fluctuations in their natural surroundings. They are also good at

recognizing and classifying different species. "Naturalists" learn best when the

subject involves collecting and analyzing, or is closely related to something

prominent in nature; they also do not enjoy learning unfamiliar or seemingly useless

subjects with little or no connections to nature. It is advised that naturalistic learners

would learn more through being outside or in a kinaesthetic way. Careers that suit

people with naturalist intelligence include scientists, naturalists, conservationists,

gardeners and farmers.

2.1.1 The theory in the classroom2

Gardner claimed that intelligences rarely operate independently. They are used at

the same time and tend to complement each other as people develop skills or solve

problems (gain experience). Each person develops a unique blend of intelligences.

Gardner argues that the big challenge is to make the best of the uniqueness of

multiple intelligences given to us as individuals.

As mentioned before, traditionally schools have emphasized the development of

logical and linguistic intelligence (mainly reading and writing). Surely, some students

prefer this way of learning, however there are those who do not. Everybody

possesses all eight intelligences and can develop them to a fairly high level of

competence; however, children seem to prefer specific intelligences from a very early

age and those ways of learning are usually well established by the time they start

school. It is important for a teacher to know how to discover students’ most

developed intelligences because that helps her prepare lessons from which students

will benefit most. She can do that by choosing different methodologies, exercises and

activities to get through to all students, not just “the chosen ones” – a notion found in

2http://www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/template.chapter/menuitem.b71d101a2f7c208cdeb3ffdb62108a0c/?chapterMgmtId=b44c177a55f9ff00VgnVCM1000003d01a8c0RCRD http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.htm


13

the learning styles theory as well. Students learn in different ways is a fact that

should not be ignored. In general, those who see the theory as simple common

sense try to provide opportunities for their students to use and develop all the

different intelligences, not just the few at which they naturally excel.

2.1.2 What’s your intelligence?3

If there was a “mega-test” that could give us instant results on our students’

“intelligence of choice”, preparing lessons in accordance to those findings would be a

treat. Even though there are no shortcuts there is something we can do (no matter

how experienced the teacher or technically well equipped the school might be) and it

is widely available to all of us – observation.

Thomas Armstrong (a teacher with over thirty years of experience and an author of

books dealing with learning and human development)4 suggests that the fun way to

find students' most preferred intelligences is to observe how they misbehave in class.

The linguistic student will be chatting non-stop, the spatial student will be doodling

and daydreaming, and the bodily-kinaesthetic student will be moving about. What

these students’ behaviour is actually saying is: “This is how I learn, teacher,

and if you don't teach me through my most natural learning channels,

guess what? I 'm going to do it anyway.”

Another tell tell sign of students' inclinations is in what they do when nobody is telling

them what to do. In the classroom a teacher can introduce a “choice time”: students

get to choose from a number of activities and the choices they make can give away

how they learn most effectively: highly linguistic students might choose reading,

social students group games and gossip, and spatial students might go for drawing.

Another valuable piece of advice is that the teacher might want to keep a notebook at

hand to record classroom observations. Obviously, if the teacher deals with 150

students a day, regular recording for each one is practically impossible. That is why it

is a good idea to single out the two or three most puzzling students in class, and

focus on them. In a class of 25 to 35 students, writing a couple of lines about each

student each week will probably pay off in the long run; two lines a week for forty

weeks makes eighty lines (three to four pages) of solid observational data for each

3http://www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/template.chapter/menuitem.b71d101a2f7c208cdeb3ffdb62108a0c/?chapterMgmtId=b44c177a55f9ff00VgnVCM1000003d01a8c0RCRD 4 http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/bio.htm


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student. The important thing is that the teacher makes the commitment and follows

through.

Here is an example of an informal checklist (not a validated test!) to help teachers

organise their observations of student's multiple intelligences. You can find it in

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom by Thomas Armstrong or the website listed in

the footnote.5

Name of Student: ______________________________________

Check items that apply:

Linguistic Intelligence

_____ writes better than average for age

_____ spins tall tales or tells jokes and stories

_____ has a good memory for names, places, dates, or trivia

_____ enjoys word games

_____ enjoys reading books

_____ spells words accurately (or if preschool, does developmental spelling that is

advanced for age)

_____ appreciates nonsense rhymes, puns, tongue twisters

_____ enjoys listening to the spoken word (stories, commentary on the radio, talking

books)

_____ has a good vocabulary for age

_____ communicates to others in a highly verbal way

Other Linguistic Abilities:

5http://www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/template.chapter/menuitem.b71d101a2f7c208cdeb3ffdb62108a0c/?chapterMgmtId=b44c177a55f9ff00VgnVCM1000003d01a8c0RCRD


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2.1.3 Other ways to get information about students' multiple

intelligences

Collect documents. Teachers can catch students in their “MI moments” by taking

photos in the classroom, recording them as they tell a story or sing a song, save their

paintings or other works of art or tape them doing sports, planting trees or any other

hands-on activity. These materials will complement and complete the teacher’s

journal and all the data gathered will provide valuable information for other teachers,

parents and students themselves.

If a teacher might feel that collecting documents as described is too demanding, for

whatever reason, she might consider taking a camera on a fieldtrip or to a school

play, somewhere out of the classroom where she does not have to focus on the

teaching at the same time. A nice idea would be to make a CD and give it to students

at the end of the school year (in primary school after the first triad, for example).

Look at school records. Cumulative records may seem two-dimensional and

lifeless but they can provide important information about a student's multiple

intelligences. For instance, if the student's math grades are consistently higher than

grades in literature and the social sciences, this may indicate the student is leaning

toward logical-mathematical intelligence.

A valuable source of MI information is also the teacher's report (descriptive

assessment). Comments like “loves finger painting,” “moves gracefully during music

and dance time,” or “creates beautiful structures with blocks” can provide clues to a

student's spatial, musical, or bodily-kinaesthetic inclination.

Talk with other teachers. If a teacher teaches only one subject, then she probably

does not get to observe students displaying kinaesthetic or musical gifts (unless, of

course, she regularly teaches through the multiple intelligences). Hence, the art

teacher might be the best person to talk to about a student's spatial intelligence, and

the PE teacher the person to go to for information about bodily-kinaesthetic abilities.

Colleagues are important sources of information about students' multiple

intelligences and meeting with them periodically to compare notes is not a bad idea.

Teachers may find that a child who appears quite low functioning in one class will be

one of the stars in a class that requires a different set of intelligences.


16

Talk with parents. Parents know their children; they have watched them grow and

learn in a variety of situations where they displayed their MI inclinations. Bringing

attention to child’s multiple intelligences is something teachers can do by inviting

parents to school and explaining the concept of multiple intelligences to them.

Teachers can present different ways through which parents can observe and

document their child's strengths at home (scrapbooks, audio cassettes, videotapes,

photographs and samples of stories, sketches, and artefacts – anything the child

creates out of school). Then, parents can bring this information to future parent-

teacher conferences and help teachers develop a better idea of the child's multiple

intelligences. Many children behave differently in the classroom than they do at

home, knowing what they are like outside of the classroom walls makes the teacher

understand them much better and understanding can help the teacher to transfer

child’s successes from home to school.

Ask Students. Teachers should introduce the idea of multiple intelligences to their

students because they are experts on the way they learn. After they have been

introduced to the idea of multiple intelligences, teachers can ask them what they

consider their most highly developed intelligences. A teacher can also have students

draw pictures of themselves doing things in their most developed intelligences (a

spatial approach), rank from one to eight their most-developed to least-developed

intelligence (a logical-mathematical approach), or pantomime their most developed

intelligences (a bodily-kinaesthetic approach).

2.2 Cognitive and learning styles6

Individuality is not an important aspect in Gardner’s theory only; it is the main

characteristic of cognitive styles as well. How we perceive, process, organise, and

memorise information determines our cognitive and learning style.

Generally speaking, cognitive styles describe the way individuals think, perceive and

remember information, or their preferred approach to using such information to solve

problems.

That is why cognitive styles are a key concept in the areas of education as well as

management. For example, if a pupil has a similar cognitive style to his/her teacher,

the chances that the pupil will have a more positive learning experience are quite

6 Marentič – Požarnik, Peklaj and Magajna, 1995, p. 77 - 83


17

high. However, the matching of cognitive styles cannot guarantee the success of the

outcome. How is this significant in the classroom? The teacher can either adapt the

learning environment to her pupils’ cognitive and learning styles or she can influence

and direct pupils’ style in the desired direction. Both suggestions have been studied

and the results of the first example turned out to be more conclusive, showing that

adapting informal characteristics of a learning environment (like the classroom

atmosphere) to a certain cognitive style can actually improve learning. The teacher’s

choice however, still depends on her personality and prior teaching experience.

2.2.1 Learning styles according to David Kolb

Kolb’s model of learning styles is based on his concept of experiential learning; we

learn by transforming our experience into new knowledge and combine it with

previous personal and social data. Key factors in experiential learning are personal

involvement in the experience and reflection. This way, pupils are more active, they

internalise new knowledge and benefit more from learning than in a traditional lesson

where knowledge is transmitted from teacher to pupil in form of data and rules.

Kolb says learning is a cyclical process during which tension between two cognitive

dimensions is being resolved. Two poles restrict the first dimension: perception

(based on concrete experience) and comprehension (based on abstract thinking).

The second dimension is limited by active participation in the world (testing) on one

hand and introverted reflexion and observation on the other. The four poles or stages

are presented in Kolb’s experiential learning cycle.

The experiential learning cycle

Concrete experience (CE)

Observation and reflection (RO)

Active experimenting (AE)

Forming abstract concepts (AC)


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Thinking

Doing Watching

Feeling

In this learning cycle, concrete experiences provide a basis for observations and

reflections. These are assimilated into abstract concepts producing new implications

for action which can be actively tested and thus create new experiences.

A combination of two preferred learning stages gives us four types of learning styles:

1. Diverging (CE/RO) 3. Converging (AC/AE)

2. Assimilating (AC/RO) 4. Accommodating (CE/AE)

Kolb’s learning styles

The terminology can be simplified by saying that concrete experience is feeling,

observation & reflection equals watching, abstract concepts are thinking and active

experimenting means doing.

Simplified experiential learning cycle7

7 http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm

Accommodative Divergent

Convergent Assimilative

Observation and reflection (RO)

Active experimenting

(AE)

Concrete experience (CE)

Forming abstract concepts (AC)


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The main characteristics of people with particular learning styles are:

1. Divergent (feeling and watching � CE/RO): These people are able to look at

things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather

than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems.

This style is called diverging because these people perform better in situations

that require creating diverse ideas, for example, brainstorming. People with a

diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather

information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional,

and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the diverging style prefer to work in

groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.

There are many artists among people with a diverging learning style.

2. Assimilative (watching and thinking � AC/RO): The assimilating learning

preference is based on a concise, logical approach. People who prefer this style

require good clear explanation rather than practical opportunity. They excel at

understanding wide-ranging information and organising it in a clear logical format.

People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more

interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more

attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value. In

formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures,

exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.

In this group, we find mathematicians and scientists.

3. Convergent (doing and thinking � AC/AE): People with a converging learning

style prefer technical tasks, exact problems and are less concerned with people

and interpersonal aspects. People with a converging learning style are best at

finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They apply general solutions to

specific problems using hypothetic-deductive thinking. People with a converging

learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or

interpersonal issues. They like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to

work with practical applications. They are prone to controlling their feelings.

People with a converging learning style work in engineering or other technical fields.


20

4. Accommodative (doing and feeling � CE/AE): The accommodating learning

style is hands-on, and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other

people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are

attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans. People

with an accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information

than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent and useful in

roles requiring action and initiative. People with an accommodating learning style

prefer to work in teams to complete tasks. They set targets and actively work in

the field trying different ways to achieve an objective.

People with this learning style do well as managers and in social professions.

This classification serves as a guide not a strict set of rules. However, most people

show preferences for a given learning style. The ability to use or switch between

different styles does not come easily or naturally to many people. People who have a

clear learning style preference, for whatever reason, tend to learn more effectively if

learning is orientated according to their preference. For instance - if I prefer the

assimilating learning style, I will need notes and instructions. But if I prefer the

accommodating learning style, faced with instructions and rules I am likely to become

frustrated – I need hands on experience.

Kolb8 explains that different people naturally prefer different learning styles and their

choice is influenced by various factors. In his experiential learning theory, he defined

three stages of a person's development:

1. Acquisition (birth to teens) development of basic abilities and cognitive

structures

2. Specialization (schooling, early work and personal experiences of adulthood)

the development of a particular specialized learning style shaped by social,

educational, and organizational socialization

3. Integration (mid-career to later life) expression of non-dominant learning style

in work and personal life.

He suggests that our tendency to reconcile and successfully integrate the four

different learning styles improves as we mature through our development stages.

8 http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm


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2.2.2 Using learning style differences in the classroom9

It is a teacher’s job to be aware of her own learning style and also know its

characteristics compared to other learning styles. Furthermore, she should try to

discover her students’ styles as well and find teaching methods that suit them. That

also means she should broaden the repertoire of her teaching methods, aids and

ways of testing students’ knowledge. Traditional lessons (teacher oriented, based on

explanations and textbooks) agree with students who belong to the assimilating

learning style group – but what about the rest of the class? They might benefit more

from a discussion-oriented lesson, experiential learning, role-play and simulations,

individual or group projects combining information from different subjects and

applying it to “real life” situations, or fieldwork.

However, as great as this may sound, unfortunately, it is not that easy to accomplish;

in a large group, it is impossible for the teacher to adjust the lesson to every student.

She nevertheless, can consider the “principle of multiple entrances”10. The

expression is Gardner’s and it comes from his multiple intelligences theory. He says

basic themes or phenomena are like “rooms with five doors at least”. Students

choose different entrances according to their learning preferences. Thus, the

teacher’s job is to present a new phenomenon in different ways: by describing it, by

definition, telling a story, showing a film, a photo, a picture, engaging students in role-

play etc. Once students are “in the room”, they can investigate the field and discover

other “entrances” on their own.

2.3 A child learns a language11

“Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently, and largely without instruction.”

Harvey Daniels in Nine Ideas about Language

Young children are able to understand speech before they learn the actual meaning

of words. They are able to grasp the meaning, the message from the way something

is uttered – the intonation, volume, facial expressions, gestures, and the situation –

all of that helps a child to decipher words, phrases, and sentences.

9 Marentič – Požarnik, et al., 1995, p. 167,168 10 Marentič – Požarnik, et al., 1995; taken from Gardner 1993, p. 245 11 Stiplovšek, 2003, p. 19-22


22

As children enter primary school, this ability is highly developed and they use it in

their schoolwork. This means they use this strategy when they start learning a new,

foreign language as well. Teachers should welcome this skill and try to take

advantage of it by using gestures intonation, facial expressions, demonstrations and

actions to convey the meaning of new words, phrases or sentences before they

resort to translation.

Like children in early stages of learning mother tongue, beginners learning a foreign

language are very creative when they want to get the message across. They make

the most of their limited knowledge of words and grammatical structures. They build

a language in order to communicate. This deep-rooted instinct occurs naturally in the

language classroom when the need to communicate is present. A teacher can help

develop and strengthen this process by creating random situations and introducing

unpredictable activities in the classroom. This enables learners to construct language

actively on their own.

Another important skill should be taken into consideration when foreign language

learning in a beginners’ class is being discussed – indirect learning. Learners

sometimes notice things that were not the focus of the lesson or a particular activity.

This unintentionally learnt knowledge is a part of indirect learning; this process

operates on a subconscious level and in combination with conscious direct learning it

forms (foreign) language learning. Conscious direct learning seems to be present in

drills and therefore promotes accuracy whereas subconscious indirect learning

supports spontaneous and therefore more fluent use of language. In language

acquisition both accuracy and fluency should be developed. This means teachers’

lessons should include activities focused both on language forms and meaning –

conscious and subconscious learning. Primary school learners’ capacity to focus on

forms and grammar points is still relatively undeveloped but the instinct for indirect

learning is very strong. Therefore, in a beginners’ class the focus should be on

language use rather than form and structure. Activities that follow this advice are

games, songs, rhymes, role-play, puppet shows, short plays and improvisation.

These activities make lessons more interesting and diverse and they bring fun in

language learning.

Fun and games hold an important position in any formal or informal learning

situation. That is because play and fun come naturally to children. Games and other

activities mentioned previously provide various situations where learners need to

react spontaneously and use their own language in order to get their message


23

across. In these learning situations imagination is also very important and that is

something children are seldom short on or afraid to use. That is why teachers should

create a safe environment for learners to feel comfortable enough to use their

imagination and fantasy because those are powerful motives for language use.

Another thing to be considered is the teacher’s job to create situations where

learners need to talk. Again previously mentioned activities provide the need to

communicate and as such, they are most valuable to a foreign language teacher.

2.3.1 What can we expect from children aged eight to ten?

By the age of ten, children are competent users of native language and are aware of

the main syntax rules in their mother tongue. They are not little children anymore and

it would be wrong to underestimate them. On the other hand, expecting too much can

become just as big if not an even bigger problem. What should a teacher know about

her learners’ development stage before she steps into the classroom?

First, it might be a good idea to point out that not all children grow and develop at the

same pace. Age limits set by psychologists and other experts are not fixed; some

children learn to walk at ten months of age but than again some one year olds are

still unsure of their steps. The same goes for learning how to speak and schoolwork

in general later on. However, there are guidelines we can follow just the same.

By the age of ten, children can: understand abstract notions and symbols, and they

can generalise and systematise data. Their views of the world are well shaped; they

can tell the difference between fact and fiction (good to know if we want to set up

games, role-play, drama etc. in the classroom). They are also inquisitive and able to

make some decisions about their learning. Eight to ten year olds know their likes and

dislikes, and begin to question their teachers’ decisions. They are able to work in

pairs or groups and learn from others. Their sense of fair play is developed as well.

2.3.2 Early learning, natural approach and performing in a play

The early bird gets the worm.

English proverb

Language learning follows certain steps. First we listen, and then we try to speak.

Once we have mastered that we move on to reading and in the end we tackle writing.

The amazing thing in learning a mother tongue is that we do it without instructions.


24

Parents do not tell their children that “mum” is a noun and “love” a verb. There is no

talk of tenses, syntax or other grammar rules. Parents set an example and

encourage children to try to speak. The way we learn mother tongue should also be

the way we learn a foreign language; no matter when we start learning it.

Following the natural way of learning a language is called the natural approach. This

approach is a reaction to traditional teaching methods, which argued that learning a

new language is a rational process that can and should be taught in an organised

manner based on drills and explanations. The natural approach takes a different

stand; learning a language is an intuitive process and we all possess a natural ability

to learn a new language which can be triggered when the circumstances are

appropriate, meaning we have got: someone to talk to, something to talk about, and

a desire to understand and be understood. A well-known natural method is the direct

method (also known as the Berlitz method)12.

Principles of early learning and the natural approach may also apply to learning a

foreign language at an older age. Namely, in a way a young child is learning his

native language and a beginner in a foreign language class are in a similar position.

They both possess the tool (our natural ability to learn a language) now they need

someone to show them how to use it (a parent, a teacher – someone who would set

an example). For example, if a young child listens to radio or TV news (other shows

might not be as appropriate because hosts might not be using proper – RP –

language), he is exposed to the correct pronunciation, accentuation, and intonation;

and that enables him to develop a sense for the proper language. Bad grammar and

pronunciation are the result of the language spoken by the environment the child

grew up in.13 So, unless parents are ready to speak properly all the time, turning on

the radio might be a simple yet very effective solution. How does listening to radio

news apply to teaching English? If we follow the natural way of language acquisition,

the first step is listening. If the teacher’s pronunciation and grammar are bad, how

can we expect learners to speak properly when the time comes? It is important for

teachers to acknowledge the importance of pronunciation and try to get as close to

the “original” pronunciation as possible. A good way of making sure that the learners

hear proper language they are learning is by listening to native speakers. There are

several ways a teacher can bring native language to the class. The ideal situation

would be if she could invite a native speaker to come to her lessons. Since that is not

always possible, a tape would do just fine. She can record the news (or a part of a 12 Cvetek, 2002, p. 39 13 Ibuka, 1992, p. 94, 95


25

documentary or any other show she thinks her students would find interesting either

from TV or radio) in the target language (without subtitles, of course) and play it in

the classroom; the listening exercise should be accompanied with several activities

focusing on vocabulary, a grammar structure, a pronunciation point, etc. If taping for

whatever reason is not an option, most course books come with listening exercises

on tapes/CDs these days; if nothing else, teachers can use those to demonstrate

their learners what the target foreign language sounds like.

Another aspect of early learning and upbringing is relevant in the foreign language

learning – performing in a play. Acting helps develop a young child’s creativity. Just

like in any other activity at an early stage of a child’s life, the purpose of acting is not

gaining knowledge but rather in acquiring skills. All children need their parents’

support, help and affection in order to become the best that they can be; and that

takes time and patience. A play is a great tool to stimulate creativity in a young child.

However, it takes a lot of time before we notice actual results so we do need to be

patient if we decide to take on drama. A research showed that first or second graders

of primary school who participate in plays or are encouraged to put them up are not

better students compared to peers who do not take part in drama activities.

Nevertheless, in the third grade the advantages start to show. The terms “play” and

“drama” in this case do not apply to children taking on roles or pretending to be

someone else (i.e. are acting). Through this creative activity, the child tries to express

himself, as he would with drawing or playing an instrument. It has little or nothing to

do with speaking drills or reciting in front of an audience; although it is quite possible

that a child who got to know “acting” at an early age will further develop his

performing talents as he grows older. Yet the most important thing is still giving the

child an opportunity to express himself and interact with his peers. “Acting” should

always bring a chance to express oneself freely14.

Again, what has been said about “acting” can come in handy in foreign language

teaching. Allowing students to express themselves, their ideas, emotions and

thoughts is essential in the teaching business.

14 Ibuka, 1992, p. 118,119


26

2.4 Methodology and drama

2.4.1 Lesson planning

If we look back at the experiential learning circle, we will find that the four stages

introduced by Kolb could also be used in teachers’ lesson preparation. Planning a

lesson might seem something that only concerns inexperienced teachers; however,

one can only become a teaching expert by planning lessons in the first place and

keep doing it even after having years of classroom experience. In a way planning

never really stops. It is a continuous process, which can be upgraded repeatedly –

like a spiral. Kolb’s experiential circle applies in a way where the teacher (with a little

help from the students) goes through all of its four stages. It should be said that the

experiential circle can start at any stage; in lesson planning the starting point would

probably be the abstract thinking (Kolb’s “forming abstract concepts” stage or the

“thinking” stage in the simplified circle version). This is where the teacher sits down

armed with books, student’s books, notes, handbooks... in short, all the theory she

can muster up on teaching methods, techniques, principles and the topic she

wants/needs to present in the classroom – in short, she thinks things through. Then

she moves on to the next stage, the “active experimenting” or the “doing” phase in

which she walks into the classroom and caries out the lesson she planed. Both

students and the teacher have learned something from the lesson and that is what

Kolb calls the “concrete experience” in his experiential circle; the simplified term for it

would be “feeling”. The final stage of this particular experiential circle (remember we

said you can start at any stage) is the “introverted reflexion and observation” one. It is

a crucial moment when a teacher can become better or not at what she does (and

the same goes for students as well). Namely, this is when she reflects on what has

happened during the second phase, the “doing”, the actual lesson. Did she carry out

the plan, as she wanted? Did it go well? Did she achieve the aims she set for herself

and did the students? What would she have done differently the next time if

anything? Was the lesson a complete disaster? Why? These are just a few questions

teachers might want to ask in order to evaluate their work and decide what to do

next. Which brings us back to phase one: forming abstract concepts, thinking.

However, this time the teacher knows more because of her new experience therefore

she can be more selective about which method to follow or technique to pick. When

this circle is finished, the next one begins and so on.


27

2.4.2 Methods and techniques in EFL and drama related activities

There are several methods, which find games, rhymes, songs, role-play, drama,

improvisation etc. in a class good ways to teach a foreign language. The ones

mentioned here support these ideas more or less directly; either way every method

has something we can use and by picking those useful points and pointers we can

create a new personalised teaching method; in other words, in time every teacher

develops her own teaching style – a blend of different techniques and principles.

The direct method15

The direct method is not new; it became popular when the grammar-translation

method was found to be not so effective in preparing students to use the language

communicatively. This teaching method follows one main and rather simple rule – no

native language in the classroom. That is actually how it got its name: target

language should be taught directly without translation, using visual aids and

demonstrations in order to get the meaning across. The idea is to introduce new

language (word, phrase) using realia, pictures or pantomime avoiding translation into

native language completely. This way, students are “forced” to use the foreign

language in various situations provided by the teacher.

The goal is to get the students to think in the target language because that will help

them use the language communicatively.

As far as teaching grammar is concerned the inductive way is the only way. The

teacher provides examples from which students derive the rule.

The direct method does not suggest the use of drama and other activities mentioned

previously explicitly; however, there are some principles worth mentioning:

students should be taught how to communicate in the target language as opposed

to simply memorise new vocabulary an grammar points

student’s native language should not be used during the class. Visual aids,

demonstrations and pantomime should be used to explain the meaning of new

language instead

spoken (everyday) language should be taught; not only fine arts

15 Larsen-Freeman, 2003, p. 23-33


28

getting students to self-correct (giving them a choice between what they said and

an alternative answer, repeating student’s slip-up with an interrogative intonation,

repeating what the student has said and stop just before the error).

The audio-lingual method16

The audio-lingual method is another method, which does not apply to drama in the

classroom directly. However, it does carry a couple of important features:

the teacher is the model (not only linguistically but also as a person, a role model)

positive reinforcement (rewards, complements, encouragement) helps students to

develop positive habits (assuming target language is a habit and should be used

automatically)

native language may interfere with target language; new habits must overcome old

ones and that can be achieved through repetition

a “pre-drama” or a basic drama activity does come up in audio-lingual method –

the dialogue. Lessons are based on dialogues, which are presented in different

situations (at the store, the post office, etc.). One of the activities following the

presentation is completing the dialogue: students fill in missing words (new

vocabulary, grammar point)

The method is largely based on drills and repetitions. Since this type of activities

tends to get boring the teacher should make sure she prepares different kinds of

drills to stir things up a bit (repetition drill, chain drill, single-slot/multiple-slot

substitution drill, q&a drill, transformation drill, backward build-up drill…).

In grammar games, students practise new structures within a context and get a

chance to express themselves. These activities also include a lot of repetition.

The silent way17

We can adopt something from this method even though it does not promote games

and drama in the classroom specifically. One of the ideas endorsed by the silent way

is independence. Students should draw from their own knowledge and previous

experience. That is why it is important for the teacher to create a relaxed, enjoyable

and safe learning environment. Peer correction is also an important part of this 16 Larsen-Freeman, 2003, p. 25-51 17 Larsen-Freeman, 2003, p. 53-71


29

method; since the teacher is silent (which leaves students no choice but to speak)

addressing errors becomes students’ job. This way cooperation instead of

competition is encouraged as well.

Desuggestopedia18

This method is based on humanistic principles; it considers student’s feelings. The

importance of positive thinking and peripheral learning is stressed. Positive thinking

can be encouraged by the environment, which is why the classroom should be bright

and decorated with pictures, charts, posters (which should be changed every few

weeks so the students do not get used to them and stop noticing them) to make it

colourful and lively. In addition, this way students are surrounded with grammar

points all the time, even when they are not focusing on them. That is a part of

peripheral learning. Another way to support subconscious learning is through music

and fine arts (music, drama, paintings), which should be incorporated in the lessons.

Playing classical music in the background relaxes students and it stimulates their

emotional hemisphere, making them more active.

Drama related activities suggested by desuggestopedia:

Choosing a new identity – eventually students develop a whole biography of their

imaginary character. As they learn new language they add information to their

profile (they may start with a name, an address, occupation, then add languages

they speak, their imaginary family tree, animals they have, what they like, home

they live in, etc.); they are creating a unique never-ending story. This activity is

creative, adapted to each student’s level of knowledge and pace of learning, and it

encourages students to think for themselves and be more independent.

Role-play – pretending to be someone else creates a safe atmosphere in which

students are ready to improvise and use the language freely. Role-plays can be

set up in a more or less structured way. In a less structured role-play students

decide what they will say in a given situation which is closer to a real life

conversation where we do not know what the other person will say and we receive

feed back information on whether or not we have been understood.

18 Larsen-Freeman, 2003, p. 73-85


30

Primary activation – students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud

(individually or in groups). Students are asked to read the dialog in particular

manner: sadly, angrily, cheerfully…

Creative adaptation – students engage in various activities designed to help them

learn the new material and use it spontaneously. Activities particularly

recommended for this phase include singing, dancing, dramatizations, and games.

The point is that students focus on the message and not on the form.

Communicative language teaching19

Knowing the rules and accumulating vocabulary is not equal to being able to

communicate in the foreign language; nor does the ability to speak in the classroom

guarantee a communicative use of language in real-life situations. Thus, the ultimate

goal in communicative language teaching is to achieve communicative competence –

the learner develops linguistic skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and

communicative abilities (the way the target language is used). First, one acquires the

skills and then moves on to learning how to use the language appropriately and that

is the core of the communicative competence, which can be dissected into four parts:

grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence – the names are

quite straightforward and self-explanatory. Grammar is the basis on which all the

other competences are built. Once we have mastered the rules, vocabulary,

pronunciation etc. we can take the next step towards communicative competence –

sociolinguistic skills. These give us the knowledge of how to speak in a certain

situation (the choice of vocabulary, pronunciation and nonverbal features like facial

expressions, gestures, body language). The third part is discourse competence,

which brings coherence and cohesion to the dialogue; the ability to speak/write

fluently and clearly. The last competence is the strategic one; being able to detect a

problem or a breakdown in communication and being able to fix it by using gestures,

paraphrasing or asking the interlocutor (partner in conversation) to repeat the

information or speak more slowly.

One of the classroom activities suitable for practicing communication skills in different

social situations is role-play (see desuggestopedia on previous page).

19 Cvetek, 2002, p. 14-15


31

Communicative activities and their advantages 20

Pre-communicative activities focus on language forms where as communicative

activities focus more on the meaning. Both parts are important and it is the teacher’s

job to find the balance between them. Another difference between the two types of

activities is in control or independence; communicative activities are less controlled

(from the teacher’s point of view) and more independent (from the students’ point of

view). In other words, a communicative activity is a learner directed activity.

In communicative activities, the teacher sets up a situation and it is the students’ job

to “close the deal” – end the interaction so that it makes sense.

The advantages:

Communicative activities provide the so-called whole-task practice; students learn

the target language through various communicative activities during which they

practise language and not only parts of it.

Motivation is an important part of the learning process. With communicative

language teaching students are motivated to learn because language is presented

as means of communication, not a structural system so they see the practical

applicability of their knowledge in real-life situations.

Natural learning is a natural process in which we use language for communication.

The term does not apply to the natural order of learning a language solely

(listening, speaking, reading and writing).

Communicative activities create a social context within which a learner builds

relationships with other students and the teacher. That supports students’ efforts

to learn.

Communicative activities are student-directed – students work independently. That

is why good instructions are vital and the transition from guided to free practice

should be conducted gradually.

Methods mentioned previously may not approach drama in the classroom directly (if

at all); however, they bare some principles and notions that help set a classroom

atmosphere in which drama can flourish: communicative use of target language,

omission of native language, self-correction and peer-correction, positive

reinforcement, repetition and drills, team spirit, and students’ independence.

20 Littlewood, 1996, p. 16-18


32

Approaches that do mention drama (desuggestopedia and communicative language

teaching) on the other hand, might be something a teacher interested in drama would

find worth looking at a bit more closely and using in her lessons.

2.5 Drama in general21

We are all players, actors in our daily lives. We take on different roles as we grow

older, and we spend most of our lives playing more than one role at the same time: I

am a daughter, a sister, a grandchild, a friend, a student and so on. We all jump from

one role to another as I see fit, according to a situation I find myself in. We assess

the situation, the problem and we find the solution. We examine the background and

plan our next step. Learning a language can be just like that if we include drama in

our lessons. Students will benefit more from doing something rather than simply

hearing or reading about it. The classroom is the safest place to gather new

experiences.

Drama techniques are valuable and can help teachers develop students’ linguistic

competence. Course books contain dialogues, role-plays, games, and songs –

drama techniques – to some extent but there is a scope of others which can be

applied as well: improvisation, mime, character analysis, observation, interpretation

and invention. Drama can be used to improve all four skills but it is most valuable in

teaching speaking – pronunciation, intonation, rhythm. Also, drama’s role in teaching

communication skills is vital. Drama generates a need to speak by focusing on the

action: the dialogue, the role-play or some other drama activity.

In language teaching, drama should be seen as a communicative language teaching

technique. It emphasises the role of the students as active participants rather than

passive receptors and it engages them in genuine communication. An ordinary

conversation is not tidy; it contains hesitations, interruptions, misunderstandings,

even silence. More so, it involves our emotions, the status of all involved, and the

relationships between them. The third dimension is body language which can be just

a (if not more) expressive as verbal communication. The use of drama in the

classroom would involve previously mentioned aspects of a genuine conversation

and thus provide higher motivation and help students to communicate effectively

outside the classroom faster and better.

21 Wessels, 1987, p. 7-13


33

The value of drama also lies in teaching structure, vocabulary; it can be used for

revision and reinforcement, not only in acquiring communicative ability. For example,

students can learn and reinforce verbs used in the context through mime.

2.5.1 Two good reasons in favour of drama22

Drama can help students overcome their resistance to the target language and it

creates a need to speak. Making sure the lesson is:

• enjoyable and therefore spontaneous (interesting topic, humour)

• achievable (the level of difficulty should match students’ abilities)

• progressive (prepare students for the drama experience step by step: warm

them up, work out the context, create empathy for the characters, act out the

dialogue/story)

• personal (link the activities to students’ own experiences, identification will

probably increase their interest and readiness to get involved)

As far as the need for speaking is concerned, drama creates it by putting the

emphasis on solving a problem or a given situation. Also, in drama-oriented lessons

the students play the central role, not the teacher; it is their responsibility to work

things out. Group dynamic can encourage shyer students to get more involved. In

fact, many drama activities are aimed at these students to help them gain confidence

to open up and speak. A safe, relaxed working atmosphere helps, of course.

These two objectives and all their features can also serve as criteria for evaluation:

Overcoming resistance to target language:

- Is the experience enjoyable?

- Are the goals realistic?

- Is the lesson structured “step by step”?

- Are the activities close to students’ own experience?

- Are the students ready to learn?

Creating the need to speak:

- Are students presented with situations/problems that need a solution?

- Is the responsibility turned to the learner?

- Does the lesson involve the weaker and shyer learners as well?

22 Wessels, 1987, p. 27-28


34

2.5.2 The teacher’s role 23

A teacher should be like a chameleon – able to adapt to different situations by taking

on different roles as the lesson progresses. Assuming a lesson starts with

presentation and practice of new language and then moves on to freer practice and

productive activities teacher should show flexibility and adjust according to these

changes. During planning the lesson, the presentation phase and guided practice,

she is most active. However, during free practice the roles are switched: students

become more active than the teacher and once the activity is in motion the teacher

steps back and lets students’ creativity take over. Still, that does not mean the

teacher is very passive even when it comes to communicative activities, which are by

default more focused on the student. For instance, if students get stuck or can not

agree on a point (in pair and group activities) it is the teacher’s job to help them out

by giving them a little push in the right direction. It is also her job to correct and

remind students not to resort to their mother tongue unless, of course, it is inevitable.

She can also use that time to monitor students’ progress and see whether a

particular exercise is working and thus worth reusing. This is as well a good time for

the teacher to observe her students a little bit more closely; Pay attention to multiple

intelligences that are being displayed during students’ independent work in school

and perhaps even make a note or two in her journal (if she keeps one). She can also

take part in some activities to guide and stimulate communication but she should be

careful not to be dominant and let the students take the initiative.

Teachers take on different roles all the time. Roughly speaking, they undertake three

major roles at once:

o They are human – they answer to themselves, they make mistakes, have

moods, desires, personal goals, beliefs etc.

o They are employees – they answer to the principal and the ministry of

education and do their duty as officials.

o They act as experts – they are qualified teachers who keep up with the new

findings within their field of expertise and didactics.

There are other ways of looking at teachers’ roles as well. For example, a teacher

can be an instructor or a manager – as an instructor she presents new language,

23 Cvetek, 2002, p. 33-35 Littlewood, 1996, p. 19 Wessels, 1987, p. 14-17


35

provides exercises, and corrects mistakes, etc. While as a manager, she provides

learning conditions by planning and organising the lesson so it runs as smoothly as

possible. Throughout the lesson the teacher “jumps” from one role to another

depending on the type of activity (situation) – during the more controlled activities

(usually at the beginning of the lesson) she puts on the instructional role. Later on as

the students advance to freer practice, she becomes the manager.

Another role worth mentioning is the one of a motivator. Teachers as well as students

know quite well how important motivation is in the learning process and a drama-

oriented lesson is no exception. Several factors affect this role:

Teacher’s personality – how encouraging, open-minded, sensitive and enthusiastic

she is

Teacher’s ability to adapt her role to a specific situation appropriately – knowing

when to act authoritatively, affectionately or permissively.

Teacher’s competence and confidence – her ability to focus, prepare well for the

lesson and carry it out effectively

Teacher’s ability to rise interest in students – by choosing interesting topics, tasks,

slipping in humour, making the lesson as variable and appealing as possible

In a drama-oriented lesson, it is the teacher’s job to break down the barriers between

herself and the students; establishing a relationship based on trust and respect. That

sets a safe atmosphere in which students can take on the responsibility for their

learning by using their imagination, offer alternatives, come up with solutions and do

some research. The teacher’s role in this situation is to maintain the authority and

prevent the lesson from becoming chaotic. The latter requires a lot of careful

planning and organising on teacher’s behalf. The core of such planning is the aim of

the lesson; the teacher should bear in mind at all times what exactly it is she wants

students to learn.

2.5.3 Planning and timing

Physical and mental preparation – students should be able to move around the

classroom so the necessary arrangements should be made. If the circumstances

permit it, the classroom arrangement can be permanent. Physical and mental (warm-

ups: games, chants, songs) preparations get the students ready for the lesson.


36

The background – give the lesson (the chosen activity) a wider context, a

background story that will humanise the situation, give it credibility and purpose.

Dealing with feelings – through questions, the teacher evokes sympathy and

empathy with the characters. Students are invited to think about motives and

emotions in the story.

Just do it! – time for improvisation, role-play, mime or any other drama-oriented

activity. This is the core of the lesson when students take on the responsibility to

learn.

Feedback – the last ten minutes or so should be devoted to feedback. During

students independent work the teacher should monitor (make notes, preferably) their

effort and comment on it after the activity has finished.

Time: a 45 minute lesson is not an ideal time period during which drama could be

used to the maximum. However, if carefully planned, teachers can make it work even

in such a restricted time slot. A double period is a slightly different matter making it

easier for a teacher to plan a drama lesson from which the students would benefit

most.

Pacing depends on the students’ response to the material. They might get caught up

in a detail and one of the options in such a situation is to satisfy students’ curiosity

and give their point of interest more time and plan another lesson on the subject if

possible.

2.5.4 Getting started24

When an English teacher walks into a classroom for the first time, it is most likely that

the students in front of her already know each other since English lessons start in the

fourth grade of primary school (curriculum). Even so, she should keep in mind that

they are also individuals with different personalities, levels of language knowledge,

with different backgrounds, skills etc.

Younger learners are usually ready to play so, convincing them to act out dialogues

should not be as troublesome as it can be with adolescents – afraid they will make

24 Littlewood, 1996, p. 62-64 Wessels, 1987, p. 20-28


37

fools of themselves – and adults who have gone through a rigid system – you learn a

language by memorising facts. In any case, learning is a gradual process; introducing

drama gradually and carefully in an enjoyable, safe environment should convince any

student that through acting they would learn a new language in a fun way.

A drama checklist:

The activity should match linguistic demands with the linguistic abilities of

students; considering their level of independence and the complexity of language

Structures and functions are not restricted to specific situations, therefore the

teacher can be as creative as she can when choosing the topic/setting for the

activity (take the students to a market on the Moon, for example)

On the other hand, providing real life situations makes sense as well. It gives

students a sense of purpose and tangibility. Relevance of a situation will engage

students more. Younger learners will get involved in situations familiar to them

(family, school, free time, stories, cartoon characters…), where as older students

will look for the useful, practical nature of activities (things they can use in the

future, like booking a room, ordering food…).

Choose roles students will be able to identify with. It will give them a sense of

control over the situation and thus feel more comfortable and confident to speak.

Create the right conditions and atmosphere. Consider the relationships among

students and set a good, positive example by being warm, respectful, supportive,

and good-humoured.

Make sure there is enough space in the classroom for students to move around.

You can arrange their desks in different ways (especially if you are the only

teacher using the classroom, otherwise be sure to put it back as it was before you

rearranged it – set an example of respecting other teachers and students).

Before you dive into drama full speed, start with warm-up games like songs,

chants, rhymes or mime…


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Be aware of your ever-changing role. Be prepared to drop your centre-stage role

and allow students take over the “play”. This is how students will learn to learn

from each other and independently.

Why are we doing this? Students should be familiar with the goal and the time limit

– this will sharpen their concentration and make them organise the activity faster.

When working in groups, you should pick a leader – it encourages students to take

responsibility for their learning.

Once you get to know your students a little better, you can use the most

cooperative ones to help their more inhibited peers (by demonstrating activities for

example). When you form groups, make sure that there is a “stronger” student in

each one.

Careful planning and timing: see page 39

2.5.5 Drama-oriented activities: Role-playing and improvisation25

Working with texts in general is diverse and provides numerous options for the

teacher to explore her own as well as her students’ creativity. Drama-oriented

activities, such as role-play and improvisation, offer a spectrum of interaction forms

that can take place in the classroom. Teachers can use several techniques when

they want to incorporate role-play (simulation) and improvisation in a lesson.

The main point of these activities is “make believe”: students pretend to be in a

situation outside the classroom and they try to take on a certain role in the given

situation, trying to make it as real as they can.

This pattern can be found in a simple dialogue students are asked to memorise but it

can also be extended to a more communicative activity where students focus more

on getting the message across than trying to get it right grammar wise. They should

identify with the role more deeply than during a controlled practice as that should

help them see the meanings more clearly. The third feature that distinguishes role-

playing and improvisation from a memorised dialog is the initiative to communicate. It

should come from the students’ rather than the teacher.

25 Littlewood, 1996, p. 49-61


39

These features make learning an individual experience since every learner directs

the course of action himself according to the level of his own knowledge. The

teacher, however, is still the one who directs the flow of the lesson by choosing

certain materials, topics, guides and controls students’ work by providing cues and

information, given situations and goals. This dynamic makes the lesson vivid and

more interesting. The freer the practice the more room for students’ creativity arises.

Role-play can also take on the form of a debate or a discussion, but that can be

executed in higher grades with students who already have adequate knowledge of

the target language.

Improvisation is closely associated with native language acquisition and drama and is

the most demanding version of role-play. This type of activity is least controlled –

students are presented only with a basic situation; everything else is up to them. In

improvisation students adopt certain personalities and express feelings, leaving

grammar and other particular communicative purposes aside.

Control vs. creativity

Drama activities can be more or less controlled or creative. As mentioned previously,

fewer interventions from the teacher (control) mean freer learner activity (creativity).

Memorised dialogues present a pre-communicative, controlled activity with little (if

any) room for students’ creativity. This type of activity puts emphasis on accuracy

and not so much on fluency.

Contextualised drills take one step away from control towards creativity and freer

practice. Learners create new sentences but they are still using forms predetermined

by the teacher who still controls the practise largely.

Cued dialogues allow students to be a little more creative. Even though the teacher

still controls the meaning that is being expressed (cues/prompts), students are able

to choose their own words/language to express themselves.

With role-play the teacher controls the situation but the interaction lays in the hands

of the learners.

The final step in this outline of activities is improvisation, which allows the students to

use their language as freely as they can. The focus shifts from accuracy and control

to fluency, spontaneity, and creativity. Meaning the improvisation demands a higher

level of language proficiency.


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2.6 Drama games26

All games have at least one thing in common: rules. Loose rules may make a game

more fun, but such games quickly result in chaos. In language teaching games

cannot be played successfully unless the rules have been clearly stated and

understood by the learners.

A drama game is rarely static. It involves moving around and a lot of interaction –

verbal and nonverbal. It exercises the imagination as it challenges learners to invent

new situations, thoughts, and ideas. This is how students not only learn the language

by repetition but also acquire it through practicing more language than just the core

structure. Drama games more often than not lead to a discussion – however

awkward it may be. When trying to be understood, the students use gestures, facial

expressions, and body language to convey their thoughts and emotions.

A drama game is usually short (ten to fifteen minutes) and cannot always be

stretched into a role-play or improvisation. It can, however, be effectively used in the

beginning, during and/or at the end of the lesson. As an icebreaker it prepares

students for learning so it should not be too demanding, complicated or long. When

used as part of the lesson it is usually played before the exercise stage to help clarify

covered material through experience. Sometimes students become dull during the

lesson and that is the opportunity to stop whatever you are doing and cheer them up

with a game. The action will help shake off monotony and bring back the learning

energy. If time permits, we can also use a drama game to round off the lesson or use

it as filler if we have some to spare.

Examples:

Concentration

This drama game makes a fine icebreaker in elementary or higher level classes.

Playing the game students practise numbers and names.

Everybody is seated in a circle. The teacher is called Jack (or she can come up with

another name, or students can make it up in a previous exercise/lesson, they can

take it from a story they read, movie they watched, a song…), and each student is

given a number. The game is played to four beats, which are given by (a) slapping

both hands on the thighs, then (b) clapping the hands together once, then (c)

26 Wessels, 1987, p. 29-55


41

snapping the fingers of each hand in turn. So, the beat goes slap – clap –snap –

snap.

Everyone keeps their hands suspended above their laps, while the teacher chants

CON-CEN-TRA-TION, then they slap their thighs, clap their hands, and on the first

snap the teacher calls out “Jack”, and on the second snap, any number of her choice.

The student whose number has been called then calls out her own number and

another number (or “Jack”), while maintaining the beat. Anyone who breaks the beat

becomes the new “Jack”, while the teacher becomes Number 1, and all the other

numbers are changed. With each new round, the students have to concentrate on

their new numbers. The beat must not be broken or altered in any way.

Note: If the students are very young (under 7 years), they might not be able to snap

their fingers; so it might be wise to substitute the snapping with (c) stomping their feet

one after another (if they are not seating on the floor): slap – clap – stomp – stomp.

Or they could (b) crisscross-slap their chest and end the beat with (c) two claps: slap

thighs –crisscross-slap chest – clap – clap.

Watch the birdie!

This game is suitable for students of all ages and all levels. It can be used as a game

for general practice.

This game acquires some preparation: find some pictures of groups of people in

various poses, one picture for each group of five or six students.

In class, divide the students into groups and give them a picture each. Their task is to

pose in the same position as the people in the picture. The winners are those who

most accurately reflect the picture they have been given. Alternatively, the groups

could be asked to pretend that they are all members of the same family, posing for a

family photo. They need to decide whom they are going to represent, what the

occasion is, who will stand closest to each parent and why. They can explain their

arrangement to the class afterwards.

Simon says

This game is also suitable for all ages and all levels from elementary upwards.

Students can practice giving instructions.

The teacher or one of the most cooperative students acts as “Simon”. The students

stand in a square, facing “Simon”, who gives them various instructions (“Simon says

sit on the floor”, “Simon says touch your head” etc.). However, “Simon” also gives


42

instructions without the use of “Simon says”. Any student who obeys these

instructions falls out. The game continues until only one student remains.

Note: students can soon run out of instructions to give, so it is a good idea to put

some on the board: clap your hands, touch your feet, scratch your nose etc.

It could also help to introduce some props: a stick, a bottle, a cup, a newspaper etc.

that can then become part of the instructions, e.g. “pass the stick/read the

newspaper/ roll the bottle”, etc.

2.6.1 “Spicing up” the course book

Drama can help teachers adjust the course book to their preferences and make it

more interesting and fun. In the past few years course books have improved as far as

including drama techniques is concerned. Role-plays, dialogues, and simulations

have found their place in course books.

However, many teachers are not sure how to take full advantage of these

techniques; students are not encouraged to take the next step and use their

imagination. They are stuck reading the dialogues and doing post-reading

comprehension exercises – copying words of the original dialogue. Their use of

target language and knowledge do not expend, all they get is short-term learning.

Drama is a spice, which makes the course book characters and stories come to life,

jump from the page right into the classroom, becoming real people with real feelings,

thoughts and needs. Like any other spice, drama should be used in moderation. It

does not “go with everything”. Some aspects of the course book may not benefit from

it. In the beginning (the first few weeks of the course) drama can be used more

intensively so that the students get used to it. After dramatisation becomes their way

of learning, it can “be on the menu” occasionally.

How can a teacher achieve the two objectives mentioned earlier (overcoming of

students’ resistance to learn a new language and creating the need to speak) with

drama? Warm-up games (e.g. songs, chants) and dramatised reading (reading with

feeling) are two basic drama techniques that are often used in the classroom.

However, there is more: mime, improvisation, speculations, adding stage directions,

parallel role-plays, lengthening/shortening the dialogue – all these techniques can be

used to extend course book materials.


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Mime

Many teachers use it without knowing – sometimes words fail us and we resort to

mime to convey the meaning. Many drama games use mime; adverbs and verbs can

be taught through mime, dialogues can be presented in mime (a guessing game,

pantomime). Mime can help the weaker students to gain confidence since they do

not have to use words to express themselves and it helps them understand the

dialogue/lesson/word… better.

Improvisation

This technique requires some knowledge of language for students to manipulate

with. They can improvise continuations of dialogues, or predict their background

(where the characters are from, what are they like, their ambitions etc.). The only limit

in improvisation can be the language – students need the vocabulary and structures

to be able to make improvisation work.

Speculations on feelings and thoughts

The teacher can help students empathise with the characters by asking them

questions about their (the characters’) feelings and thoughts. It is important that the

questions are formed in such a manner that they stimulate imaginative answers and

not simple routine ones. For example, “How does she feel?” is not the best possible

question because we can expect the students to answer “She feels angry.” There is

nothing wrong with this question or the answer but it does not encourage students to

use their own words and speculate. On the other hand, “Why did she slam the

door?”, “Why didn’t she say hello to her friend?” are the type of questions that do just

that: stimulate speculation.

Adding stage directions

Students can do this in their mother tongue (if their language proficiency does not

allow it to do it in the target language) and it will still help them link paralinguistic or

nonverbal features with the language itself. It also helps them learn various ways of

expressing feelings.

Parallel role-plays

Students pair up or group up and practice the vocabulary and structures of the

original dialogue by taking on roles (characters) and switching them.


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Lengthening and shortening the dialogue

Students can be asked to lengthen dialogues by inserting adjectives, adverbs,

embedded clauses, conversational gambits, etc. or shorten them by transforming

statements into one-word utterances.

These drama techniques can be used throughout the lesson or just as one part of the

lesson to change the pace and make it more interesting. They can be used to

practise any part/aspect of the target language: vocabulary, structures, functions,

fluency, etc. but as far as the four skills are concerned, drama leans towards

speaking. From this point of view drama seems a good tool to help teach

pronunciation and spoken communication skills, and literature.

2.6.2 Say “draaa-maaa”27

Standard methods of teaching pronunciation are listening to and repeating sounds,

words, phrases, sentences, which are often taken out of the context and as such

difficult to remember. Speech is more than repeating what you hear; the shape of

your mouth, breathing, posture and even facial expressions are part of correct

pronunciation. Being aware of all that can improve students’ speech and it can be a

lot of fun, especially for younger learners who probably will not mind making faces

and exaggerate with the pronunciation.

This is the common ground between learning a language and acting. Actors have a

bag of tricks that can come in handy in a classroom as well:

- relaxation and posture: exercises designed to release tension

- breathing: learning to control and utilise breathing

- tone: learning to use mouth, nose and pharynx o produce sounds

- pitch: exercises to practice rise and fall of the voice

- articulation: tongue-twisters, chants, or bits of poetry to secure clear speech.

2.6.3 The exercises

a. relaxation, breathing and posture

Getting rid of tension will help students concentrate on what they are doing. A couple

of breathing and gym exercises are a good way to start a lesson (or to take a break

27 Wessels, 1987, p. 62-71


45

between tasks when students get restless or lose interest in their work). This way we

can ensure a creative, relaxed learning atmosphere.

Instruct the students to stand up straight, legs slightly apart, shoulders relaxed and

head upright. Then instruct them to rotate their necks slowly, four times to the left,

and four times to the right.

Next, instruct them to roll their shoulders backwards; first the left, then the right

shoulder four times and finally both shoulders eight times.

Now, they should inhale and raise their arm to shoulder-height, then exhale and raise

them above their heads. Keeping both arms in that position, they should stretch up

ten times with each hand, then inhale and lower their arms to shoulder-height, and

then drop them to their sides.

Finally, asked them to stand in a circle and turn to the left. Ask them to reach out to

the shoulders of the person in front of them and very gently massage that student’s

shoulders and neck.

The instructions can be given in students’ mother tongue or in English, accompanied

with demonstrations. The teacher’s voice should be gentle and soft, and the

exercises should be done slowly without straining the muscles. The massage at the

end can be an effective icebreaker, but in shyer groups one might omit it or instead of

the massage instruct the students to give the person in front of them a nice pat on

the back for doing a good job.

b. some more breathing, pitch and tone

Tone is nothing other but our voice. Everyone has their own specific tone by which

we recognise them even if we cannot see them (over the phone, for example). In

learning a foreign language, we need to learn how to use our mouth, tongue, lips and

jaws correctly in order to be able to produce the right sounds.

Ask your students to stand in a circle. Instruct them to breathe through their noses

and silently release their breaths out through their mouths. They should inhale for

three counts, hold their breaths for three and exhale for thee counts as well. Repeat

this exercise a couple of times.

Then continue with tones: as students exhale, ask them to let out their breath on a

long AAA /a:/, the next breath should be let out on a long OOOH /u:/, then EEE /i:/,


46

MMM and NNN. Then try combinations: MMMMAAA, MMMOOOH, NEEE,

NOOOH… practise these combinations with a rising and falling pitch, climbing as

high as possible and dropping as low as you can go. Repeat each combination three

times or so. End the exercise with a loud shout out of the word TOPEKA!

These exercises encourage awareness of breath control, which enables voice

control, which we need in order to pronounce words correctly.

c. intonation and stress

The rising and falling of our intonation (pitch) as we speak sounds like a melody and

if we want to be in tune, we need to learn when to climb a mountain and when to go

to the basement.

Give the students short scenes to read aloud in pairs. Use extracts from simplified

plays or interesting course book dialogues. After practising their scenes, they should

present them to the rest of the class. If the class cannot understand what they are

trying to say, the teacher and the rest of the class should help with comments on how

the group can improve on a second reading.

The teacher can prepare copies of latest news (simplified if necessary) and choose a

few students to read it aloud to the class. Then explain why some were more

successful than others.

Give the students a tape to listen to (preferably a native speaker) and ask them to try

to imitate the speaker. It can be a competition: who is the best mimic in the class. Do

not forget to explain why this student was more successful than others.

d. articulation

Articulation can be practised through “vocal warm-ups” (warm-up in this case does

not mean it should be used in the beginning of the lesson only) which help students

distinguish between related sounds and practice sounds that are most problematic

(for example, /r/, /ð/, /θ/).

Tongue-twisters can be a lot of fun: “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

Did Peter Piper pick a peck of pickled peppers? If Peter Piper picked a peck of


47

pickled peppers, where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?”,” Red

lorry, yellow lorry, red lorry, yellow lorry.”

Or we can use minimal pairs like “papapa/bababa/tatata/dadada/kakaka/gagaga” or

bits of poetry that are difficult to pronounce.

It is usually easier for the students if they start this type of exercises together, in

group chanting/choral reading, then in pairs and only after they feel secure enough

and willing, on their own.

Read the phonetic symbol chart and mouth each sound very clearly allowing

students to focus on the shape of your mouth, the position of your tongue etc. You

can also make flash cards with the key words of the sounds, pronounce each one

three times and let the students join you the last time. Let them sound out the

symbols in pairs monitoring each other and/r let them observe themselves in the

mirror (they can bring small mirrors with them).

If you have the resources, you can make a video of this exercise, zooming in on the

mouth as a particular sound is demonstrated. You will need someone to help you but

having a video like that is quite useful.

Face loosening exercises will help students with articulation as well:

Ask the students to widen their faces – eyes wide open, mouth gaping – then ask

them to close their eyes and mouths as tightly as they can. After that, massage your

face with palms of your hands (not too vigorously) and end the exercise with shaking

your head and “blowing raspberries” (expelling the air through loose lips).

Lip reading can also help students speak more clearly. Ask your students to pair up.

Instruct them to mouth initial words first and then whole sentences provided on a

piece of paper until their partners can understand them.

A split dialogue is another exercise, which can help students improve their

pronunciation. You can divide the class in two groups; give one group questions and

the other answers. The two groups stand on the opposite sides of the classroom so

the students need to speak clearly and loudly if they want to be understood.

It should be noted that drama games and exercises mentioned here cannot entirely

substitute audio tapes and repetition drills – old school still has something to give.


48

Especially when teachers are not native speakers, they need good models of proper

pronunciation. Drama, however, helps students understand the importance of

pronunciation better and can make the drills more meaningful and productive.

It is understood that the teacher needs to be an active participant in all the activities.

She acts as the model and sets the pace of exercises, which should be brisk and

lively, using short and crisp orders: “Repeat, Do this, Again, Say ______ and so on.

In group activities the teacher is almost a conductor leading an orchestra; waving her

hands, signalling which part of the class’ turn it is.

The teacher should also expect some initial laughs, which are welcome but she

should insist on taking the exercises seriously and finish them as planned.

2.7 Spoken communication skills28

Dramatised play readings, improvisation and situational role-plays are a fine addition

to other communication activities. Drama games and warm-ups can contribute

significantly to group dynamics because none of these exercises/activities can be

successful unless participants are willing to cooperate. In other words, drama carries

social value on one hand and linguistic on the other.

Dramatised play readings

The first challenge a teacher faces is choosing the text. She needs to decide whether

she wants to use a sketch/play specially written for language teaching or an extract

from an original play. The advantage of the later is in richness of the vocabulary and

variety of genres to choose from. The extracts should not be longer than an A4 page

– depending on the level of the class. The chosen scene should be able to stand on

its own as a meaningful unit. When considering dramatised reading at an elementary

level, the vocabulary should be simple and utterances short.

The ideal lesson would start with a warm-up chant or a song about the topic the main

activity is going to address. Then an explanation of the central part of the lesson

would follow and after all the students are familiar with the instructions, the reading

may begin. Before the students start working on the text, the teacher should read it

aloud and ask a few comprehension questions. This gives students an opportunity to

clear up any vocabulary doubts and other questions. Then the teacher can

28 Wessels, 1987, p. 75-92


49

encourage the students to speculate about the context of the scene – what happened

before and what will happen next. Then the class is divided into groups (according to

the number of characters in the scene). They start practising reading the scene

aloud: they look at their lines briefly and then repeat them looking up. By the end of

the lesson they usually succeed in memorising all their lines. If there is time, a follow-

up activity can be an improvisation of continuation of the scene.

Improvisations

It has been mentioned that improvisations require a certain degree of language

knowledge. However, even at the elementary level teachers can try out this

challenging drama technique. Preparation is important, so adequate warm-ups are a

must. Teachers can prepare the students in different ways like re-arrangement of

furniture – getting students away from their desks, with physical warm-ups, non-

verbal games like “Cup ball”, “the trust circle” or “Mirrors”, and verbal games like

“Concentration”, “Feelings” or “Robot”.

A game appropriate for elementary level is “Music-picture”. In this activity the teacher

plays a suggestive piece of music (birds, running or dripping water, wind,

soundtracks from films, etc.). The class listens to it with their eyes closed and tries to

picture the scene. Play the music twice and during the rest of the activity as well.

Students then discuss what they visualised in groups. Then they devise a mime to

accompany the music. Each group performs their mime and the rest of the class tries

to guess what the mime means.

Situational role-plays

Situational role-plays deal with real life situations from daily life. Situational role-plays

rely heavily on improvisation and calls for the teacher to take on many different roles

to challenge and interact with the students. Teachers should adapt vocabulary and

structures to the students’ level.

An example of a situation a teacher can provide in an EFL class:

Pretend you are taking a language course/attending summer school in Britain.

- Students phone the school to get details on the course, the cost, accommodation…

- They make friends with someone on the plane and make up the conversation

- Someone was supposed to meet you at the airport but is not there yet. Role-play

the conversation as you call their house to find out what is going on.

- On the first day at school, you join the wrong class. Explain your problem.


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3 PURPOSE

The main goal of this diploma paper is to present the advantages of including drama

in a lesson plan in foreign language teaching and give an example of a detailed

lesson plan with examples of games, activities, and different drama techniques which

can be used in a classroom. The focus of the diploma paper is on the elementary

level of foreign language proficiency.

4 HYPOTHESIS

I will use multiple intelligences theory, learning styles theory, different methods of

FLT and publications on drama in the classroom to support the hypothesis:

a) Drama helps students overcome the barrier of speaking in the target

language.

b) Drama makes students feel more confident and safe to use their knowledge

and experience in a foreign language class.

c) With drama, students can learn the target language in real life situations in

which they can learn to communicate and not only reproduce the rules they

have learned.

5 METHODOLOGY

In the diploma paper primary and secondary sources are used; and the methodology

of generalisation and comparison of different theories. The diploma will provide an

example of how to use drama activities (games, verbal and non-verbal exercise, etc.)

in a lesson plan.


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6 PLANNING A LESSON

6.1 About the text

There are several reasons why I chose this text. First, it is quite a famous book

written by a famous Slovenian author, which means most students are probably

already familiar with the story or have at least heard of cosies. The fact that students

have the opportunity to read it both in Slovenian and in English is another advantage.

Third, it is a mixture of real life and an imaginary world. The story is about the way

people live and their “cubs” on one hand, and about imaginary creatures on the

other. It covers familiar turf for students and that is an advantage because they can

draw from their experience when asked to talk and contemplate about the subject.

The imaginary part opens doors for creativity. Anything is possible in the pretend

world. There are no wrong answers; therefore, students might feel safe enough to

express themselves freely.

The chosen text is a bit longer than it is usually recommended for elementary level

students (one A4 page), but most lines are very short so it can be used such as it is

(especially when the teacher has a double slot at her disposal). There are at least

two more options as to what teachers can do to meet the quantity criterion. One can

shorten the text by cutting out some of the lines, or lose the ending and let students

make it up. Another option would be cutting it into two short passages and then have

one half of the class work on one bit and the other half on the other. All “cutting

options” can bring a little healthy competition in the classroom. They can make

students work harder and try to be more creative in finding the missing pieces or

tying the loose ends. Like any other children’s story, this one too offers wonderful

opportunities for arts & crafts activities (drawing, making puppets, sculptures, etc.).

Since the author of the story is Slovenian, students can talk about her and her work

at the Slovenian course, and learn one of her songs at music class.

6.2 About the class

It has been mentioned before that this paper deals mainly with lower grades of

elementary school. So, this text and drama activities that are presented within the

lesson plan are aimed at and should be suitable for students who have been taking

English lessons for a while (in the forth grade – but not at the beginning of the class,


52

and in the fifth grade; in both cases students should already have some language

knowledge).

It is difficult to predict the number of students in the class since the number varies

from generation to generation and school to school. Nevertheless, it is quite safe to

predict that it will probably take from six to eight groups of three students to act out

the dialogues and do other drama exercises (we are going to need two cosies and a

sparrow in each group).

6.3 About the classroom

“Setting the scene”, so to speak, is important not only because drama games and

activities usually call for movement, but also because it helps set the right mood, and

build relationships between students and the teacher.

Putting up posters, drawings and pictures on the walls, and the teacher setting an

example with her positive attitude – it all builds a nurturing learning environment.

Warm-up games can help students get to know each other better (Handshakes, I’m

X, and I’m from Z, The trust circle, etc.) and prepare them for the lesson.

Creating space for students to move around the classroom should not be a problem.

It can be a physical, team warm-up activity if you share the classroom with other

teachers who might prefer the traditional desk arrangement. If you are the only one

teaching in this classroom, you can arrange the furniture to your liking and leave it

like that for as long as it works for you.

6.4 The teacher’s role vs. the students’ role

Preparing a lesson is the teacher’s job. She can do it on her own or in cooperation

with her colleagues, (teamwork cannot be avoided when she is planning a cross-

curricular lesson, for instance). Either way, this is the time when she is playing the

“centre-stage role”. As she walks into the classroom, she should let go of it and let

students gradually take on the initiative and responsibility for learning. Students can

and will learn from each other if we let them.

Even though doing is better than watching, observation is an important part of the

teacher’s role in the classroom. While students are busy working on their

assignments, she should step back, observe their progress, and jump in if needed.

During observation she can also pick up mistakes students might be making and


53

correct them. Feedback is important. Not only for students (it helps them improve

their knowledge) but also for the teacher – she can find out whether the activities she

prepared are too demanding, too easy, whether pacing and timing are off, whether

students are frustrated or bored. This way she can plan her next lesson better and

learn something about the class.

6.5 Lesson aims

It is important for students to know not only what they are learning but why they are

learning it as well. When students are aware of the goal, it will help them concentrate

and organise their activities within a group (it works with individual tasks, too). Setting

a time limit also helps them focus; getting the timing and pacing just right is another

matter, though. With time, as the teacher becomes more experienced, she will be

able to predict more accurately how much time an activity will take up. Until then,

observing the students will help her decide whether they are ready to move on to

another exercise or not. So, getting the timing right can be the teacher’s personal

aim. Otherwise, aims usually refer to what the students should learn from the lesson:

a new structure, a function, new vocabulary, pronunciation, and which skill they will

be working on: listening, speaking, reading or writing.

A lesson containing drama games and activities is focussed on developing speaking

skills and non-verbal communication in general, however, some activities are more

specialised (tongue-twisters aim at pronunciation more than anything else).

Sticking to the plan at any cost or adapting to the situation at hand is a dilemma with

no easy solution. A compromise is probably the best answer: when the class seems

to stray from the originally set aim, it might be a good idea to remind them of their

task and promise to deal with the issues that have arisen in another lesson.

6.6 Lesson aids and materials

In order for students to understand what is required of them (activity and lesson

aims), the teacher should give clear instructions. However, sometimes words are not

enough, especially in foreign language beginners’ classes where students do not

have a vast vocabulary explaining “the rules” can be a bit of a problem. Before she

resorts to giving the instructions in students’ native language, the teacher should

explore other options to get her message across. She could try demonstrating the


54

activity, give examples, ask one of the more cooperative students to explain the task

in target or native language, and/or use different aids (flesh cards, realia, play a

tape/video, etc.).

As far as aids and materials needed in a drama-oriented lesson are concerned, they

can vary from very simple or even none to demanding and numerous. Depending on

how much drama the teacher wants in the classroom. She could be using only one or

two drama techniques or activities to make the lesson more interesting and dynamic;

or she could be working on a drama project – putting up a play where students would

need props and costumes and a whole set. This paper deals with the first alternative

so we will put a play on a pause and focus more on activities which’s purpose is to

spice up lessons.

The one thing a drama-oriented lesson can hardly do without is the text. Therefore, a

handout will probably come in handy. Besides the text, it can also contain different

follow-up activities.

6.7 Activities

At this stage of planning the lesson, all the preparations have been made (preparing

the classroom, choosing the text, gathering materials and aids, setting the goals). It is

now time to choose the activities for the drama-oriented lesson.

Icebreakers and warm-ups: The reason why a lesson should start with a warm-up

game/activity is to relax the students and prepare them for what lies ahead. It can be

use to introduce the topic of the lesson. A combination of two short activities is

possible: with the first one, we break the ice and with the second one, we introduce

the topic.

Checking homework is another way of starting a lesson. A quick revision of past work

can be an effective intro, especially when the lesson we are about to start is a

continuance of the last one. Some warm-ups can be used with students of all ages

and at all proficiency levels, particularly when learners show interest in drama.

In a 45-minute lesson, a warm-up should not take more than ten minutes.

During activities: After the warm-up, the teacher can introduce the text she chose

for the lesson. Again, a step-by-step approach is better than diving into the

listening/reading head on. The teacher can try to elicit some information about the


55

text from the students by asking questions about the author, giving clues on the

characters and the plot, showing cue cards or miming and letting the students guess

which text they will be working on. Once the title is out in the open, the teacher can

proceed to the listening/reading. During listening students can do different exercises

however, the first listening should be activity free. Students should focus on the story

and after making sure students understand the story, dissecting the text can begin.

These activities can be done individually or in groups. However, if the focus is on

communication group activities seem to be more appropriate. This is the part of the

lesson when the teacher steps back a bit and lets students do all the work.

Time wise, the lesson is well into the last quarter. The teacher should make sure

students completed their tasks, and give feedback (she might have given some

comments during the activities, corrected some mistakes). A final overall assessment

of the lesson should give everyone a sense of accomplishment and a quick look into

the future might awaken students’ curiosity. The best-case scenario for the end of the

lesson is that everyone leaves the classroom in a good mood wanting to come back

for s’more.

6.8 Anticipated problems and solutions

As pessimistic as this may sound – assuming things will go wrong – it is a part of

planning and being prepared. There are number of things that can go wrong. Some

of these situations can be predicted and managed and some are beyond teachers’

control (power cut, only half of the class present due to a flue outbreak etc.).

Problems teachers can foresee can be fixed by:

� giving students more time,

� encouraging them,

� letting them know that it is ok to make a mistake,

� giving more examples,

� changing individual activities to pair or group work,

� making a joke or telling a short anecdote to release the tension,

� bring extra materials,

� calm them down (turning the light on and off repeatedly is a possible solution)

No matter what the problem might be, solving it requires teachers’ flexibility,

confidence and resourcefulness. Therefore, anticipation and preparation may prevent

panic reactions that may eventually lead into chaos.


56

Suggestions mentioned earlier can come in handy when students:

� are reluctant to speak

� are unsure how to start

� do not bring the materials they were asked to

� get bored or tired

� get too enthusiastic, things get a bit out of control (this can be a problem

especially during activities that require a lot of movement)

Integration of students with special needs (hearing and visually impaired) is not a

problem in itself however, it creates a different learning environment and it requires

teacher’s attention.

Students who do not speak either of languages (in our case, neither Slovenian nor

English) can be quite a challenge for a foreign language teacher. These situations

take a lot of patience and hard work nevertheless, these obstacles are bridgeable.

6.9 Self-evaluation

Feedback is important not only for students but also for teachers. After the lesson,

the teacher should go over the plan and check which parts of the lesson went well

and which were not too successful. Her findings will help her plan future lessons.

Taking into account which activities work better in which class, how much time it

takes to complete a certain task, to what extent were lesson aims realised, how

effective were activities she chose, what would she do differently, did anything great

happen, did she learn anything about the students, and other questions she might

have regarding the lesson.

6.10 The original text

The text is taken from Svetlana Makarovič’s children’s book Cosies on the Flying

Spoon, translated into English by Sonja Kravanja.

There are fourteen chapters in the book, all about a journey of two cosies. Even

though the reader follows this one journey, each chapter is a completed story in itself.

The following transcription is true to its original. In the lesson plan, a shortened and

adapted version is used.


57

No kidding, a sparrow!

“Hey, Glal! Are you a bit sick of flying, too?”

“Yes. How about you?”

“Me, too. And you, too?”

“Yes. Do you think we’ll soon reach the northsoutheast?”

“Who knows.”

“We’ll know once we get there.”

Their journey has been a long one already.

“Look, a sparrow! Hello, sparrow! Is it still far to the northsoutheast?”

The sparrow chirped:

“Give me a tomato and I’ll tell you.”

“Here. Is it far?”

The sparrow couldn’t answer, because his beak was full:

“Milmnlmniam!” was all the cosies could hear.

“What are you saying?”

“You are almost there. See that town?”

“No, we don’t see anything.”

“Neither can I, because a hill is in between.”

“Please don’t make fun of us. We’d really like to know.”

“There really is a hill in between, I am not kidding.”

“And behind the hill there is a town, you say?”

“I don’t say anything, I only asked you if you saw it.”

The cosies didn’t know whether to laugh or to be angry.

“Is there really a town behind that hill?” asked Glilly very politely.

“Give me one more tomato and I’ll tell you.”

They gave him one more tomato.

“What kind of town is it? Tries Glilly again.

“Milmnlmniam,” replied the sparrow, “it is the northsoutheast town.”

“Who lives in it?”

“Oh, give me a break! Sparrows, of course!”

“Does that mean it is the sparrows’ town?”

“The sparrows’, yes, mainly the sparrows’ town, yes. But other animals live in it as

well. Swallows, blackbirds, titmice, chickens, pigeons and a mob like that.”

“Cosies, too? Like the two of us?”


58

The sparrow thought about this:

“Maybe. But I’ve never seen one.”

“Tell us more about this town!”

“Well, we also have dogs and cats and people.”

The cosies clapped with excitement. Glilly exclaimed:

“Then this really is the northsoutheast! Glal, we’ll see people! The real he-men and

she-men!”

“What is so special about that?” said the sparrow, wrinkling his nose.

“But we’ve never seen humans before” explained Glal, “we’ve only heard about them.

Aren’t they animals with no body hair? Big, gigantic? Always walking on their hind

legs? We must see this!”

“You’ve never seen a human before? That’s odd!”

“Never. They don’t exist in Cossoviria. Do they have cubs, too?”

“Of course they do,” smiled the sparrow.

“What do their young ones look like?”

“What do they look like? Soft and pink. Something is leaking out of them somewhere

all the time. They slobber a lot, and when they scream they raise more noise than ten

magpies together. Not worth talking about.”

The more the cosies heard about this, the more they were intrigued. Meanwhile the

spoon had flown over the hill and was now sailing over the town.

Such huge houses! Streets! Chimneys! And look, there is a small house back there,

with a lot of sunflowers, a garden full of yellow sunflowers!

“Bye! You’ll find your way around!” chirped the sparrow, sneaked one more tomato

and flew off.


59

6.11 No kidding, a lesson plan!

Lesson period: 45 minutes

Level/grade: elementary/4th – 5th

Skills developed: mostly listening and speaking, reading aloud

1st Stage and activity: Icebreaker. Spin the spoon!

Stage aim: releasing tension, getting ready to learn

Estimated time: 5 minutes

Preparation: the teacher brings a big spoon or a wooden ladle with tomatoes. She

can make little tomatoes out of paper, colour them red and glue them to

the spoon.

She moves the furniture (if necessary) so that SS can sit in a circle on

the floor.

Instructions: the teacher says good morning/hello to the class, starts wit a polite

question or two. Then she “reveals the plan” and asks students to sit in

a circle, and explains the rules of the game. When the spoon stops

spinning, the person the handle is pointing at should pick an animal and

say: “I’m a _______.” and spin the spoon. The teacher starts the game.

Students’ should: spin the spoon and name an animal when it is their turn.

Comments: instead of animals, students can name vegetables/fruits/parts of the

body/clothing etc. The pace of the game should be quite brisk.

2nd Stage and activity: pre-listening. A guessing game.

Stage aim: introducing the topic, working on students vocabulary


Preparation: cue cards/realia: photo of the author, the book, another book by the

author, a sparrow, a compass, the tomato spoon, a town, a hill, a baby,

a man and a woman.


60

Instructions: the teacher tells the students to stay in the circle and try to guess

which story they are going to hear (the title she is looking for is Cosies

on the Flying Spoon; No kidding, a sparrow! is too detailed). She shows

the cards, starting from least obvious (compass or a baby) to the

author’s photo. She also instructs the students to try to memorise the

images. She offers comment/questions with the cards to guide the

students in the right direction.

Students’ should: stay in the circle, try to guess the title and memorise the images.

Comments: This game can be played in groups, pairs or individually.

3rd Stage and activity: listening, No kidding, a sparrow!

Stage aim: listening comprehension


Preparation: shortening and adapting the text, marking cue words, practise reading

aloud (focusing on the stress, intonation, rhythm, pronunciation, clarity,

interpretation).

Instructions: the teacher tells students to listen to her read the story. She reads the

story slowly and clearly, pausing a little at cue words, emphasising

them. During the second reading, she instructs students to listen

carefully and try to think of the cue cards as they listen.

Students’ should: listen carefully the first time around and pay attention to cue

words during the second reading.

Comments: students are still sitting in the circle without pens and notebooks. They

can concentrate on listening alone. This can be a difficult exercise for

students who rely on visual stimuli.


61

4th Stage: post listening

Stage aim: reading and speaking practice, teamwork

Estimated time: 20 minutes (broken down into three activities; time limits are

stated in the “instructions” paragraph for each activity).

Activity №1: Matchmaker

Preparation: handout of the shortened and adapted text; drawing cards: in different

colours (a colour for each group), with numbers on them: one for Glilly,

two for Glal, and three for sparrow.

Instructions: the teacher divides students in to small groups of three using drawing

cards. She hands out the text and asks students to read it and mark the

words they believe are connected with the cue cards. She gives

students 5 minutes to complete the task and reminds them to use target

language. Check which words they found.

Students’ should: draw cards, find their partners and take their sits. Feel free to

discuss which words match and mark them in their

texts/handouts.

Comments: if the teacher notices students are having trouble recalling the words,

she can stick the cue cards on the black board.

Activity №2: Let’s make them talk!

Instructions: teacher makes sure everyone has their part and asks students to read

their lines as interpretatively as they can – using facial expressions and

gestures. They have 5 minutes to complete the task.

Students’ should: read their lines aloud – the dialogue.


62

Activity №3: Tell me how it ends.

Preparation:

Instructions: the text ends with a question. The teacher asks the students to answer

it and put all their answers on a mind map. She asks them to present

their maps with answers. She should make sure everyone understands

what a “human cub” is.

She gives students 10 minutes to complete the task and reminds them

to use target language.

Students’ should: work in groups drawing a mind map with all the possible answers.

Report to the class.

5th Stage and activity: round off. A flock of sparrows.

Stage aim: leaving the classroom in good spirits


Instructions: the teacher asks students to think of a flock of sparrows: chirping,

jumping on the ground or flying in a flock, they can be quite noisy. She

asks students to think of a line or a phrase from the text. They can look

it up if they cannot think of it right away. Keep the thought in mind. At

her signal they start chanting their thought, first one “sparrow” then two

and so on until the whole class joins in. then the teacher starts giving

directions: chant sadly/happily/whisper/shout/in a low voice/in a high

voice/fast/slowly/angrily/in love…

Compliment students for the work they have done, say goodbye. Asses

the lesson or prepare for another class.

Students’ should: think of a line/phrase/sentence that they remember from the text

and at the teacher’s signal start chanting it. Listen to instructions

and chant the way the teacher asks them to.


63

7 CONCLUSION

No matter how carefully teachers plan their lessons, it is highly unlikely that the

lesson will go exactly as planed. The main reason is the fact that students learn in

different ways. Certain students will constantly make the same mistakes in spite of all

teachers’ efforts and attention. That, however, is not an excuse for teachers to take it

easy and stop trying. Presenting a topic through different channels (visual, audio,

tactile) will benefit students’ learning more than one-dimensional lesson.

Besides their differences and preferences in learning styles, teachers should try to

nurture students’ multiple intelligences, too. According to Gardner’s theory, we all

possess (at least) eight different intelligences and some are more developed than the

others. However, there is no reason why teachers should not try to build on all or

most of them. In foreign language teaching there is more than enough room to make

use of more than just linguistic intelligence. Drama in the classroom can help make

this come true. Coordination of movement and speaking helps us remember more

information. This is something not only actors will confirm, but also a teaching

method based on bodily reaction (Total physical response). Several methods find

games, rhymes, songs, role-play, drama, improvisation etc. in a class good ways to

teach a foreign language and ones mentioned in the paper support these ideas more

or less directly. A fusion of different methods can create new, personalised teaching

style. A part of that style is the teachers’ personality, of course. Some people were

born to be teachers, others can learn. Things that come to us naturally do not

guarantee success. What we lack in talent we can make up in practice. There are no

lost causes in teaching and learning. There is enough work to go around for all

though. However, “All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.” Therefore, making

learning and teaching a fun experience is not a mission impossible. Chants, rhymes,

and games can be a part of the lesson without taking a toll on learning. They liven up

the class and make time fly by – for students and teachers both.

Consulting several sources the conclusion can be made that drama helps students

overcome the barrier of speaking in the target language; it makes them feel more

confident and safe to use their pre-existing knowledge and experience in a foreign

language class. With drama in the classroom, students can learn the target language

in real life situations in which they can learn to communicate and not only reproduce

rules and word lists from a textbook.


64

Another conclusion can be drawn from the resources used to write this paper,

classroom games are not restricted to beginners’ level and young learners. Students

of all ages and proficiency levels can benefit from them and appreciate them. If

nothing else, teachers can use drama games as icebreakers and round-off activities

to loosen up the atmosphere and fill everyone with optimism.

Drama in the classroom requires a lot of peer cooperation. In other words, it

encourages teamwork, meanwhile developing students’ interpersonal and linguistic

intelligence.

After reading about drama in the classroom, I am convinced that adding elements of

it in the lessons can bring motivation, fun, energy, and discipline into learning and

teaching. It works for many teachers and I believe it will work for me, too.


65

REFERENCES

Cvetek, S., (2002). Introduction to English Language Teaching. Maribor: Pedagoška

fakulteta.

Ibuka, M., (1992). V vrtcu bo morda že prepozno. Ljubljana: Tangram.

Larsen-Freeman, D., (2003). Techniques and Principles in Language teaching.

Oxford etc.: Oxford University Press.

Littlewood, W., (1996). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge etc.:

Cambridge University Press.

Makarovič, S., (1994). Cosies on the Flying Spoon. Ljubljana: DZS.

Marentič – Požarnik, B., Peklaj, C., Magajna, L., (1995). Izziv raznolikosti : stili

spoznavanja, učenja, mišljenja. Nova Gorica : Educa.

Phillips, S., (1999). Drama with Children. Oxford etc.: Oxford University Press.

Stiplovšek, L., (2003). The use of Games in Early English Teaching Classroom.

Diplomsko delo, Maribor: Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta.

Wessels, C., (1987). Drama. Oxford etc.: Oxford University Press.

http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm

http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences

http://www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/template.chapter/menuitem.b71d101a2f7c208cd

eb3ffdb62108a0c/?chapterMgmtId=b44c177a55f9ff00VgnVCM1000003d01a8c0RCR

D


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SUPPLEMENTARY PAGES

Supplementary page A: The teacher’s sheet


“Hey, Glal! Are you a bit sick of flying, too?”

“Yes. Do you think we’ll soon reach the northsoutheast?”

“Who knows.”

“We’ll know once we get there.”


“Look, a sparrow! Hello, sparrow! Is it still far to the northsoutheast?”

The sparrow chirped:

“Give me a tomato and I’ll tell you.”

“Here. Is it far?”

The sparrow couldn’t answer, because his beak was full:

“Milmnlmniam!” was all the cosies could hear.

“What are you saying?”

“You are almost there. See that town?”

“No, we don’t see anything.”

“Neither can I, because a hill is in between.”

“Please don’t make fun of us. We’d really like to know.”

“There really is a hill in between, I am not kidding.”

“And behind the hill there is a town, you say?”

“I don’t say anything, I only asked you if you saw it.”


“Is there really a town behind that hill?” asked Glilly very politely.

“Give me one more tomato and I’ll tell you.”


“What kind of town is it? Tries Glilly again.

“Milmnlmniam,” replied the sparrow, “it is the northsoutheast town.”

“Tell us more about this town!”

“Well, we have birds and also dogs and cats and people.”

The cosies clapped with excitement. Glilly exclaimed:


67

“Then this really is the northsoutheast! Glal, we’ll see people! The real he-men and

she-men!”

“What is so special about that?” said the sparrow, wrinkling his nose.

“But we’ve never seen humans before” explained Glal, “we’ve only heard about

them. Aren’t they animals with no body hair? Big, gigantic? Always walking on their

hind legs? We must see this! Do they have cubs, too?”

“Of course they do,” smiled the sparrow.

“What do their young ones look like?”

Supplementary page B: The handout


Glilly: “Hey, Glal! Are you a bit sick of flying, too?”

Glal: “Yes. Do you think we’ll soon reach the northsoutheast?”

Glilly: “Who knows.”

Glal: “We’ll know once we get there.”


Glilly: “Look, a sparrow! Hello, sparrow! Is it still far to the northsoutheast?”

The sparrow chirped: “Give me a tomato and I’ll tell you.”

Glal: “Here. Is it far?”

The sparrow couldn’t answer, because his beak was full: “Milmnlmniam!” was all the

cosies could hear.

Glilly: “What are you saying?”

Sparrow: “You are almost there. See that town?”

Glilly and Glal: “No, we don’t see anything.”

Sparrow: “Neither can I, because a hill is in between.”

Glal: “Please don’t make fun of us. We’d really like to know.”

Sparrow: “There really is a hill in between, I am not kidding.”

Glilly: “And behind the hill there is a town, you say?”

Sparrow: “I don’t say anything, I only asked you if you saw it.”


Glilly asks very politely: “Is there really a town behind that hill?”

Sparrow: “Give me one more tomato and I’ll tell you.”



68

Glilly: “What kind of town is it?

Sparrow: “Milmnlmniam, it is the northsoutheast town.”

Glal: “Tell us more about this town!”

Sparrow: “Well, we have birds and also dogs and cats and people.”

The cosies clapped with excitement. Glilly exclaimed: “Then this really is the

northsoutheast! Glal, we’ll see people! The real he-men and she-men!”

Sparrow, wrinkles his nose: “What is so special about that?”

Glal: “But we’ve never seen humans before. We’ve only heard about them. Aren’t

they animals with no body hair? Big, gigantic? Always walking on their hind legs? We

must see this! Do they have cubs, too?”

Sparrow smiled: “Of course they do,”

Glilly: “What do their young ones look like?”


69

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Drama in the Classroomt - core.ac.uk · drama in foreign language teaching and give an example of a detailed lesson plan with ... The diploma paper deals with teaching English