Teaching Media of Drama Analysis

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Teaching Media of Drama Analysis

English Department,

Semarang State University

September 2011

Week I

What is Drama?

In general, the word drama means a form of theatre which has become literature,or a piece of literature written to be performed (Scanlan, 1988).

The word comes from a Greek word dran, which means to act or to perform.

Drama is like fiction, in which both focus on one or a few major characters indealing with other characters.

Drama is also like poetry, in which both genres can develop situations throughspeech and action.

Yet, fiction is different from drama that the essence of fiction is narration or therecounting of a sequence of events or actions (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

Poetry is also different from drama because it exists in many formal and informalshapes, and it is usually written in a short and condense way.

Drama is literature designed for impersonation by people actors for the benefitand delight of other people an audience (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

Drama is divided into two basic kinds: classical and modern. Classical dramaincludes, but is not confined to, the plays of ancient Greece, Shakespearean drama,

and the neoclassical drama of the 17th

and 18th

centuries. Modern drama begins in

the latter half of the 19th

century (Scanlan, 1988).

The Dramatic Vision For example, the plays of ancient Athens were composed in intricate poetic forms.

Many European plays from the Renaissance through the 19th century were writtenin blank verse or rhymed couplets.

Unlike both fiction and poetry, drama is literature designed for impersonation bypeople actors for the benefit and delight of other people an audience.

Drama is special because it can be presented and discussed both as literature drama itself and as performance the production of plays in the theatre (Roberts

& Jacobs, 1998).


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Week II

The Dramatic Vision

The major literary aspects of drama are the text, character, plot, structure, point ofview, language, tone, symbolism, and theme ormeaning.

The text of a play is in effect a plan for bringing the play into action on the stage. The most notable features of the text are dialogue, monologue, and stage

directions.

Dialogue is the conversation of two or more characters. Monologue is spoken by a single character who is usually alone onstage. Stage directions are the playwrights instructions about facial and vocal expression,

movement and action, gesture and body language, stage appearance, lighting,

and similar matters (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

CHARACTERSCharacters in drama are persons the playwright creates to embody the plays

actions, ideas, and attitudes. They look lifelike through action and speech. Mostmajor dramatic characters are considered as protagonists and antagonists. Drama

also presents us with both roundandflatcharacters. A round, dynamic, developing,and growing character, like Shakespeares Hamlet profits from experience and

undergoes a development in awareness, insight, understanding, moral capacity, andthe ability to make decisions. Meanwhile, a flat, static, fixed, and unchanging

character, like the men in Glaspells Trifles, does not undergo any change or

growth (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998). Dramatic characters can also be realistic, nonrealistic, stereotyped (orstock),

ancillary, andsymbolic.

Realistic characters are designed to seem like individualized women and men; theyare given thoughts, desires, motives, personalities, and lives of their own.

Nonrealistic characters are often undeveloped and symbolic. Stereotype or stock characters are unindividualized characters whose actions and

speeches make them seem to have been taken from a mold. For example: romantic

hero and heroine, clever male servant, trickster, town sheriff, etc. (Roberts &

Jacobs, 1998). Ancillary characters are those who set off or highlight the protagonist and who

provide insight into the action. The first type, the foil, has been a feature of drama

since its beginnings in ancient Athens. The foil is a character who is to becompared and contrasted with the protagonist. The second type is the choric figure,

who is loosely connected to the choruses of ancient drama. Usually the choricfigure is a single character, often a confidant of the protagonist, such as Hamlets


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friend Horatio. When the choric figure expresses ideas about the plays majorissues and actions, he or she is called a raisonneur (the French word meaning

reasoner) or commentator.

Symbolic characters symbolize ideas, moral values, religious concepts, ways oflife, or some other abstraction (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

ACTION,CONFLICT, andPLOT

Plays are made up of a series of sequential and related actions and incidents. Theactions are connected to chronology the logic of time and the term given to the

principles underlying this ordered chain of actions and reactions is plot, which is a

connected plan or pattern of causation. The impulse controlling the connections is conflict, which refers to people or

circumstances the antagonist that the protagonist tries to overcome.

Most of dramatic plots are as complicated as life itself. Special complicationsresult from a double or multiple plot two or more different but related lines ofaction. Usually one of these plots is the main plot, but the subplot can be

independently important and sometimes even more interesting.

STRUCTUREIt refers to a plays pattern of organization. Many traditional plays contain elements

that constitute afive-stage structure:

(1)Exposition or introduction,(2)Complication and development,(3)Crisis or climax,(4)Falling action, and(5)Denouement, resolution, or catastrophe

In the 19th

century, the German novelist and critic Gustav Freytag visualized this

pattern as a pyramid (though he used six elements rather than five) (Roberts &

Jacobs, 1998).

The Freytag PyramidIn the so-called Freytag pyramid, the exposition and complication lead up to a high

point of tension the crisis or climax followed by the falling action and the

catastrophe

1. Exposition or Introduction2. Complication and Development3. Crisis or Climax4. Falling Action5. Denouement, Resolution, or Catastrophe


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1. Exposition or introduction. In the first part of a drama, the dramatist introduces theplays background, characters, situations, and conflicts. Although exposition is

occasionally presented through direct statements to the audience, the better methodis to render it dramatically. Both major and minor characters thus perform the task

of exposition through dramatic dialogue describing situations, actions, and plans,and also explaining the traits and motives of other characters.

2. Complication and development. In this second stage, also called the rising action,we see the onset of difficulties that seem overwhelming and insoluble, as in both

Hamlet and Trifles, where we learn in the exposition that a death has occurredbefore the play opens. Complication develops as the characters try to learn answers

to some of the following perplexing questions: Was the death a murder? Whatshould be done about the murder?

3. Crisis or climax. The uncertainty and anxiety of the complication lead to the third

stage, the crisis (turning point) or climax (high point). In this third stage, allthe converging circumstances compel the hero or heroine to recognize what needs

to be done to resolve the plays major conflict. Another way of considering thecrisis or climax is to define it as that point in the play when uncertainty ends and

inevitability begins, as when Hamlet vows vengeance after drawing conclusionsabout the kings reaction to the player scene.

4. Falling action. The downward slope of the pyramid is the falling action, which

contains complicating elements deferring the plays conclusion. In Hamlet, forexample, a number of scenes make up the falling action: Hamlets decision not to

kill Claudius at prayer; Hamlets departure for England, etc.

5. Denouement. The final stage is the denouement (unraveling) or resolution(untying), also called the catastrophe (overturning), in which all tragic

protagonists undergo suffering or death, all mysteries are explained, all conflictsare resolved, all mistakes are corrected, all dastardly schemes are defeated, all

long-lost children are identified, all obstacles to love are overcome, all deservingcharacters are rewarded, and the play ends. In short, the function of the

denouement is to end complications and conflicts, not to create new ones (Roberts& Jacobs, 1998).

POINT OF VIEW

It refers to the narrative voice of the story, the speaker or guiding intelligencethrough which the characters and actions are presented. In drama, the term refersgenerally to a plays perspective or focus.

Basically, dramatic point of view comprises the ways in which dramatists directionattention to the plays characters and their concerns. In the theater, dramatists


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govern our responses visually by putting certain major characters onstage andkeeping them there.

The dramatist can also keep characters and issues in our minds by causing othercharacters to speak about them (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

DICTION,IMAGERY,STYLE, AND LANGUAGE A dramatist portrays characters, relationships, and conflicts through dramatic

language. Through dialogue, and sometimes through soliloquy and aside, characters use

language to reveal intimate details about their lives and their deepest thoughts their loves, hatreds, plans, and hopes.

A dramatist employs words that have wide-ranging connotations and that acquiremany layers of meaning.

A playwright can have their characters speak in similes or metaphors thatcontribute significantly to the plays meaning and impact.

A dramatist makes sure that the words of their characters fit the circumstances, thetime, and the place of the play.

A dramatist employs accents, dialects, idiom, jargon, and cliches to indicatecharacter traits (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

TONE AND ATMOSPHERE Tone in drama, as in fiction and poetry, signifies the way moods and attitudes are

created and presented. In plays, tone can be controlled through voice and stage

gestures, such as rolling ones eyes, throwing up ones hands, holding ones

forehead in despair, jumping for joy, and staggering in grief. One of the most common methods playwrights employ to control the tone of the

play is dramatic irony. This type of situational (as opposed to verbal) irony refers

to circumstances in which characters have only a partial, incorrect, or misguidedunderstanding of what is happening, while both readers and other characters

understand the situation completely (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

SYMBOLISM AND ALLEGORY In drama, as in fiction and poetry, the meaning of a symbol extends beyond its

surface meaning.

Dramatic symbols, which can be characters, settings, objects, actions, situations, orstatements, can be both cultural or contextual.

Cultural or universal symbols such as crosses, flags, snakes, and flowers aregenerally understood by the audience or reader regardless of the context in whichthey appear.

Contextual or private symbols develop their impact only within the context of aspecific play or even a particular scene.


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Allegory means a play that offers consistent and sustained symbols that refer togeneral human experiences (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

SUBJECT AND THEMEMost playwrights do not aim to propagandize their audience, but nevertheless they

do embody ideas in their play.The aspects of humanity a playwright explores constitute the plays subject.

Plays can be about love, religion, hatred, war, ambition, death, envy, or anythingelse that is part of the human condition.

The ideas that the play dramatizes make up the plays theme or meaning.A play might explore the idea that love will always find a way or that marriage can

be destructive, that pride always leads to disaster, or that grief can be conqueredthrough strength and a commitment to life (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

Drama as Performance Plays are meant to be acted. It is performance that makes a play immediate,

exciting, and powerful. The elements of performance are the actors; the director

and the producer; the stage; sets orscenery, lighting; costumes and makeup; andthe audience.

THE ACTORS Good actors have the training and experience to bring a play to life, exerting their

intelligence, emotions, imaginations, voices, and bodies in their roles. Actors speak

as they imagine the characters might speak eagerly, calmly, excitedly, prayerfully,

exultantly, sorrowfully, or angrily. When they respond, they respond as theyimagine the characters might respond with surprise, expectation, approval,

happiness, irony, acceptance, rejection, resignation, or resolution (Roberts &Jacobs, 1998).

When they move about the stage according to patterns called blocking, they moveas they imagine the characters might move slowly, swiftly, smoothly,

hesitatingly, furtively, stealthily, or clumsily, and gesturing broadly or subtly.Actors also frequently engage in stage business gestures or movements that make

the play dynamic, spontaneous, and often funny.

THE DIRECTOR AND THE PRODUCER

In the theater, all aspects of performance are controlled by the producer and thedirector. The producer, the one with the money, is responsible for financing and

arranging the production. Meanwhile, the director works closely with the producerand cooperates closely with the actors and guides them in speaking, responding,

standing, and moving in ways that are consistent with his or her vision of the play.

When a play calls for special effects, both the producer and the director work with


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specialists such as musicians, choreographers, and sound and lighting techniciansto enhance and enliven the performance.

THE STAGE Most modern theaters feature an interior proscenium stage a picture-frame stage

that is like a room with one wall missing so that the audience can look in one theaction. In most proscenium stages, a large curtain representing that missing wall is

usually opened and closed to indicate the beginning and ending of acts. Like many other modern theaters, the theatres with proscenium stage feature a

thrust stage or apron stage (like the platform stage used in the time ofShakespeare), which enlarges the proscenium stage with an acting area projecting

into the audience by twenty or more feet. Closely related to the apron stage is theater-in-the-round, a stage open on all sides

like a boxing ring, surrounded by the audience (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

SETS ORSCENERY

Most productions use sets (derived from the phrase set scenes, i.e., fixed scenes)or scenery to establish the action in place and time, to underscore the ideas of the

director, and to determine the level of reality of the production. Sets are constructed and decorated to indicate a specific place (a living room, a

kitchen, a throne room, a forest, etc.) or a detached and indeterminate place with a

specific atmosphere (an open plain, a heavenly or hellish location, a nightmarishfuture).

In most proscenium stages, the sets establish a permanent location or sceneresembling a framed picture.

Generally, one-act plays rely on a single setting and a short imagined time ofaction.

Since sets are often elaborate and costly, many producers use single -fixed-scenesets that are flexible and easily changed.

Some productions employ a single, neutral set throughout the play and then markscene changes with the physical introduction of movable properties (or props)

chairs, tables, beds, flower vases, trees, shovels, skulls, and so on.

The constant changing of scenery is sometimes avoided by the use of a unit set aseries of platforms, rooms, stairs, and exits that form the locations for all the plays

actions. The movement of the characters from place to place within the unit setmarks the shifting of scenes and the changing of topics.

Like characters, the setting can be realistic or nonrealistic. A realistic setting,sometimes called a naturalistic setting, requires extensive construction and

properties, for the object is to create a lifelike a stage as possible.


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A nonrealistic setting is nonrepresentational and often symbolic. Sometimes arealistic play can be made suggestive and expressive through the use of a

nonrealistic setting.

LIGHTINGIn ancient and medieval times, plays were performed in daylight, and hence no

artificial light was required. With the advent of indoor theaters and eveningperformances, lighting became a necessity (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

At first, artificial illumination was provided by lanterns, candelabras, sconces, andtorches, and indirect lighting was achieved by reflectors and valances all of

which were used with great ingenuity and effect. The evolution of theater lighting reached its climax with the development of

electric lights in the 19th

century.

Today, dramatic performances are enhanced by virtually all the technical featuresof our electronic age, including specialized lamps, color filters, spotlights,dimmers, and simulated fires.

This lighting is used to highlight individual characters, to isolate and emphasizevarious parts of the stage, to establish times, and generally to shape the moods of

individual scenes.

COSTUME AND MAKEUP Actors make plays vivid by wearing costumes and using makeup, which help the

audience understand a plays time period together with the occupations, mental

outlooks, and socioeconomic conditions of the characters. Costumes, which include not only dress but items such as jewelry, good-luck

charms, swords, firearms, and canes, can be used realistically (farm women in

plain clothes, a salesman in a business suit, a king in rich robes) or symbolically (adepressed character wearing black).

Makeup usually enhances an actors facial features, just as it can fix the illusion ofyouth or age or emphasize a characters joy or sorrow (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

THE AUDIENCE To be complete, plays require an interaction of actors and audience. Drama enacts fictional or historical events as if they were happening in the present,

and members of the audience whether spectators or readers are direct witnesses

to the dramatic action from start to finish. The audience most definitely has a creative impact upon theatrical performances. The audiences reactions to the onstage action provide instant feedback to the

actors and thus continually influence the delivery and pace of the performance.


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There is no intermediary between the audience and the stage action no narrator,as in prose fiction, and no speaker, as in poetry (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

Week III

The Classical Tradition: Greek Drama

The Development of Tragedy and Comedy in Ancient Greece Drama first arose from choral presentations the Athenians held during religiousfestivals, celebrating Dionysus, the god of wine; conviviality; sexual vitality;

ecstasy; and freedom. The choruses comprises young men who sang or chanted

lengthy songs that the Athenians called dithyrambs; the choruses may also have

performed dance movements during the presentations. The dithyrambs were not

dramatizations but rather recitations, which became dramatic when a member ofthe chorus was designated to step forward and impersonate - act one of theheroes (Roberts & Jacobs, 1998)..

Soon, additional men from the choruses took acting roles, and the focus of theperformances shifted from the choral group to individual actors. Greek tragedy as

we know it had come into being. Three great Athenians dramatists: Aeschylus,

Sophocles, and Euripides.

Not long after the emergence of tragedy, comedy became an additional feature ofthe festivals. Since the ancient Athenians encouraged free speech, at least formales, the comedy writers created a boisterous, lewd, and freely critical type of

burlesque comedy that critics called Old Comedy. The eleven surviving plays ofAristophanes represent this tradition.

At the end of the 5th century, the Old Comedy was replaced by Middle Comedy, amore social, discreet, and international drama.

Then, the Middle Comedy was again replaced by the New Comedy, a type of playfeaturing the development of situation, plot, and character. The best-known writerof New Comedy was Menander, whose plays were long thoughts to be totally lost;

however, a number of fragments of his work have been discovered.

Beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, special short dramatizations wereperformed during Easter and Christmas masses.

By the end of 13th century, these religious spectacles had taken on an independentcharacter and had also grown too long to be performed as part of normal services.They were moved outdoors and were performed during early summer or late springas a part of the post-Easter celebrations of Corpus Christi Day.


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These religiously inspired plays, later called Corpus Christi plays or mystery plays,were collections or cycles of plays dramatizing biblical stories such as Adam and

Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah, Abraham and Isaac, Herod, the Shepherds Abiding inthe Field (example: The Second Shepherds Play), the Trial of Jesus, the

Crucifixion, and the Resurrection. Another type of play developed the morality play, which consisted almost

literally of dramatized instructions for living a devout and holy life.

Week IV

The Classical Tradition: the Renaissance

The Fusion of Ancient and Medieval Traditions in the Renaissance

In the 16th

century, drama became liberated from its religious foundations andbegan rendering the twists and turns of more secular human conflicts. It was also at

this time that the culture and drama of ancient Greece and Rome wererediscovered.

The performing tradition growing out of the medieval church was combined withthe surviving ancient tragedies and comedies to create an entirely new drama,

which reached its highest point in the plays of Shakespeare.

Renaissance drama was by no means a copy of ancient forms, however, eventhough a number of 16

th

and 17th

century playwrights, including Shakespeare,

reworked many of the ancient plays. A play which combines disturbing and potentially destructive topics and farcical,

witty, and ironic scenes is called tragicomedy, a term first used by the Roman

playwright Plautus. Another type is farce; it is crammed full of extravagant dialogue, stage business,

and slapstick, with exaggerated emotions and rapid extremes of action. Another type, melodrama is a form in which most situations and characters are so

exaggerated that they seem ridiculous. In its pure form, melodrama brings

characters to the brink of ruin but saves through the superhuman resources of ahero who always arrives just in time to pay the mortgage, save the business, and

rescue the heroine.

A form of topical drama known as social drama (or called problem drama), a typethat still exists as serious drama today. This type of play explores social problems

and the individuals place in society. For example: Ibsens A Dollhouse, GlaspellsTrifles.


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WEEK V

The Classical Greek Drama:

The Origin and Its Characteristics Tragedy is drama in which a major character undergoes a loss but also achievesillumination or a new perspective. It is considered the most elevated literary form

because it concentrates affirmatively on the religious and cosmic implications of its

major characters misfortunes. In ancient Greece, it flourished as a key element in

Athenian religious festivals during the decades before Athens became a major

military, economic, and cultural power during the 5th

century B.C.E. Originally, it was associated with the worship of a specific god Dionysus, one of

the twelve principal Athenian deities who, it was thought, transformed human

personality and freed people from care and grief.

The Athenian tyrant, Peisistratus added Dionysus worship to the annual religiousfestivals that the Athenians held for their gods.

The most significant of these Dionysiac festivals were the Lenaia and the GreatorCity Dionysia.

The Lenaia was a short celebration held in January (the Greek month Gamelion),and the City Dionysia was a week-long event in March April (Elaphebolion, themonth of stags).

The philosopher and critic, Aristotle claimed that the first tragedies developed froma choral ode called a dithyramb an ode or song that was sung or chanted and also

danced by large choruses at the festivals.

The Greek myths illustrated divine-human relationships and also served asexamples or models of heroic behavior. Aristotle called the myths the received

legends and by his time, they became the usual subject of tragedy.

The mythical heroes many of whom were objects of cult worship were kings,queens, princes, and princesses. They engaged in conflicts; they suffered; theydied. They were dominated by hubris or hybris (arrogant pride, insolence,

violence), which was manifested in destructive actions such as deceit, subterfuge,betrayal, etc.

The word tragedy is derived from Greek words tragos (goat) and oide (ode orsong) or a great ode or goat song.

The word was first applied to choral ceremonies performed at the ritual sacrifice ofa goat or a goat was the prize.

Aristotle in his work, Poetics stressed concepts of exactitude, proportion,appropriateness, and control.

He claimed that tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, andof a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic


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ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form ofaction, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of

these emotions. The purgation or catharsis is the end or goal of tragedy crystallizes the earlier

parts. In Aristotles view, tragedy arouses the painful emotions of pity and fear(eleos and phobos), and, through the experience of the drama, brings about a

proper purgation or purification of these emotions.

Originally, the word catharsis was a medical term, and therefore many interpretersargue that tragedy produces a therapeutic effect through an actual purging orvomiting of emotions, a sympathetic release of feelings that produces emotional

relief and encourages psychological health.

Aristotle states that catharsis is also brought about by other literary genres, esp.comedy and epic, and also by music. It is through catharsis that literary worksencourages moral virtue and thereby on both psychological and religious grounds

(Roberts & Jacobs, 1998).

Some aspects and characteristics of tragedy according to Aristotle are:

A Representation of an ActionA plot is (muthos) is not an exact imitation or duplication of life, but rather arepresentation (mimesis).

Reversal, Recognition, and SufferingReversal of the situation (peripeteia) is a change from good to bad or the outcome

is the reverse of what the character intends and expects. Meanwhile, a change from

ignorance to knowledge is called anagnorisis or recognition. A scene of suffering

(pathos) or a destructive or painful action, such as death on the stage, bodilyagony, wounds, and the like.

Seriousness, Completeness, and Artistic BehaviorThe term serious, or noble or elevated, concerns the plays tone and level of life, in

contrast with the boisterousness and ribaldry of comedies. Complete means a

tragedy must be shaped into a finished whole. Magnitude refers to a balance of

length and subject matter.

Diction and Song

The Tragic Hero hamartia or a protagonists great error, translated as tragic flaw.

Situational and Cosmic Irony

Performance and The Formal Organization of Greek Tragedy PROLOGUE

The first scene was the prologue, which contained the expostion. There was

considerable variety in the performance of the prologue. Sometimes it was given

by a single actor, speaking as either a mortal or a god.


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PARADOSIt was the entry of the chorus into the orchestra, where they remained until the

plays end. Because the chorus needed to project their voices to spectators in thetop seats, they both sang and chanted their lines. They also moved rhythmically in

a number of stanzaic strophes (turns), antistrophes (counterturns), and epodes(units following the songs). After the parados, the choristers would necessarily

have knelt or sat at attention, in this way focusing on the activities of the actorsand, when necessary, responding as a group.

EPISODES AND STASIMONSThe drama itself consisted of four full sections or acting units. The major part of

each section was the episode. Each episode featured the actors, who presented bothaction and speech, including swift one-line interchanges known as stichomythy.

When the episode ended, the actors withdrew. The following second part of theacting section was called a stasimon (plural stasima), performed by the chorus

exclusively in the orchestra. Like the parados, the stasima required dancemovements, along with the chanting and singing of strophes, antistrophes, and

epodes.

EXODOSWhen the last of the four episode-stasimon sections had been completed, theexodos (a way out), or the final section, commenced. It contained the resolution of

the drama, the exit of the actors, and the last pronouncements, dance movements,and exit of the chorus.

The Comic Vision: Restoring the Balance Comedy also arose in ancient Greece. Comedy is the fraternal twin of tragedy. The

major difference are that tragedy moves toward despair or death, while comedymoves toward success, happiness, and marriage.

Comedy developed as an improvisatory form. Most comic improvisations were anoutgrowth of phallic songs, which were bacchanalian processions that took place

during the Lenaia, the religious festival held in January February each year inGamelion, the month of weddings, just following the winter solstice.

The word comedy is derived from a komos song; its Greek meaning is a song ofrevels or song sung by merrymakers. During parades or processions at the

Lenaia, the merrymakers expressed their joy boisterously, traded bawdy and

obscene remarks with spectators, lampooned public persons, Wore ceremonial phalluses, and dressed in paunchy costumes suggesting feasting,

fatness, fertility, and fun.

These komos processions were encouraged officially in the belief and hope thathuman ceremonies would encourage divine favor and bring about prosperity andhappiness.


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Comedy co-existed in the areas surrounding Greece called Magna Graecia (GreaterGreece).

The earliest Athenian comedy began with a comedy competition won by a writernamed Chionides.

According to Aristotle, the first writer to transform comedy by creating a thematicplot development was Crates, who won the first of his three prizes in about the

mid-fifth century.

Types of Greek Comedy Greek Old Comedy

It was also called Old Attic Comedy. It followed intricate structural patterns and

displayed complex poetic conventions. The actors (three or four men) and the

chorus (twenty-four) each dressed in a distortingly padded costume, wore acharacter-defining mask, and displayed a ceremonial phallus. The plot was

fantastic and impossible, and the dialogue was farcical and bawdy. One of thecomedy playwrights was Aristophanes. His work constitutes our principal firsthand

knowledge of Greek Old Comedy.

Middle ComedyAristophanes lived into the next period of Greek comedy, called Middle Comedy.

This kind of comedy eliminated some of the complex patterns of Old Comedy andtreated less narrowly Athenian and more broadly international topics.

New ComedyBy the end of the 4th century, Middle Comedy was replaced by New Comedy. The

most important of the New Comedy dramatists was Menander, who was heraldedin ancient times as the greatest comic writer of them all. His comedies, which are

romantic rather than satirical, employ such stock characters as young lovers, cleverslaves, and long-separated relatives.

Roman ComedyAfter the time of Menander, Greek power in the Mediterranean waned and was

replaced by the might of Rome. In the 3rd century, Roman comedy began andflourished, largely through the translation and adaptation of Greek New Comedies.

The significant Roman writers were Plautus, with twenty surviving comedies, andTerence, all of whose six comedies exist. Briefly, the comedies of Plautus are brisk,

while those of Terence are more restrained. The central issue of most of the Romancomedies is the overcoming of a blocking agent, or obstruction to true love, that

could be almost anyone or anything a rival lover,An angry father, a family feud, an old law, a previously arranged marriage, or

differences in social class. The pattern of action, traditionally called the plot ofintrigue, stems from the subterfuges that young lovers undertake to overcome the

blocking agent, so that the outcome frequently heralds the victory of youth over


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age and the passing of control from one generation to the next (Roberts & Jacobs,1998: 1431-1432).

By 1500 the six plays of Terence were achieving recognition, followed by the

twenty surviving plays of Plautus. The English plays of the mid-16th century

contained five acts and observed the unities of time, place,place, and action, thus following the rules and and justifying the claim that they

were regular. Character types from the Roman comedies, such as the intriguingcouple, the fussing father, and the bragging soldier, initially predominated. Soon,

more specifically English types appeared, anticipating the roisterers inShakepeares Henry IV plays and the mechanicals in A Midsummer Nights

Dream. By the end of the 16th century, when Shakespeare had completed many of

his comedies, English comedy was in full bloom. It has commonly been observed

that the comedy was Latin in structure but English in character.

Comic Patterns, Characters, and Language The Comic Pattern

Comic, the adjective derived from comedy, described the pattern or context thatconditions our responses. Comic means that a literary work or set of situations

conforms to the patterns and characteristics of comedy. Within these patterns, weare conditioned to perceive most dialogue and action even serious problems and

dangerous situations as being amusing. At heart, therefore, comedy and the termcomic suggest a pattern of action, including funny situations and language, that we

perceive as solvable and correctable. COMIC PROBLEMS

The problems with which comedies begin can be individual or social. They caninvolve thwarted love, eccentric behavior, corruption in high places, or a

combination of other difficulties. As the comedies move from exposition tocomplication, the problems usually get much worse. In comedy, complication is

often fueled by confusion, misunderstanding, mistakes in identity, errors injudgement, excessive or unreasonable behavior, and coincidences that stretch our

credulity.

THE COMIC CLIMAXThe climax of a comedy occurs when these confusions reach a peak,misunderstanding is dominant, pressure is at a high point, choices must be made,

and solutions must be found. The catastrophe the changing or turning point frequently introduces a sudden revelation in which a key fact, identity, or event is

explained to characters and audience at the same time.


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THE COMIC DENOUEMENTIn most comedies, the events of the denouement resolve the initial problems and

allow for the comic resolution, which involves setting things right at every level ofaction. Individual lives are thereby straightened out, people at odds with each other

are reconciled, new families are formed through marriage, and a healthy socialorder is reestablished.

COMIC EDUCATION AND CHANGETwo key features of the comic pattern are education and change. In many

comedies, at least some of the characters learn something about themselves, theirsociety, or the way to love and live. Their education makes it possible for them to

improve, and, by implication, for the world also to improve. In other comedies,however, particularly those that touch on major social and political problems, the

audience is educated, and the playwright hopes that change will occur in the worldas well as on the stage.

Comic CharactersCharacters in comedy are far more limited than in tragedy because comedies

usually deal with representative types or groups rather than with individuals ofheroic stature. Comedy gives us stock characters who represent classes, types, and

generations.

Comic LanguageComic dramatists use language to delineate character, to establish tone and mood,and to express ideas and feelings. In comedy, language is also one of the most

important vehicles for humor.

Some comedies are characterized by elegant and witty language, others by punsand bawdy jokes.

Characters in comedy tend either to be masters of language or to be mastered by it.Those who are skillful with language, such as Lisette in Love Is the Doctor, canuse a witty phrase like a knife to satirize their foes and friends alike. Those who are

unskilled with language, like Bottom in A Midsummer Nights Dream, bungle

through a speech with their misuse of words and inadvertent puns. Both types ofcharacters are amusing; we smile a knowing smile with the wits and laugh out loud

at the bunglers.

COMMEDIA DELLARTEA unique kind of farce is the commedia dellarte, which developed amongtraveling companies in Italy and France in the 16th and 17th centuries. The broadly

humorous characters of commedia dellarte recurred from play to play withconsistent names and characteristics. The action usually involved a plot of intrigue.

The lovers were Inamorato and Inamorata (like Clitander and Lucinda in Love Is


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the Doctor), who were afraid by Inamoratas clever servant, the soubrette (likeLisette) to overcome Pantaloon, the old man (like Sganarelle). The servant

characters were Harlequin (who was invisible) and Columbine (his sweetheart,also invisible), who were joined in highjinks by Pierrot (a clown lover) and

Scaramouche (the soldier).

Types of Comedy The broadly humorous characters of commedia dellarte recurred from play to play

with consistent names and characteristics. The action usually involved a plot of

intrigue. The lovers were Inamorato and Inamorata (like Clitander and Lucinda inLove Is the Doctor), who were afraid by Inamoratas clever servant, the soubrette

(like Lisette) to overcome Pantaloon, the old man (like Sganarelle). The servantcharacters were Harlequin (who was invisible) and Columbine (his sweetheart,

also invisible), who were joined in highjinks by Pierrot (a clown lover) andScaramouche (the soldier).

WEEK VII

Writing about Plot Introduction

This part presents brief references to the principal characters, circumstances, and

issues of the plot. It should also present a sentence describing the plot or principalconflict. The thesis sentence contains the topics to be developed in the body.

BodyThis part focuses on the major elements of the plot, brought out to emphasize theplan of conflict in the story or play. The questions that need explaining in this part

include: Who is the main character? What is the conflict? Who are the protagonist/antagonist characters? Writing about Plot- How is the conflict revealed in the work? Since a description of elements in a plot can grow too long, it is necessary to be

selective and also to decide on a particular approach. Accordingly, it is preferable

to stress the major character and his or her involvement in the conflict. If a play presents a conflict between two major characters, it will be necessary to

focus equally on both. The plot may be analyzed more broadly in terms of things such as impulses, goals,

ideas, values, issues, and historical perspectives.


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ConclusionThis part may contain a brief summary of the points in the body. It is possible to

give additional comments such as an evaluation of the plot,such as whether the author has contrived the plot or whether the plot is realistic and

impartial.

Sample 1:The Plot of Maria Irene Fornes One-Act Play,Springtime

Springtime as the title suggests does not clearly tell a story related to the

blossoming season of the year. Yet, after reading the play from scene 1 to scene 14,the plot is clear that what the title means is more related to the springing love of the

characters. The play portrays a relationship between a lesbian couple, Rainbow andGreta. The relationship finally broke up because the presence of a third figure, a

man named Ray. Rainbow and Greta kept apart from each other and lived in their

separate ways. The conflict they have relate to their economic life, love

relationship, and misunderstanding.Rainbow and Greta were a couple who had a hardship in their economic

life. Rainbow often did some stealing to fulfill their daily needs. One day, whenGreta was lying ill on the bed, Rainbow had to steal a wristwatch from a man

named Ray. Though formerly Greta did not agree with what Rainbow wanted todo, Rainbow persisted. She sold the wristwatch to a buyer and got the money. Yet,

Ray could catch Rainbow the other day and threatened to bring her to jail soon.

The conflict in relationship occurs firstly between Greta and Rainbow. One

day, Rainbow questioned about Gretas being somewhat impatient in interactingwith herself. But Greta argued that she was still patient as before. The conflict then

appears in the relationship between Rainbow and Ray. After Ray caught Rainbow,he made her go with him to his place. Rainbow then told Greta that Ray hated her

for no reason, not because of the stolen wristwatch.

Similarly, Rainbow hated Ray but for a reason. She told Greta about Raysquestions whether she liked men or women. Rainbow answered by saying that it

did not make a difference whether she liked men or women, but she wanted to love

someone she already loved and did not want to like men when she did not. The oneshe meant to love was Greta. At other times, Greta was wondering about whether

or not she and Rainbow saw things differently. Greta felt worried if they saw things

differently. Yet, Rainbow pacified her by saying that they didnt. Unexpectedly,Greta found pictures showing Rainbow lying naked with Ray. Greta was so furiousand asked Rainbow why she did so. Rainbow answered that she had to do so to get

money from Ray for her treatment.

The conflict complicates as the three characters were involved in a seeminglytriangle love affair. It was the day when Ray came to their house to see Rainbow.

Yet, since Rainbow was going away, Ray was met by Greta. She then told Rainbow


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that Ray seemed to be in love. Rainbow felt that probably Ray was preoccupied toher. Greta supposed so, too. Gretas care for Ray caused Rainbows suspicion

why Greta seemed to be concerned with him. Greta did not comment anything butjust said that Ray was being preoccupied. Rainbows suspicion grew more as she

found that there was something Greta hid from her, something related to Ray. Shedid not feel to be loved by Greta anymore. One time, Ray came to their house

again when Greta was alone. Ray tried to tease and and seduce her. When Gretafiercely reprimanded Ray not to touch her, Rainbow came. She looked at them in

surprise.

Rainbow suspected that there had been a love affair between Greta and Ray. As aresolution, Rainbow decided to break up with Greta. Yet, she sent Greta a letter. Inher letter, Rainbow said that she would always love Greta as she once had told her

though they were living apart.

The conflict among the the three characters as revealed in the plot gives surpriseand suspense of the story itself. Fornes has contrived the plot in a simple andstraightforward way the story ends by the breakup of the couple because one

characters suspicion of another and her inability to forgive anothers supposedbetrayal in their love relationship. The plot is reasonable because it reveals

humans peccability that betrayal in love in whatever ways usually does not receiveforgiving. This shows that one will always need a faithful and honest affection in

maintaining a love relation ship.

Writing about Structure

Introduction

This part presents a general overview of the work, and then centers on the aspect or

aspects of structure to be emphasized in the body of the theme. The central idea isa clear statement about the structure, such as that it is built up to reveal the nature

of a characters situation, or that it is designed to create surprise. The thesissentence points out the various main headings of the body.

BodyThis part is best developed in agreement with what the work contains. A story maycontain a number of separate scenes or settings, such as the countryside, city, and

the like. This section explains the relationship of each setting to the development ofthe plot.

Questions to be explored in this part would be: Where does the climax begin? What events are included in it? What is the resolution of the story?


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ConclusionThis part highlights the main parts of the theme. It also deal briefly with the

relationship of structure to the plot. Give your comment whether or not thestructure is successful enough as brought about by the authors choices in plot

development.

Sample 1Structure of Maria Irene FornesSpringtime

Fornes Springtime is one-act play. Yet, different from other one-act plays, this playis structured in 14 short scenes with titles or vignettes or a short descriptive essayor a scene sketch. The presence of these vignettes help readers to read and

understand the story more easily. The scenes are arranged in a linear plot exceptscene 3 and 6, which present flashback events first, when Rainbow told Greta

about her stealing of Rays wristwatch and second, when Rainbow told Greta about

Rays questioning to her whether she liked men or women. The arrangement of the

vignettes from one scene to anothe scene evokes surprise, discovery, and alsosuspense. They are arranged in a chronological order, from exposition to

resolution. The skillful control of the structure is shown by the chronologicalscenes as showing the stages in a plot structure and surprise and suspense revealed

in the last scenes.

The chronological scenes of the play portray the sequence of the charactersconflict. The exposition is when Rainbow and Greta were a close couple. Thecomplication is when Greta was ill and Rainbow had to steal to get money for her

treatment. The rising action is when Rainbow was caught by Ray and interrogated

by him; when Greta wondered about whether they saw things differently; when

Greta discovered Rainbows pictures showing her lying naked with Ray. Theclimax is when Rainbow caught Ray in the act of teasing and seducing Greta. The

resolution is when Rainbow felt disappointed and hurt because of suspecting Gretato have an affair with Ray and so she decided to leave Greta. Yet, Rainbow sent

Greta a letter by saying that she would always love her. The chronological

vignettes of the scenes in the play bring the readers to keep track of the plotdevelopment step by step.

The song Melancholy Baby in scene 13 escalates the tension between

Rainbow and Greta. In some ways, the song shows ones faithful love to another

and tries to console each other to restore to their former closeness.The surprise and suspense come hand in hand from the scenes when Greta

wonders if Rainbow loved Ray. It shows Gretas worry in case Rainbow would

leave her for Ray. Yet, Rainbow assured her if she did not love Ray but her. AgainGreta felt doubtful and worried about whether they saw things differently. Anothersuspense is when Greta found Rainbows naked pictures with Ray. Surprise and


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suspense appear in scene 12 when Rainbow caught Ray in the act of seducingGreta.

Most of the vignettes that present the name Greta as the center show thatshe is not the one to blame for the breakup with Rainbow.

Greta becomes the central character both in the exposition (scene 1 Falling inLove with Greta) and the resolution (scene 14 Greta Reads Rainbows Letter).

Scenes in the exposition then continue to those in the rising action and resolution,

in which all of these scenes present more privilege to Greta rather than to Rainbow.

All in all, the emotional tension evoked by the breakup of the characters due tosuspicion and disbelief that makes the plot structure be a taut and united work.

Writing about Character Introduction

This part begins with a brief indentification of the character to be analyzed, which

may be followed reference to noteworthy problems in defining the charactersqualities. The central idea is a statement about the major trait or quality of thecharacter. The thesis sentence links the central idea to the main sections to be

covered in the body.

BodyThe organization is designed to illustrate the central idea and make it convincing. It

includes the following aspects:1. Organization around central traits or major characteristics. For example:

kindness, generosity, etc. This means to describe how these qualities are shown inthe characters speeches and actions.

2. Organization around the growth or change of a characterThe beginning of such a body would establish the traits the characters have at the

start of the story, and then describe the changes or developments that occur. Insteadof retelling a narrative dramatic action, it is necessary to stress the actual

alterations as they emerge from the circumstances of the work.3. Organization around central incidents, objects, or quotationsthat reveal primary

characteristics, bring them out, or even cause them.Certain key incidents may stand out in a work, as will objects closely associated

with the character being analyzed and several key quotations spoken by thecharacter or by someone else in the work.

4. Organization around qualities of a flat character or characters.This part describes the relationship of the flat character to the round ones and the

importance of this relationship, and any additional qualities or traits revealed in the

work.


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ConclusionThis section presents statements about how the discussed characteristics are related

to the story or play as a whole.

Sample 1Character in Maria Irene FornesSpringtime

Springtimepresents three characters: Rainbow, Greta, and Ray. Yet, Raysspeech is not present in the play but his presence and action through Rainbows

flashback recount or his coming in the last scene. So, Rainbow and Greta are theprotagonists while Ray might be considered as the antagonist in view of his role as

the heartbreaker or someone who caused the breakup between Rainbow and Greta.Rainbow is 29 years old, Greta 26, while Ray is 27. Both women are slim. While

Rainbow is characterized as a spirited and energetic one, Greta is beautiful and shy.Ray is a rather nervous but handsome man.

Greta seems to be a German descent or the one who can speak German.Both of them have a lesbian relation. It seems that Rainbow becomes the man in

their relation because she is the one who has to earn some money for their living.

Rainbow is portrayed as the one who cares and loves Greta. She is attentive

and responsible towards Greta. She is willing to steal from others just to get moneyfor Gretas treatment. Yet, Rainbows closeness and affection to Greta changes into

disappointment and alienation when she suspects Greta of having an affair withRay. Rainbows change of attitude is caused by suspicion, prejudice, and jealousy.

Rainbows care for Greta is shown by her suspicion of Gretas ease in

losing her temper while Greta doesnt feel that way. Rainbow also likes to ask

Greta to say about her losing of temper in German for several times. It shows thatRainbow feels somewhat doubtful or suspicious of Gretas love to her. Then,

Rainbow again feels suspicioous after Ray came to their place (scene 10). Gretatold her about Rays strange behavior that seems to be in love.

Gretas attention and concern about Ray makes Rainbow feel suspicious.

Afterwards, Rainbow feels that Greta does not love her as dearly as she did before

(scene 11). In a word, Rainbows suspicion of Greta has influenced the harmonyand continuation of their relation.

The next factor that causes the breakup is Rainbows prejudice towards

Greta. Rainbow assumed that Greta and Ray had a love affair when she got Ray inthe act of teasing and seducing Greta (scene 12). Rainbow did not ask forexplanation from Greta about whether or not she had an affair with Ray. Probably

Greta indeed had a crush on Ray but she did not try to show her feeling as sheknew that Ray seemed to be in love with Rainbow. On the other hand, Rainbow

was somewhat inconsiderate and reckless in assuming that Greta


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and Ray had an affair. Because of her prejudice before finding the proofs, Rainbowdecided to break up her relationship with Greta. In a word, this prejudice becomes

another factor that leads Rainbow to keep apart from Greta.Rainbows separation from Greta also shows her jealousy. Rainbow felt

jealous because Greta had betrayed their love by turning to Ray. Being suspiciousof their affair, Rainbow decided to leave Greta (scene 13). Rainbow felt that Rays

presence had broken their closeness. At best, she found that Ray and Greta seemedto be attracted with each other. Despite her jealousy, Rainbow said in her letter

that she would always love Greta as she had uttered in the beginning. It shows thatRainbow was also a somewhat forgiving and tolerant person.

Yet, despite Rainbows lasting love to Greta, her jealousy becomes the next factorthat changes her former character, from being full of care and affection to being

detached and estranged physically from Greta.In conclusion, besides the three aspects that cause Rainbow to have

changed her attitude, Rainbows act in a way also a considerate and firm attitude.She did not want her love to Greta to be betrayed by Gretas love to Ray. In case of

her suspicion and prejudice that had no proof, her separation might also show her

selfish and somewhat obstinate character. All in all, Rainbow is just an ordinary

person who certainly feels hurt when her love is betrayed.

WEEK VIII

Writing about Setting(Stage Directions)

IntroductionThis part presents a brief description of the setting or scenes of the play, with a

characterization of the degree of detail presented by the author. The central ideaexplains the relationship to be explored in the essay, and the thesis sentence

determines the major topics in which the central idea is revealed.

BodyThere are five possible approaches in writing about setting.

1. Setting and ActionHere you explore the use of setting in the various actions of the work. Questions to

be explained in this part are such as:

Writing about Setting (Stage Directions) How detailed and extensive are the descriptions of the setting?


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Are the scenes related to action? Does the setting serve as part of the action? Are details of setting used regularly, or are they mentioned only when they become

necessary to an action?

Do any physical objects figure into the play as causes of inspiration or conflict (forexample, a walking stick, a necklace, a chair, a suitcase, etc.)?

2. Setting and Organization

It means to connect setting to the organization of the work. Some questions to beexplained are:

Is the setting a frame or an enclosure? Writing about Setting (Stage Directions) Is the setting mentioned at various points, or at shifts in the action? Does the setting undergo any changes as the action changes? Do any parts of the setting have greater direct importance in shaping the action

than other parts? Do any objects (property) such as chair, picture , etc. Figure into the developing or

changing motivation of the characters?

3. Setting and Character

This part describes the effects of setting on characters. The major question is towhat degree the setting seems to interact or influence character. Some other

questions are like: Does the economic, cultural, or ethnic level of the setting make the characters think

in any unique ways?

Writing about Setting (Stage Directions) How does the setting influence the characters decisions, speech habits, eating

habits, attitudes about social relation, and general folkways?

4. Setting and Atmosphere

Write what aspects of setting that evoke a mood. Some questions are:

Does the setting exceed the minimum needed for action or character? Do clear details help clarify the conflicts in the story, or do vague and amorphous

details help clarify to make these conflicts problematic? Are descriptive words used mainly to paint verbal pictures or to evoke a mood

through references to colors, shapes, sounds, smells, or tastes?

Writing about Setting (Stage Directions)


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5. Other AspectsIf the author has used setting as a means of underscoring the circumstances and

ideas in the work, you might use the section on statement as a guide for writing thispart.

ConclusionThis part summarizes your major points. You might also write about anything you

neglected in the body. You might treat the relationship of the setting to the action,and mention something about noticeable connections that the setting has with

character or atmosphere. You might also point out whether your central idea aboutthe setting also applies to other major aspects of the work.

Sample 1Setting/Stage Directions in Maria Irene FornesSpringtime

Springtime is set in a small city in the year of 1958. Meanwhile, the stagedirections present two kinds of properties the courtyard of a medical school

represented by a square light on the down-right area of the stage (scene 1) and

Rainbows bedroom, a small room with some properties such as a chair, a smallbed with metal foot and headboard, a night table, a book, a pitcher of water, and a

glass (scene 2). Among the properties, the chair and the small bed are those thatalways appear in each scene. But the small bed is mostly apparent in all scenes.

Gretas action is portrayed mostly around the bed either lying on the bed as shewas ill or sitting on the bed when talking to Rainbow or Ray. The bed as one

property of stage directions gives some clues about the characters innocence aswell as their feeble and vulnerable personal relation.

The bed reflects the characters innocence since it is the only place wherethey share their love feeling with each other and with Ray. Occasionally, they,

especially Rainbow sat on the chair. Yet, Greta is mostly portrayed to have beenlying on the bed, either when she was ill or not. The bed also reflects Gretas

somewhat passive character compared to Rainbows , that is more energetic. The

bed becomes the place where Greta was lying on when she was ill; consequently,

Rainbow had to do some stealing to get some money for Greta. The bed reflectsGretas shyness and passivity as compared to Rainbows more dynamic and mobile

behavior. It seems to reflect Gretas traits who is shy and innocent. Besides, the bedalso projects Rainbows faithful love and affectionate attitude towards Greta since

it is the place where Rainbow frankly shared her relation with Ray to Greta who

was lying on it. The bed then becomes the place that inaugurates the somewhat

impeccable affection of one character and faithful love of another one.


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The bed on the other hand also reveals the characters feeble and vulnerablerelation. Greta was sitting on the bed when Rainbow told her about her confession

to Ray that she would always love Greta (scene 6). Rainbow was faithful with herlove to Greta; she did not have any wish to love Ray or any other men. One time

Greta doubted about whether or not they saw things differently. She expressed thiswhile lying on the bed (scene 7). When Greta identified Ray to have been

preoccupied, she also stood near the bed (scene 10). This scene shows that Gretaseemed to be in love with Ray. Rainbow found out that Greta hid something from

her. As Rainbow expressed her feeling not to be loved anymore by Greta as before,the latter was lying on the bed (scene 11). This scene gives clues to the faltering

relation between Rainbow and Greta. It reaches the climax when Rainbow caughtRay in the act of teasing and seducing Greta. Greta was also lying on the bed.

From the way Greta rebuked at Ray by saying not again, not again, never again,it seems that Ray had ever done some harassment to Greta before (scene 12).

Feeling hurt and disappointed that her love had been betrayed, Rainbow decided toleave Greta. As the songMelancholy Baby was heard, Rainbow was standing at the

door looking out while Greta was sitting on the bed (scene 13). Only in scene 14,

Greta sat on the chair when she was reading a letter from Rainbow. In short, the

bed as one property of the room in the medical center and part of stage directionsrepresents the feeble and vulnerable relation of the characters. At least, it becomes

the place where they met, shared their feeling, and also broke up their relationbecause of the third persons intervention.

All in all, the setting in Springtime is effective enough to give effects to

the tension among the characters.

The use of a small bed, a chair in the small room reveals a simple but intenseconflict among the characters who are in conflict with the desire to maintain a

faithful love on the one hand and the infatuation with anothers love on the other.The title of the play then seems to describe the new beginning of each character:

for Greta, it will be her time to continue her love with Ray; for Rainbow, it will be

her moments to begin new days in her life.

Writing about a Major Idea or Theme IntroductionThis part presents any special circumstances in the work that affect ideas generallyor your ideas specifically. Your statement of the idea will serve as the central ideafor your essay. Your thesis sentence should indicate the particular parts or aspects

of the story.


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BodyThe exact form of your essay is controlled by your goals, which are (1) to define

the idea, and (2) to show its importance in the work. Here are a number ofstrategies for developing the body:

1. THE FORM OF THE WORK AS A PLAN, SCHEME, OR LOGICAL FORMAT. For example:the idea makes for a two-part work, the first showing religion as punishment andthe second showing religion as kindness.

2. A SPEECH OR SPEECHES. Example: The priests conversation and responses toJackie show in operation the idea that kindness and understanding are the best

means to encourage religious commitment.

3. A CHARACTER OR CHARACTERS. Example: Minnie Wright embodies the idea

that a life lived amid alienation and insensitivity can lead to unhappiness and evento violence.

4. AN ACTION OR ACTIONS. Example: That Mrs. Popov and Smirnov fall in loverather than fight a duel indicates Chekhovs idea that love is so strong that it may

almost literally rescue human lives.

5. SHADES OR VARIATIONS OF THE IDEA. Example: The idea of punishment as acorrective is brought out through the simplicity of the fathers flaking of Jackie,

the spitefulness of Nora, etc.

6. A COMBINATION OF THESE TOGETHER WITH ANY OTHER ASPECT RELEVANT TO THE

WORK.Example: The idea in The Bear that love is complex and contradictory is

shown in Smirnovs initial scorn of Mrs. Popov because of his personal bitterness

against women, his self-reproach when he realizes he is falling in love with her,and his actually embracing her at the end of the play. (Here the idea is to be tracedas speech, character, and action in the play)

ConclusionThis part summarizes the idea. You might also add statements such as yourevaluation of the ideas validity or force. If you have been convinced by the

authors idea, you might say that the author has expressed the idea convincingly, orelse you might show the relevance of the idea to current conditions.

Theme in Maria Irene FornesSpringtime

In her one-act play, Fornes presents her three characters Rainbow, Greta, and Ray

to have been entangled in a triangle love. Rainbow and Greta formerly had a loverelation as lesbian couple before Ray, a man of 27 years old came and intruded

their relation. Rainbow had devoted her love and care only to Greta. But then

Rays presence had diverted Gretas attention from her. Feeling betrayed, Rainbow

decided to break up the relation with Greta. By the characters conflict, this play


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evokes ideas from the readers. Some of these ideas can be formulated as follows:love relationship needs sacrifice and faithfulness from one individual to another;

love betrayal is prevalent in a love relationship even among true companions. Oneof the plays major ideas is that faithfulness is necessary to keep a love relationship

going. This idea is shown in Rainbows firmness to break up her relation withGreta and her attempt to reassert her sincere love to Greta.

Rainbows firmness to break up the relation shows her principle that she didnot want to be betrayed by Greta. Rainbow was so disappointed to find out that

Greta and Ray furtively had an affair. Rainbow had been faithful to Greta andalways cared about her but unexpectedly Greta had betrayed her love.

Rainbows reassertion of her love to Greta also indicates that she is the onewho highly respects a faithful relation. Arguments she gave to Ray about her only

love feeling to Greta shows her faithful attitude. Rainbow wanted Greta to realizethe meaning of to love and to be loved (scene 11). By saying so, Rainbow seems to

suspect an affair between Greta and Ray.The idea that Fornes embodied in the work is quite common in many

popular songs, stories, melodramas and movies. As the title suggests, the word

springtime evokes an idea of love that is blossoming

Blossoming like flowers in spring. In this case, Fornes seems to win Greta ratherthan Rainbow in their relation with Ray. It seems that in some ways, being passive

and shy often triumphs over love rather than being assertive. All in all, the idea isacceptable and reasonable that faithfulness is always necessary in any relationship.

The idea prevails in human relationship.

Writing about Tone Introduction

This part describes the general situation of the work and the mood or impressionthat it may leave with you. The central idea should be about the aspect or aspects

that you plan to develop in the body, such as that the work leads to cynicism, as inThe Chaser, or to laughter and delight, as in The Bear. The central idea might be

that the diction of the work is designed to portray the life of ordinary people, or to

show the pretentiousness of various speakers or characters, or to call upon the

readers ability to visualize experience. The thesis sentence contains the majoraspects to be explored in the body.

BodyThis part should examine all aspects bearing on the tone of the work.

Some of the things to cover include:

1. THE AUDIENCE, SITUATION, AND CHARACTERS.


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Is any person or group directly addressed by the authors voice? What attitude seems to be expressed (love, respect, confidence, etc.)? What does irony show about the authors apparent attitudes? Why does the speaker seem to speak exactly as he or she does?2. DESCRIPTIONS, DICTION. Are there any systematic references, such as to colors, sounds, noises, natural

scenes, and so on, that collectively reflect an attitude? Do speech or dialect patterns indicate attitudes about speakers or their condition of

life? Are speech patterns normal and standard, or slang or substantial? Writing about Tone3. HUMOR. Is the work funny?

How is the humor achieved? Does the humor develop out of incongruous situations or language, or both? Is there an underlying basis of attack in the humor, or are the objects of laughter

still respected or even loved despite having humor directed against them?

4. IDEAS.

How does the author make his or her attitude clear directly, by statement, orindirectly, through understatement, overstatement, or the language of a character?

In what ways does the work assume a common ground of assentbetween authorand reader?

Are there common assumptions about religious views, political ideas, behavioralstandards, etc.?

5. UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORK.Each work has unique properties that may contribute to the tone.

ConclusionThis part summarizes the main points of the tone of the work. You may state

redefinitions, explanations in this. You might mention some other major aspect of

the works tone that you did not develop in the body. Any or all the details arerelevant here, as long as you emphasize the writers technique.

Week IX

Mid-Term Test


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Week X XI

Types of Comedy (Farce)

FARCEThe quintessential type of low comedy is farce (a word derived from the Latinword farsus, meaning stuffed). A farce is an outlandish physical comedy

overflowing with silly characters, improbable happenings, wild clowning,extravagant language, and bawdy jokes.

SLAPSTICKWith characters of low comedy, of course, there is much tomfoolery and

improvisation the major qualities of the extreme form of farce, slapstick, which isnamed after the double paddles (slap sticks) that made loud cracking noises when

actors in the commedia dellarte used them to whack each other. Slapstick depends

heavily on exaggerated poses and facial expressions. In slapstick there is constantonstage business with objects like paddles, pies, pails, paint, paste, or toilet paper,along with wild and improbable actions such as squirming, hiding, tripping,

stumbling, tumbling, falling, and flopping.

Week XII

Types of Comedy

COMEDY OF MANNERSRelated to romantic comedy is the comedy of manners, an important type from the17th century to our own times. The comedy of manners examines and satirizes

attitudes and customs in the light of high intellectual and moral standards. Thedialogue is witty and sophisticated, and characters are often measured according to

linguistic and intellectual powers. The love plots are serious and real, even thoughthey share with romantic comedy the need to create intrigues to overcome blocking

forces.

SATIRIC COMEDYMidway between high and low comedy is satiric comedy, which is designed toridicule vices and follies. The playwright of satiric comedy assumes the

perspective of a rational and moderate observer measuring human life against amoderate norm that can be represented by high and serious characters. The

audience is invited to share with this viewpoint as they, along with the dramatist,heap scorn upon the vicious and laugh loudly at the eccentric and the foolish.


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Types of ComedyDifferences in comic style, content, and intent that have evolved over the centuries

make it possible to divide comedy into various types. The broadest of thesedivisions, based on both style and content, separates all comic literature into high

comedy and low comedy.

Low ComedyLow comedy emphasizes on funny remarks and outrageous circumstances;

complications develop from situation and plot rather than from character. Plays of

this type are by definition full of physical humor and stage business a characterrounds his forefinger and thumb to imitate a wall, through which other characters

speak; an irascible man constantly breaks furniture; a character disguised as adoctor takes a fathers pulse to determine his daughters condition.

High Comedy

Ideally, high comedy (a term coined by George Meredith in 1877 in the Idea of

Comedy) is witty, graceful, and sophisticated. The complications and problemsgrow out of character rather than situation, and the appeal is to the intellect.

Week XIII XV

Vision of Realistic and

Non-Realistic Drama (Melodrama)Aristotle said that drama was an imitation of an action; that is, each play

represents a significant and discrete series of actions that make up a complete storyin the lives of the major characters.

To achieve the outcome of the action, a playwright must introduce restrictions and

non-realistic conventions that support the presentation of the story. Thus, therewere what they called realistic and non-realistic drama.

In realistic drama, the playwright seeks to create an illusion of reality

verisimilitude. The situations, problems, characters, dialogue, and other elementsare all those that might genuinely exist in the real world.

In non-realistic drama, a playwright presents essential features of character andsociety through techniques that do not try to mirror life. It employs whateverconventions the playwright finds useful. It can be full of devices that break throughthe illusion on the stage (or the page) and scream out that the play is a play a

work of art, a stylized imitation of something remotely connected to life (Roberts& Jacobs, 1998). For example: Thornton Wilders Our Town, Tennessee Williams

The Glass Menagerie. Meanwhile, some examples of realistic drama include Anton


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Chekovs The Cherry Orchard, George Bernard Shaws Arms and the Man,Pygmalion, etc.

Elements of Realistic and Non-realistic Drama

THE STORIES - it relates to the sequence of events or plot.THE CHARACTERS in realistic drama, the characters can be representative,

symbolic, or even stock characters, but they must sound and act like human beings.In non-realistic drama, the characters can be nameless figures who have no

background or motivation and who drop in and out of character as the playwrightwishes.

LANGUAGE in a realistic drama, the language is usually an accurate reproductionof the diction appropriate to the class or group of people portrayed.

THE STAGE such differences in plot, characterization, and language are matchedby differences in production techniques. While the staging of a realistic drama

must be as true to life as possible, non-realistic drama can be staged with few or norealistic effects. The sets can be symbolic and expressive of mood, employing

lighting and a semitransparent painted cloth (called a scrim) to create the

simultaneous effect of multiple places or times.

In addition, a playwright can introduce music, special sound effects, words orimages projected onto a wall or screen, action and speeches made directly to the

reader.

Week XVI

Plays in New Directions

Much twentieth-century drama, has been in rebellion against convention. It wascharacterized with some major movements such as:

1. The Theatre of the Absurd it surfaced in the 50s to challenge the tradition ofissue-oriented realistic plays and turn theatre upside down. For example: EugeneIonescos The Bald Soprano, Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot. The theatre of

the absurd mirrored the conviction that the reality acted out in most stage playsis artificial.

2.

Epic Theatre this play discards customary theatrical tricks and conventions for aballad-like storytelling,

Plays in New Directions With the author often painting the ideological moral. For example: Bertolt Brechts

The Life of Galileo, etc.

3. Psychological Realism a kind of a realistic theatre play, which probes deeper intothe psychic hurts and existential frustrations of its characters, seemingly


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responding to some deep-seated need of the audience for catharsis. For example:Harold Pinters Homecoming, David Mamets Glengarry Glen Ross, Oleanna is

the past master of the theater of confrontation, indictment, and self-laceration(Guth & Rico, 1997).

Plays in New Directions Feminist Playwrights and Critics the emergence of female playwrights

challenged the domination of the theater by male dramatists. Female playwrightsinclude Susan Glaspells Trifles, Lillian Hellmans The Childrens Hour, ntozake

shange, Beth Henley, Caryl Churchill, Tina Howe, and many others.

Multicultural Perspectives - plays from outside the white mainstream have madetheir way into the established canon from minority sources and from other playsmade their way into anthologies. For example: August Wilsons The Piano Lesson,

Luis Valdez The Shrunken Head of Pancho Villa,Los Vendidos, and others.

Final Exam Drama AnalysisSemester III (Literature) January 13, 2011Answer the following questions in brief by organizing your analysis in three parts:

INTRODUCTION, BODY, and CONCLUSION.

Henrik IbsensA Dolls House

1. Explain in brief the PLOT and STRUCTURE of Ibsens drama. Draw also the plotusing Freytags diagram. Give some quotations to support your answer.

2. Give a brief sketch about the CHARACTERS in the play. Emphasize on the maincharacter (protagonist). What conflict do they have and what traits do theyembody?

3. Describe the SETTING/STAGE DIRECTIONS of the play. What are the relevance of theobjects/properties to the story of the play?

4. Formulate the major idea or THEME of the play. Support your answer with someexplanation.

5. Point out what the TONE of the play is. Elaborate your answer.Answer the following questions in brief by organizing your analysis in three parts:

INTRODUCTION, BODY, and CONCLUSION.

Anton Chekhovs The Seagull1. Explain in brief the PLOT and STRUCTURE of Ibsens drama. Draw also the plot

using Freytags diagram. Give some quotations to support your answer.

2. Give a brief sketch about the CHARACTERS in the play. Emphasize on the maincharacter (protagonist). What conflict do they have and what traits do they

embody?


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3. Describe the SETTING/STAGE DIRECTIONS of the play. What are the relevance of theobjects/properties to the story of the play?

4. Formulate the major idea or THEME of the play. Support your answer with someexplanation.

5. Point out what the TONE of the play is. Elaborate your answer. Types of Comedy Differences in comic style, content, and intent that have evolved over the centuries

make it possible to divide comedy into various types. The broadest of these

divisions, based on both style and content, separates all comic literature into highcomedy and low comedy.

High ComedyIdeally, high comedy (a term coined by George Meredith in 1877 in the Idea of

Comedy) is witty, graceful, and sophisticated. The complications and problems

grow out of character rather than situation, and the appeal is to the intellect.

ROMANTIC COMEDYOne of the major kinds of high comedy is romantic comedy, which views action

and character from the standpoint of earnest young lovers like Hermia andLysander in A Midsummer Nights Dream. Ultimately derived from Roman

comedy, this kind of play is built on a plot of intrigue featuring lovers who try toovercome opposition (like Egeus) to achieve a successful union. The aim of such

plays is amusement and entertainment rather than ridicule and reform. Althoughvice and folly may be exposed in romantic comedy, especially in the antagonists

blocking the young lovers, the dominant impulse is toleration and amused

indulgence.

COMEDY OF MANNERSRelated to romantic comedy is the comedy of manners, an important type from the

17th century to our own times. The comedy of manners examines and satirizes

attitudes and customs in the light of high intellectual and moral standards. Thedialogue is witty and sophisticated, and characters are often measured according to

linguistic and intellectual powers. The love plots are serious and real, even thoughthey share with romantic comedy the need to create intrigues to overcome blocking

forces.

Documents

Teaching Media of Drama Analysis