DR09051-DR09051

COMMITTEE EL-052

DR 09051

(Project ID: 8326)

Draft for Public Comment

Australian/New Zealand Standard

LIABLE TO ALTERATION—DO NOT USE AS A STANDARD

BEGINNING DATE FOR COMMENT:

29 June 2009

CLOSING DATE FOR COMMENT:

31 August 2009

Overhead line design Part 1: Detailed procedures

COPYRIGHT

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Draft for Public Comment Australian/New Zealand Standard

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Draft for Public Comment

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

Committee EL-052—Electrical Energy Networks, Construction and Operation

Subcommittee EL-052-05 — Design of Overhead Electrical Lines

DRAFT

Australian/New Zealand Standard

Overhead line design

Part 1: Detailed procedures

(To be AS/NZS XXXX:200X)

Comment on the draft is invited from people and organizations concerned with this subject. It would be appreciated if those submitting comment would follow the guidelines given on the inside front cover.

This document is a draft Australian/New Zealand Standard only and is liable to alteration in the light of comment received. It is not to be regarded as an Australian/New Zealand Standard until finally issued as such by Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand.

DRAFT ONLY 2 DRAFT ONLY

PREFACE This Standard was prepared by the Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand Committee EL-052-05, Electrical Energy Networks, Construction and Operation—Design of Overhead Electrical Lines.

The objective of this Standard is to provide Electricity Industry network owners, overhead line maintenance service providers, design consultants, construction contractors, structure designers, and pole manufacturers with an industry standard, that replaces all previously used reference guidelines.

This Standard is Part 1 of a series of four document—

Part 1: Overhead line design Standard—Detailed procedures, which is a Standard that sets the detailed design requirements for overhead lines.

Part 2: Overhead line design Standard—Simplified procedure, which is a Standard that sets simplified design requirements for overhead lines, which are typically at distribution voltages and applying to commonly used pole construction.

Part 3: Application guide for the design of overhead lines, which is a Handbook providing supporting information, commentary, worked examples and supporting software (where applicable) for the design of overhead lines.

Part 4: ENA guidelines for the construction, maintenance and work practices of overhead lines, which is an Electricity Industry guideline for the purpose of facilitation of standard work practices throughout the electricity supply industry.

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CONTENTS

Page

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL 1.1 SCOPE AND GENERAL ............................................................................................ 6 1.2 REFERENCED AND RELATED DOCUMENTS....................................................... 6 1.3 DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................. 6 1.4 NOTATION............................................................................................................... 14

SECTION 2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES 2.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 17 2.2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN............................................................................................ 17 2.3 DESIGN LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES ................................................................... 19 2.4 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN OVERHEAD LINE....................... 19 2.5 OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES.................................. 19 2.6 RELIABILITY........................................................................................................... 19 2.7 COORDINATION OF STRENGTH.......................................................................... 19 2.8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS............................................................... 20

SECTION 3 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS 3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 21 3.2 CURRENT CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 21 3.3 INSULATION SYSTEM DESIGN ........................................................................... 21 3.4 LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES........................................ 21 3.5 ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE DISTANCES TO AVOID FLASHOVER ................. 22 3.6 DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY............................................... 24 3.7 SPACING OF AERIAL CONDUCTORS.................................................................. 25 3.8 INSULATOR AND AERIAL CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT AT STRUCTURE .... 35 3.9 LIVE LINE MAINTENANCE CLEARANCES ........................................................ 38 3.10 CLEARANCES TO GROUND AND AREAS REMOTE FROM BUILDING,

ROADS, RAILWAYS AND NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS ................................... 38 3.11 POWER LINE EASEMENTS.................................................................................... 43 3.12 CORONA EFFECT ................................................................................................... 43 3.13 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ................................................................... 44 3.14 SINGLE WIRE EARTH RETURN (SWER) POWERLINES.................................... 44

SECTION 4 AERIAL CONDUCTORS AND OVERHEAD EARTHWIRES (GROUND WIRES) WITH OR WITHOUT TELECOMMUNICATION CIRCUITS

4.1 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................ 46 4.2 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................... 48 4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS .................................................................. 53 4.4 AERIAL CONDUCTOR CONSTRUCTIONS .......................................................... 54 4.5 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SELECTION .................................................................... 54

SECTION 5 INSULATORS 5.1 INSULATION BASICS............................................................................................. 56 5.2 LINE AND SUBSTATION INSULATION COORDINATION ................................ 56 5.3 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN ....................................................... 57 5.4 RELEVANT STANDARDS, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

INSULATORS........................................................................................................... 58

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SECTION 6 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN 6.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 59 6.2 REQUIREMENTS..................................................................................................... 59 6.3 LIMIT STATES......................................................................................................... 61 6.4 ACTIONS.................................................................................................................. 65 6.5 MATERIAL PROPERTIES....................................................................................... 66 6.6 MODELLING FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND RESISTANCE................... 66

SECTION 7 ACTION ON LINES 7.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 68 7.2 ACTIONS, GENERAL APPROACH ........................................................................ 68 7.3 LOAD COMPONENTS............................................................................................. 72 7.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS ......................................................................................... 73

SECTION 8 SUPPORTS 8.1 INITIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS................................................................... 75 8.2 MATERIALS AND DESIGN .................................................................................... 75 8.3 CORROSION PROTECTION AND FINISHES........................................................ 76 8.4 MAINTENANCE FACILITIES................................................................................. 77 8.5 LOADING TESTS .................................................................................................... 77

SECTION 9 FOUNDATIONS 9.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 81 9.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES.............................................................................................. 81 9.3 POLE AND TOWER FOUNDATIONS .................................................................... 82 9.4 SOIL INVESTIGATION ........................................................................................... 82 9.5 BACKFILLING OF EXCAVATED MATERIALS ................................................... 82 9.6 FOUNDATION DISPLACEMENTS......................................................................... 82 9.7 LOAD TESTING OF FOUNDATIONS .................................................................... 82 9.8 CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION .............................................................. 83

SECTION 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS 10.1 GENERAL PURPOSE............................................................................................... 84 10.2 EARTHING MEASURES AGAINST LIGHTNING EFFECTS................................ 84 10.3 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO CORROSION AND MECHANICAL

STRENGTH ............................................................................................................. 84 10.4 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO THERMAL STRENGTH .......................... 85 10.5 RISK BASED EARTHING - PERMISSIBLE VALUES ........................................... 85 10.6 ELECTRICAL ASPECTS OF STAYWIRE DESIGN ............................................... 90 10.7 CHOICE OF EARTHING MATERIALS .................................................................. 91

SECTION 11 LINE EQUIPMENT—OVERHEAD LINE FITTINGS 11.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 92 11.2 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................ 92 11.3 RIV REQUIREMENTS AND CORONA EXTINCTION VOLTAGE....................... 92 11.4 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT AND POWER ARC REQUIREMENTS .................. 92 11.5 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................... 92 11.6 DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................ 93 11.7 MATERIAL SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION.................................................. 93 11.8 CHARACTERISTICS AND DIMENSIONS OF FITTINGS..................................... 93 11.9 TEST REQUIREMENTS........................................................................................... 95

SECTION 12 LIFE EXTENSION (REFURBISHMENT, UPGRADING, UPRATING) OF EXISTING OVERHEAD LINES

12.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 96

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12.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES ......................................................................... 96 12.3 COMPONENT CAPACITY ...................................................................................... 97 12.4 PROOF LOADING.................................................................................................... 97 12.5 UPGRADING OF OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES ............................................ 97

SECTION 13 PROVISIONS FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS

SECTION 14 CO-USE OF OVERHEAD LINE SUPPORTS (SIGNAGE, BANNERS, COMMUNICATIONS CARRIER CABLES, TELECOMMUNICATIONS REPEATERS)

14.1 SIGNS AND BANNERS AND TRAFFIC MIRRORS .............................................. 99 14.2 COMMUNICATIONS CARRIER CABLES ........................................................... 101 14.3 TELECOMMUNICATIONS REPEATERS EQUIPMENT AND TRAFFIC

MIRRORS .............................................................................................................. 101

APPENDICES A REFERENCE AND RELATED DOCUMENTS ..................................................... 103 B WIND LOADS ....................................................................................................... 110 C SPECIAL FORCES ................................................................................................. 127 D SERVICE LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES ............................................................... 134 E DESIGN FOR LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE ..................................................... 143 F TIMBER POLES ..................................................................................................... 145 G LATTICE STEEL TOWERS (SELF SUPPORTING AND GUYED MASTS)........ 151 H ELECTRICAL DESIGN ASPECTS ....................................................................... 156 I CONCRETE POLES ............................................................................................... 159 J COMPOSITE FIBRE POLES.................................................................................. 162 K STEEL POLES ........................................................................................................ 163 L STRUCTURE FOOTING DESIGN AND GUIDELINES FOR THE

GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS AND ROCKS ............................... 166 M APPLICATION OF STANDARDIZED WORK METHODS

FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS ................................................ 193 N UPGRADING OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES ............................................... 198 O WATER ABSORPTION TEST ............................................................................... 207 P INSULATION GUIDELINES ................................................................................ 210 Q MID SPAN SEPARATION CALCULATIONS ..................................................... 213 R INSULATION SWING ANGLE CALCULATIONS ............................................. 215 S AERIAL CONDUCTOR SAG AND TENSION...................................................... 219 T AERIAL CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND SAG

MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................. 234 U RISK BASED APPROACH TO EARTHING ......................................................... 237 V AERIAL CONDUCTOR PERMANENT ELONGATION....................................... 251 W AERIAL CONDUCTOR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY........................................ 254 X AERIAL CONDUCTOR COEFFICENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION ................ 257 Y AERIAL CONDUCTOR DEGRADATION and SELECTION FOR DIFFERING

ENVIRONMENTS .................................................................................................. 258 Z AERIAL CONDUCTOR STRESS AND FATIGUE................................................ 262 AA AERIAL CONDUCTOR SHORT TIME AND SHORT-CIRCUIT RATING.......... 268 BB AERIAL CONDUCTOR ANNEALING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURES .. 271 CC MECHANICAL DESIGN OF INSULATOR - LIMIT STATES.............................. 278 DD EASEMENT WIDTH .............................................................................................. 279 EE SNOW AND ICE LOADS....................................................................................... 280 FF DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY............................................. 287

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STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

Australian/New Zealand Standard Overhead line design

Part 1: Detailed procedures

S E C T I O N 1 S C O P E A N D G E N E R A L

1.1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

This Standard specifies the general requirements that shall be met for the design and construction of new overhead lines to ensure that the line is suitable for its intended purpose, and provides acceptable levels of safety for construction, maintenance, operation, and meets requirements for environmental considerations.

This Standard is only applicable to new overhead lines and is not intended to be retrospectively applied to the routine maintenance, and ongoing life extension of existing overhead lines constructed prior to the issue of this Standard. Such maintenance and life extension work ensures that lines continue to comply with the original design standards and remain safe and ‘fit for purpose’.

However, where existing overhead lines are proposed to be upgraded or refurbished including installation of larger aerial conductors, modified to provide tee-offs, diversions or the erection of additional communication cables and antennae, such that the original structure design loadings are increased to a point that elements of the support structures may be overloaded or overstressed to the original design standard; then the overhead line structures shall be required to be structurally assessed by a competent person for compliance with the provisions of this Standard.

This Standard is applicable to overhead lines supporting telecommunication systems or where they are used on overhead lines either attached to the aerial line conductor/earth wire systems or as separate cables supported by the supports such as optical ground wires (OPGWs) and optical aerial conductors or all dielectric self supporting (ADSS) conductors.

It is also applicable to overhead line structures supporting telecommunications equipment.

This Standard does not apply to catenary systems of electrified railways.

1.2 REFERENCED AND RELATED DOCUMENTS

See Appendix A for a list of documents referenced in this Standard and for a list of related documents.

1.3 DEFINITIONS

For the purpose of this Standard the definitions below apply.

1.3.1 Accidental action

Action, usually of short duration, which has a low probability of occurrence during the design working life.

NOTE: An accidental action can be expected in many cases to cause severe consequences unless special measures are taken.

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1.3.2 Action

(a) Force (load) applied to the (mechanical) system (direct action). NOTE: An action can be permanent, variable or accidental.

(b) An imposed or constrained deformation or an imposed acceleration caused for example, by temperature changes, moisture variation, uneven settlement or earthquakes (indirect action).

1.3.3 Aerial bundled cable

Two or more cores twisted together into a single bundled cable assembly. Two types of aerial bundled cable are used—

(a) low voltage aerial bundled cable (LVABC) means a cable which meets the requirements of either AS/NZS 3560.1 or AS/NZS 3560.2 as applicable; and

(b) high voltage aerial bundled cable (HVABC) means a cable which meets the requirements of either AS/NZS 3599.1 or AS/NZS 3599.2 as applicable.

1.3.4 Aerial cable

Any insulated or covered aerial conductor or assembly of cores with or without protective covering, which is placed above ground, in the open air and is suspended between two or more supports.

1.3.5 Aerial conductor

Any bare conductor which is placed above ground, in the open air and is suspended between two or more supports.

1.3.6 Bonding conductor

Conductor providing equipotential bonding.

1.3.7 Calculated breaking load (CBL)

In relation to a conductor, means the calculated minimum breaking load determined in accordance with the relevant Australian/New Zealand Standard.

1.3.8 Characteristic value of a material property

Value of a material property having a prescribed probability of not being attained in a hypothetical unlimited test series. This value generally corresponds to a specified fraction of the assumed statistical distribution of the particular property of the material. A nominal value is used as the characteristic value in some circumstances.

1.3.9 Clearance

The shortest distance between two objects that may have a potential difference between them.

1.3.10 Coefficient of variation

Ratio of the standard deviation to the mean value.

1.3.11 Component

One of the different principle parts of the overhead electrical line system having a specified purpose.

Typical components are supports, foundations, aerial conductors, insulator strings and hardware.

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1.3.12 Conductor temperature

Means the temperature assumed for the purpose of calculation, the temperature determined by the use of ESAA document D(b)5 or other appropriate Standard, or the temperature measured at the core of a conductor by means of a thermometer or similar, whichever is applicable.

1.3.13 Covered conductor

Means a conductor around which is applied a specified thickness of insulating material. AS/NZS 3675 specifies two types of covered conductor—

(a) CC where the nominal covering thickness is independent of working voltage; and

(b) CCT where the nominal covering thickness is dependent on the working voltage.

1.3.14 Conductor

A wire or combination of wires not insulated from one another, suitable for carrying an electric current.

1.3.15 Corona

Luminous discharge due to ionisation of the air surrounding an electrode caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a certain critical value.

NOTE: Electrodes may be aerial conductors, hardware, accessories or insulators

1.3.16 Design working life or design life

Assumed period for which a structure, components and elements is to be used for its intended purpose with anticipated routine maintenance but without substantial repair being necessary.

1.3.17 Earth

Term for the earth as a location as well as for earth as a conductive mass, for example types of soil, humus, loam sand, gravel and stone.

1.3.18 Earth current

Current flowing to earth via the impedance to earth.

1.3.19 Earth electrode

Conductor which is embedded in the earth and conductively connected to the earth, or a conductor which is embedded in concrete, which is in contact with the earth via a large surface (for example foundation earth electrode).

1.3.20 Earth fault

Conductive connection caused by a fault between an aerial phase conductor of the main circuit and earth or an earthed part. The conductive connection can also occur via an arc. Earth faults of two or several aerial phase conductors of the same electrical system at different locations are designated as double or multiple earth faults.

1.3.21 Earth fault current

Current which flows from the main circuit to earth or earthed parts.

1.3.22 Earthing

All means and measures for making a proper conductive connection to earth.

1.3.23 Earthing conductor

Conductor which connects that part of the installation which has to be earthed to an earth electrode.

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1.3.24 Earthing system

Locally limited electrical system of conductively connected earth electrodes or earthing conductors and of bonding conductors, [or metal parts effective in the same way, for example tower footings, armourings, metal cable sheaths].

1.3.25 Earth potential rise (EPR)

Voltage between an earthing system and reference earth.

1.3.26 Earth rod

Earth electrode which is generally buried or driven in vertically to a greater depth. For example it can consist of a pipe, round bar or other profile material.

1.3.27 Earth surface potential

Voltage between a point on the earth surface and reference earth.

1.3.28 Earth wire

An aerial conductor connected to earth at some or all supports, which is suspended usually but not necessarily above the aerial line conductors to provide a degree of protection against lightning strokes.

NOTE: An earth wire may also contain non-metallic wires for telecommunication purposes.

1.3.29 Effective field strength

Square root of the sum of the squares of the three root mean square (r.m.s.) mutually orthogonal components of the field.

1.3.30 Electric field

The electric field created in the vicinity of a charged aerial conductor is the vector quantified by the electric field strength, E. This quantity is the force exerted by an electric field on a unit charge and is measured in volts per metre (V/m).

1.3.31 Element

One of the different parts of a component. For example, the elements of a steel lattice tower are steel angles, plates and bolts.

1.3.32 Equipotential bonding

Conductive connection between conductive parts, to reduce the potential differences between these parts.

1.3.33 Everyday temperature (EDT)

The average temperature of the region.

1.3.34 Exclusion limit probability of a variable

Value of a variable taken from its distribution function and corresponding to an assigned probability of not being exceeded.

1.3.35 Failure

State of a structure, component and element whose purpose is terminated, i.e. in which a component has failed by excessive deformation, loss of stability, overturning, collapse, rupture, buckling, etc.

1.3.36 Highest system voltage

Highest (r.m.s.) value of voltage which occurs at any time and at any point of the overhead line under normal operating conditions and for which the overhead electrical line shall be designed.

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1.3.37 Horizontal earth electrode

Electrode which is generally buried at a low depth. For example it can consist of strip, round bar or stranded conductor and can be carried out as radial, ring or mesh earth electrode or as a combination of these.

1.3.38 Impedance to earth of an earthing system

Impedance between the earthing system and reference earth.

1.3.39 Insulated conductor

A conductor surrounded by a layer of insulation which provides resistance to the passage of current, or to disruptive discharges through or over the surface of the substance at the operating voltage, or injurious leakage of current. For clearance purposes a distinction is made between insulated conductors with and without earthed screens operating at voltages in excess of 1000 V.

1.3.40 Insulated with earthed screen

Includes aerial bundled cable (ABC) complying with either AS/NZS 3599.1 or AS/NZS 3599.2 as applicable.

1.3.41 Insulated without earthed screen

Includes CCT cable complying with AS/NZS 3675.

1.3.42 Limit state (electrical)

State beyond which the electrical design performance is no longer satisfied.

1.3.43 Limit state (structural)

State beyond which the structure, components and elements no longer satisfies the design performance requirements.

1.3.44 Load case

Likely combinations of design actions with defined variable actions and permanent actions for a particular structure analysis.

1.3.45 Low velocity everyday wind

Laminar wind with velocity between approximately 0.5 m. sec-1 and 7 m. sec-1 which results in the excitement of Aeolian vibration frequencies on the aerial conductor.

1.3.46 Maximum design temperature

The maximum steady state temperature under the influence of either steady state current or short time current for an aerial phase conductor or short circuit current for overhead earth wires.

1.3.47 Maximum design wind speed

Three second gust wind speed in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2 corresponding to the overhead line design return period.

1.3.48 Maximum operating temperature

(a) Limiting temperature for electrical clearances and long term performance of the conductor.

1.3.49 Magnetic field

Magnetic field generated by current carrying conductor. The magnetic field strength, H, is expressed in amperes per metre (A/m).

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1.3.50 Magnetic flux density

The magnetic flux density, also known as the magnetic induction, is the force exerted on a unit charge moving in the field and has the units of milliguass (mG) or microtesla (μT).

1.3.51 Maintenance

Total set of activities performed during the design working life of the system to maintain its purpose.

1.3.52 Nominal voltage

Voltage by which the overhead electrical line is designated and to which certain operating characteristics are referred.

1.3.53 Optical conductor (OPCON)

An electrical phase conductor containing optical telecommunication fibres.

1.3.54 Optical ground wire (OPGW)

An earth wire containing optical telecommunication fibres.

1.3.55 Overhead ground wire (aerial earth conductor)

An aerial wire which is grounded or earthed at multiple points.

1.3.56 Overhead line

Aerial conductors or cables together with associated supports, insulators and apparatus used for the transmission or distribution of electrical energy.

1.3.57 Overhead service line

An overhead line operating at a voltage less than 1000 V generally located between the electricity supply authority’s overhead line and the point of connection to an electrical installation.

1.3.58 Permanent action

Action that is likely to act continuously and for which variations in magnitude with time are small compared with the mean value.

1.3.59 Potential grading

Influencing the earth surface potential by means of earth (grading) electrodes.

1.3.60 Potential grading earth electrode

Conductor which due to shape and arrangement is principally used for potential grading rather than for establishing a certain resistance to earth.

1.3.61 Power frequency flashover distance

Withstand airgap for highest anticipated short term power frequency voltage and is typically 1.7 per unit voltage.

1.3.62 Pre-stressed concrete

Means concrete containing reinforcing steel, some or all of which has been tensioned prior to the application of external working loads.

1.3.63 Prospective step voltage

Means the prospective or open circuit voltage that may appear between any two points on the surface of the earth spaced one metre apart (measured with two driven electrodes and a high impedance voltmeter).

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1.3.64 Prospective touch voltage

Means the prospective or open circuit voltage (measured with a driven electrode and a high impedance voltmeter) which may appear between any point of contact with uninsulated metalwork located within 2.4 m of the ground and any point on the surface of the ground within a horizontal distance of one metre from the vertical projection of the point of contact with the uninsulated metalwork.

1.3.65 Radio interference voltage (RIV)

Any effect on the reception of a required radio signal due to an unwanted disturbance within the radiofrequency spectrum. Radio interference is primarily of concern for amplitude-modulated systems (AM radio and television video signals) since other forms of modulation (such as frequency modulation (FM) used for VHF radio broadcasting and television audio signals) are generally much less affected by disturbances that emanate from overhead lines.

1.3.66 Reinforced concrete

Means concrete containing reinforcing steel in the form of bar, rod or mesh. Tensile forces within the concrete section are usually assumed to be resisted by the reinforcement.

1.3.67 Reliability (electrical)

Probability that an electrical system performs a given electrical purpose, under a set of conditions, during a reference period.

Reliability is thus a measure of the success of a system in accomplishing its purpose.

1.3.68 Reliability (structural)

Probability that a structural system performs a given mechanical purpose, under a set of conditions, during a reference period.

Reliability is thus a measure of the success of a system in accomplishing its purpose.

1.3.69 Return period

Mean statistical interval between successive recurrencies of a climatic action of at least defined magnitude. The inverse of the return period gives the probability of exceeding the action in one year.

1.3.70 Risk

Chance of or exposure to adverse consequences such as loss, injury or death.

1.3.71 Road

Means a public thoroughfare ordinarily used by motor vehicles.

1.3.72 Ruling span

Also known as the equivalent span or the mean effective span (MES), means that level dead-end span in which the behaviour of the tension closely follows that of the tension in every span of a series of suspension spans in a tension section under the same loading conditions.

1.3.73 Safety

Ability of a system not to cause human injuries or loss of lives during its construction, operation and maintenance.

1.3.74 Security

Ability of a system to be protected from a major collapse (cascading effect) if a failure is triggered in a given component. This may be caused by electrical or structural factors.

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1.3.75 Serviceability limit state (electrical)

State beyond which specified service criteria for an electrical performance is no longer met.

1.3.76 Serviceability limit state (structural)

State beyond which specified service criteria for a structure or structural element are no longer met.

1.3.77 Soil resistivity

Volume resistivity of the earth in Ohm metres.

1.3.78 Span length

Means the centre-line horizontal distance between two adjacent supports.

1.3.79 Strength

Mechanical property of a material, usually given in units of stress.

1.3.80 Structure

Organized combination of connected elements designed to provide some measure of rigidity.

1.3.81 Support

General term for different structure types that support the aerial conductors of the overhead electrical line.

1.3.82 Support, intermediate

Support for aerial conductors by pin, post or suspension insulators.

1.3.83 Support, suspension

Support for aerial conductors by suspension insulators.

1.3.84 Support, tension

Support for aerial conductors by tension or strain insulators.

1.3.85 Support, terminal (dead-end)

Tension support capable of carrying the total aerial conductor tensile forces in one direction.

1.3.86 System (electrical)

All items of equipment which are used in combination for the generation, transmission and distribution ofelectricity.

1.3.87 System (mechanical and structural)

Set of components connected together to form an overhead electrical line.

1.3.88 System that is solidly earthed

System (electrical) in which at least one neutral of a transformer, earthing transformer or generator is earthed directly or via a low impedance.

1.3.89 System that is non-effectively earthed

System (electrical) with isolated neutral or resonant earthing.

1.3.90 System with resonant earthing

System (electrical) in which at least one neutral of a transformer or earthing transformer is earthed via an arc suppression coil and the combined inductance of all arc suppression coils is essentially tuned to the capacitance of the system to earth for the operating frequency.

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1.3.91 Television interference voltage (TIV)

Special case of radio interference for disturbances affecting the frequency ranges used for television broadcasting.

1.3.92 Transferred potential

Potential rise of an earthing system caused by a current to earth transferred by means of a connected conductor (for example cable metal sheath, pipeline, rail) into areas with low or no potential rise to reference earth.

1.3.93 Ultimate limit state (electrical)

State associated with electrical failure, such as electrical flash over.

1.3.94 Ultimate limit state (structural)

State associated with collapse, or with other forms of structural failure.

It corresponds generally to the maximum load-carrying resistance of a structure or a structural element.

1.3.95 Variable action

A time variable action.

1.3.96 Weight span

For a support, means the equivalent span which gives the vertical component of the aerial conductor load and equals the span between the lowest points on the catenary curve of the aerial conductor on either side of that support.

1.3.97 Wind span

For a support, means the equivalent span which gives the horizontal lateral component of the aerial conductor load caused by wind and equals one half of the sum of the spans on either side of that support.

1.4 NOTATION

The quantity symbols used in this Standard shall have the meanings ascribed to them below.

Symbol Signification

α = angle of wind to aerial conductor

φ = the strength factor which takes into account variability of material, workmanship etc.

η = shielding factor

δ = solidity factor

γ = soil density (kN/m2)

ϕ = soil angle of friction

γx = load factors which take into account variability of loads, importance of structure, safety implications etc.

A = is the projected area of one structure section (panel) under consideration in a vertical plane along the face for square towers

(m²)

A* = is the projected area of the structure section under consideration in a plane normal to the wind direction

(m²)

A1, A3 = projected areas of the longitudinal faces on lattice structures in a vertical plane along the face

(m²)

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A2, A4 = projected areas of transverse faces on lattice structures in a vertical plane along the face

(m²)

C = drag coefficient of wire

c = soil cohesion (kPa)

Cd = drag force coefficient for member

COV = coefficient of variation

CRF = component reliability factor

d = conductor diameter (mm)

D = ‘effective diameter’ of foundation (m)

En = Earthquake load corresponding to an appropriate return period (kN)

Fb = load on structure due to unbalanced aerial conductor tensions resulting from abnormal conditions e.g. a broken aerial conductor (kN)

Fc = aerial conductor loads resulting from wind action on the projected area of aerial conductors

(kN)

Fs = force on structural sections (panel) in the direction of the wind (kN)

Fsθ = force on structural sections (whole tower) in the direction of the wind

(kN)

Ft = load on the structure due to the intact horizontal component of aerial conductor tension in the direction of the line for the appropriate wind load

(kN)

G = vertical dead loads

Gc = Vertical dead load related to aerial conductors (kN)

Gs = vertical dead loads resulting from non-aerial conductor loads (kN)

H = ground line lateral load (kN)

Hcalc = calculated value using recommended method (kN)

HL = nominal failure load (kN)

Hmax. = maximum lateral load (kN)

kθ = factor for angle of incidence θ of wind to frames (kN)

Ki = factor that is function of soil modulus of elasticity and foundation geometry

Kq, Kc = factors that are a function of z/D and φ

Kx = represents factors accounting for aspect ratio, wind direction and shielding of the member

L = aerial conductor length under consideration for determining aerial conductor loads due to wind action e.g. the wind span for a structure

(m)

L = embedment depth or length for structural design (m)

LR = line reliability

M = bending moment at ground line (kNm)

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Md = wind direction multiplier. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2

Mrel = Reliability based load multiplier for wind loads

Mt = topographic multiplier for gust wind speed. Refer to AS/NZS 1170

Mz,cat = gust winds speed multiplier for terrain category at height z. Refer AS/NZS 1170.2

p = ultimate soil pressure (kPa)

Pc = aerial conductor natural and forced convection cooling

Pj = aerial conductor joule heating due to the resistance of the aerial conductor

Pr = aerial conductor radiation cooling

Ps = aerial conductor solar heat gain

Q = maintenance loads

qz = dynamic wind pressure (kPa)

qz = vertical overburden pressure at depth z, qz = γz (kPa)

Re = component design strength based on the nominal strength of the component for the required exclusion limit ‘e’

(kN)

Rm = mean strength of the component (kN)

Rn = The nominal strength of the component (kN)

RP = return period (years)

S = snow and ice loads (kN)

Sγ = snow and ice loads corresponding to an appropriate return period

SRF = span reduction factor to provide for spatial variation in wind

U = Nominal phase to phase voltage (V)

VR = regional wind speed. Refer AS/NZS 1170.2 (m/s)

Vx = design site wind velocity. Refer AS/NZS 1170 (m/s)

Wn = wind load acting on all structures and line components pertinent to each loading condition based on the appropriate 3 second gust site wind speed as defined in AS/NZS 1170.2 and corresponding to the selected return period

(kN)

X = the applied loads pertinent to each loading condition (kN)

z = depth below the ground surface (m)

zr = point of rotation at a depth below the surface (m)

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S E C T I O N 2 D E S I G N P H I L O S O P H I E S

2.1 GENERAL

The design of overhead lines requires that the total system including supports, foundations, aerial conductors, insulators and fittings, has operational characteristics that provide for the safe operation and insulation of the energized components, for a planned design service life, and meets or exceeds design levels of reliability.

The overhead line design process is an iterative one and principles from related design fields (electrical, structural and mechanical) need to be applied whilst incorporating regulatory, environment and maintenance requirements.

The overhead line design shall achieve a number of objectives and some of these may be competing between the related design fields. The objectives which need to be considered are—

(a) safety (designed to relevant regulatory, Australian and International Standards);

(b) security (minimal structural or component failures);

(c) reliability (appropriate outage rates);

(d) meeting of environmental requirements (EMF, visual, RIV, TIV and audible noise);

(e) whole of life cost;

(f) practicality to construct;

(g) ability to be maintained (provide for climbing corridors, access for elevating work platform vehicles, live line, helicopter maintenance);

(h) meeting of regulations and codes of practice; and

(i) satisfaction of power transfer rating requirements.

2.2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

The design of overhead lines shall be based on limit state principles for serviceability and strength limit states for the various line components.

Structure limit state design uses a load and resistance format, which separates the effects of component strengths and their variability from the effects of external loadings and their uncertainty.

The state of system and the damage and failure limits are illustrated in Figure 2.1.

state of system intact state damaged state failed state

strength limits serviceability limit damage limit

FIGURE 2.1 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

An explanation of limit state design is given in IEC 60826.

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2.2.1 Limit states on line components

The overhead line is considered intact when its structure, insulators, aerial conductors and fittings are used at stresses below the damage limit.

2.2.1.1 Structure design limit states

The limit states to be considered in the design of overhead lines are—

(a) ultimate strength limit state in which the structure’s or component’s design capacity exceeds the design load; and

(b) serviceability limit state in which the performance of the structure or component under commonly occurring loads or conditions will be satisfactory.

Serviceability limit states include support deflections. Exceeding the serviceability design load may cause damage to some components.

NOTE: A structure or part thereof or component may be designed to fail or undergo high deflections under some loading situations in order to relieve loads on other parts of the structural system. When this occurs, serviceability limit states may not be maintained.

2.2.1.2 Aerial conductors (including earthwires) limit states

When the aerial conductor is subjected to increasing loads, aerial conductors may exhibit at some load a permanent deformation particularly if the failure mode is ductile or may exhibit wire and or whole aerial conductor fracture when subjected to wind induced Aeolian vibration.

These conditions are defined as the damage or serviceability limit state. If the load is further increased, failure of the aerial conductor and or tension fittings occurs at a level called the failure or ultimate limit state.

Finally the aerial conductors and or tension fittings are considered to have failed if the aerial conductors and or fittings have reached their failure limit.

2.2.1.3 Insulator limit states

There are three states for the mechanical design of insulators, these being the—

(a) everyday load;

(b) serviceable wind load; and

(c) failure containment load.

The serviceable load is the maximum load that can be applied without causing damage to the insulator or exceeding the desired deflection limit. The failure containment load is the mechanical failure load of the aerial conductor. For line post insulators, the everyday load is a relevant consideration to determine long term deflection of the insulator.

2.2.1.4 Electrical structure clearances limit states

Three serviceability states are defined and shall be considered—

• Condition (a)—Low or still wind

Under low wind conditions the clearance shall be sufficient for maintenance activities. If provision is to be made for live line work, then the clearance shall also be adequate to maintain safe working distances at a wind pressure of 100 Pa.

• Condition (b)—Moderate wind

Under moderate wind of 300 Pa the clearance shall be sufficient to withstand lightning and switching over-voltages.

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• Condition (c)—High wind

Under high wind pressure of 500 Pa and at maximum swing position of the insulators, the clearance shall withstand highest power frequency temporary (dynamic) voltages which are normally taken as between 1.4 (solidly earthed) to 1.7 (non-effectively earthed) times the ‘per unit’ voltage.

2.3 DESIGN LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES

The design life, or target nominal service life expectancy, of a structure is dependent on its exposure to a number of variable factors such as solar radiation, temperature, precipitation, wind, ice, and seismic effects.

The service life of an overhead line is the period over which it will continue to serve its intended purpose safely, without undue maintenance or repair disproportionate to its cost of replacement and without exceeding any specified serviceability criteria. This recognizes that cumulative deterioration of the overhead line will occur over time. Therefore, due maintenance and possible minor repairs will be required from time to time to maintain the structure in a safe and useable condition over its service life.

2.4 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN OVERHEAD LINE

Each overhead line shall be designed to be capable of transferring a prescribed electrical power, at a selected maximum operating temperature, and with acceptable levels of electrical effects of corona, radio and television interference and electric and magnetic fields. It shall also be capable of safe operation at a serviceability limit states.

2.5 OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES

The operational performance of a line is dependant on each component of a line being able to meet its assumed performance criteria and to achieve a target reliability level under the serviceability and ultimate strength limit state conditions.

2.6 RELIABILITY

All overhead lines shall be designed for a selected reliability level relevant to the lines importance to the system (including consideration of system redundancy), its location and exposure to climatic conditions, and with due consideration for public safety.

2.7 COORDINATION OF STRENGTH

Overhead lines should be regarded as a total spatial structural system that has components constituting the line as set out below.

Consideration may be given to the coordination of the relative strength of the components to establish a desired sequence of component failure to minimize overall damage. This approach provides a hierarchical control of the sequence of failure of components within an overhead line system, thereby enables the designer to coordinate the relative strengths of components and recognizes the fact that an overhead line is a series of components where the failure of any component could lead to the loss of power transmission capability.

The four major components of the overhead line are shown in Table 2.1.

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TABLE 2.1

OVERHEAD LINE SYSTEM, COMPONENTS AND ELEMENTS

Structural system Components Elements

Steel sections, poles cross arms etc.

Plates, bolts etc. Supports

Guys and fittings

Anchor bolts, piles, cleats etc.

Concrete footing Foundations

Soil

Wires

Joints Aerial conductors

Hardware, shackles etc.

Insulator elements

Brackets, bolts etc.

Overhead line

Insulators

Fittings

2.8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

All overhead lines should be designed and constructed with consideration for their environmental impact.

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S E C T I O N 3 E L E C T R I C A L R E Q U I R E M E N T S

3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The electrical design for an overhead line covers the following:

(a) Design of aerial conductor to minimize losses and meet required voltage drop, corona and RIV, TVI and audible noise levels (refer Appendix H).

(b) Power frequency, switching and lightning overvoltages (refer Clause 3.3).

(c) Determination of current rating to meet power requirements (refer Clause 3.2).

(d) Electrical clearances (refer Clause 3.5).

(e) Selection of insulation (refer Clause 3.3).

(f) Lightning performance (refer Clause 3.4).

(g) Design of earthing system (refer Section 10 and Appendix U).

(h) Electric and magnetic fields (refer Clause 3.13).

3.2 CURRENT CONSIDERATIONS

The cross-section of the aerial phase conductors shall be chosen so that the design maximum temperature for the aerial conductor material, determined by grease drop point or annealing considerations, is not exceeded under operating conditions. Once an aerial conductor and its maximum operating temperature have been chosen, the aerial conductor rating can be calculated. Various methods of determining aerial conductor rating are given in Section 4.

The overhead line and the earthing system (refer Section 10) shall be designed to withstand without damage the mechanical and thermal effects due to the fault currents and associated fault durations.

3.3 INSULATION SYSTEM DESIGN

3.3.1 General

Overhead equipment will be subjected to the effects of pollution and lightning. The insulation system comprises air gaps and insulators. All overhead lines shall be designed to coordinate insulation protection schemes to protect sensitive plant and equipment, such as substations, and to provide the desired outage performance rate. These issues are discussed further in the following sections.

3.3.2 Coordination with substations

Precautions should be taken to ensure that lightning strikes close to the substation are attenuated to levels which do not cause damage to substation equipment.

The principles and rules of insulation co-ordination are described in AS 1824. The procedure for insulation co-ordination consists of the selection of a set of standard withstand voltages which characterize the insulation.

3.4 LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES

In the northern parts of Australia where there are moderate to high ceraunic levels, lightning is a major cause of line outages. The design of the overhead line should incorporate a reliability target for the lightning performance. The detailed procedure for assessing design for lightning performance is covered in Appendix E.

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3.5 ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE DISTANCES TO AVOID FLASHOVER

3.5.1 Introduction

Overhead lines shall be designed with electrical clearances from the energized conductor to surrounding objects to provide safe and reliable operation. These objects can be other energized conductors, structures, constructions, plant, vehicles or vessels (water craft). The basic approach to electrical clearances is to combine an electrical air gap withstand distance, (Gw) with a safety margin (Sm). Gw is dependent on the electrical breakdown voltage of air (around 300 kV per metre for air gaps up to 2 metres), relative air density (RAD), the air gap geometry. Sm is dependent on the type of object, the movement of the object and the exposure of persons in the vicinity of the energized conductor.

The electrical clearances which are outlined in this Standard set the minimum acceptable standards for the safe operation and reliable electrical performance of the overhead line.

These clearances are classified as—

(a) Internal, which include the following:

(i) Clearance at the structure.

(ii) Clearance for inspection and maintenance.

(iii) Mid span aerial phase conductor to aerial phase conductor.

(iv) Aerial phase conductor to earthwire.

(b) External, which include the following:

(i) Aerial phase conductor to ground.

(ii) Aerial phase conductor to objects.

(iii) Circuit to circuit (attached to same structure or unattached).

3.5.2 Clearances to objects and ground

The designer shall have regard for State or National based Electricity Safety Regulations which may specify additional or more onerous clearances.

Where regulations set line design clearances above road pavement these will typically be based on a minimum electrical clearance (flashover clearance plus margin) plus provision for the maximum likely vehicle height.

The designer should consider the requirement for any over-dimensional vehicle or machinery and make provision, where necessary, for construction of future subsidiary circuits or under crossings of distribution/sub-transmission lines. The resulting clearance will be above the clearance normally accepted for road purposes.

3.5.3 Inspection and maintenance clearances

The designer needs to be aware of the different methods used for line maintenance and the impact this may have on circuit availability, particularly for multi-circuit construction.

Inspection and maintenance activities include—

(a) deadline inspection and/or maintenance—with the line de-energized or earthed for safe access;

(b) live line inspection—by provision of a safe access corridor on the structure to inspect components. The designer should have regard, in selecting corridor width, to the available freedom or constraint on body movement and the consequence of inadvertent movement in managing risk; and

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(c) live line maintenance—this could include stick or bare hand work either from the

structure or insulated elevated work platform or helicopter (in-span if clearances are appropriate).

For safe approach and live line clearances refer to Electricity Networks Association (Australia) publications, Electricity Engineers’ Association (New Zealand) publications, Australian Standards and New Zealand Codes of Practice.

3.5.4 Live access clearance

During structure access, there is a risk of lapse of control than with deliberate approach which may be applied at a working position. Climbing corridors should be dimensioned to—

(a) accommodate the natural climbing action without requiring the constrained movement by the climber to maintain safe electrical distances (refer climbing space test in Figure 3.1); and

(b) maintain at least power frequency flashover distance in the event of a momentary lapse of controlled movement by the climber. (refer full reach test in Figure 3.1).

Power frequency flashover distance

Safe approach distance

FIGURE 3.1 ACCESS CLEARANCE TEST

3.5.5 States for calculation of clearances

3.5.5.1.1 Maximum design temperature

All vertical clearances shall be based on the maximum continuous service temperature of the aerial conductors.

3.5.5.2 Ice load for determination of electrical clearance

The characteristic ice load to be applied shall be specified directly based on regional experience.

3.5.5.3 Combined wind and snow/ice loads

Combined wind and snow/ice loads should be considered in certain regions of Australia and New Zealand, based on regional experience.

3.5.6 Clearances at the structure

The three serviceability clearance states which shall be considered are given in Section 2 and include—

(a) low or still wind;

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(b) moderate wind; and

(c) high wind.

3.6 DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY

Structures shall be designed with adequate air clearances to provide a reliable performance and to allow maintenance to be performed safely. The electrical design determines the structure geometry and shall be coordinated with the structural design.

NOTE: Appendix FF provides guidance on the determination of structure geometry.

3.6.1 High wind serviceability state

The power frequency clearance is the distance between the structure and the aerial conductor when the aerial conductor is subjected to the high wind serviceability wind pressure. Any insulator swing shall be taken into account when determining the structure geometry.

3.6.2 Moderate wind serviceability state

Switching impulse clearances shall be provided for moderate wind pressure. Any insulator swing shall be taken into account when determining the structure geometry.

3.6.3 Low wind serviceability state

Lightning impulse clearances should be considered under low wind conditions to achieve the desired reliability level. Depending on the coincident of lightning and wind, lightning impulse clearance may be provided under moderate wind.

3.6.4 Maintenance Clearances

The method of access to the structure needs to be considered and then climbing corridors and work positions defined. The structures shall be designed with consideration given to the types of maintenance activities used, such as climbing patrols, helicopter patrols and live line and bare hand working crews. Adequate clearances between the workers and live equipment shall be provided for the various maintenance activities to be performed safely.

For inspection and maintenance activities, a maintenance approach distance between personnel and live parts shall be provided under light winds, typically in range 60 Pa to 100 Pa wind pressure.

Clearances are required to be considered for the following cases:

(a) Maintenance approach distance for climbing and inspection.

(b) Live line working.

(c) Hand reach clearance.

For maintenance approach distances refer to ENA NENS 04.

Refer to the following documents for live working distances:

(i) ENA LLM 03 for glove and barrier.

(ii) ENA LLM 02 for live line sticks.

(iii) ENA LLM 01 for barehand.

In New Zealand the relevant references are—

1 EEA SM-EI

2 NZECP 34

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3.7 SPACING OF AERIAL CONDUCTORS

3.7.1 Aerial conductors of different circuits on different supports (unattached crossing)

3.7.1.1 General

This Clause provides the minimum requirements to prevent circuit to circuit flashover, under both normal operating and fault conditions, between aerial conductors or cables of different circuits that cross each other and are not attached to the same pole or support at the point of crossing (see Figure 3.2):

(a) Where a circuit operates at a voltage below 1000 V it should be placed below any other circuit operating at a higher voltage.

(b) Where two circuits of different or similar voltage cross each other, aerial conductors of a higher voltage circuit should be placed above a lower voltage circuit.

(c) The vertical separation between any aerial conductor or cable of the higher circuit and any aerial conductor or cable of the lower circuit should satisfy both of the following:

(i) Normal conditions clearance—The vertical separation should be not less than that specified in Table 3.1.

(ii) Dynamic loading clearance—Refer to Figure 3.3.

If conditions are such that it is likely that the lower circuit can accidentally contact into the higher circuit, the vertical separation at the crossing point should be twice the sag of the lower circuit when both aerial conductors or cables are at their maximum design temperature. (This is a simplified calculation method).

NOTE: Dynamic load can be caused by vegetation falling on aerial conductors or ice shedding.

FIGURE 3.2 UNATTACHED CROSSING

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FIGURE 3.3 SIMPLIFIED UNATTACHED CROSSINGS FOR FAULT CONDITIONS (DOUBLE ENVELOPE METHOD)

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TABLE 3.1

VERTICAL SEPARATION FOR UNATTACHED CROSSINGS (IN METRES)

UPPER CIRCUIT

U ≤ 500 kVU > 330 kV

Bare

U ≤ 330 kVU > 275 kV

Bare

U ≤ 275 kVU >132 kV

Bare

U ≤ 132 kVU > 66 kV

Bare

U ≤ 66 kVU > 33 kV

Bare

U ≤ 33 kVU > 1000 V

Bare or covered

U ≤ 33 kVU > 1000 VInsulated

U < 1000 VBare,

covered and insulated

Other cables (Conductive)

Other cables (Non-

conductive)

330 kV <U ≤ 500 kV No wind 5.2 Bare Wind 3.6 275 kV < U ≤ 330 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 Bare Wind 3.6 2.6

L 132 kV < U ≤ 275 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 O Bare Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 W 66 kV < U ≤ 132 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 E Bare Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 R 33 kV < U ≤ 66 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 Bare Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8

C 1000 V < U ≤ 33 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 I Bare or covered Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 R 1000 V < U ≤33 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 C Insulated Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 U U ≤ 1000 V No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.6 I Bare, covered and insulated Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 T Other cables No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4 (Conductive) Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 Other cables No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 (Non conductive) Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2

NOTES: 1 The above clearances may need to be increased due to local factors such as in Note 7 of Figure 3.6. 2 The clearances in this table may need to be increased to account for safe approach distances required for construction, operation and maintenances and for aerial conductor

blow out on large spans. 3 The above clearances are based on the top circuit being at maximum aerial conductor temperature and the bottom circuit at ambient temperature. 4 These clearances apply to heights up to 1000 m.


3.7.1.2 Determination of aerial conductor separation

Vertical separation between circuits is determined by establishing the aerial conductor positions with reference to—

(a) aerial conductor temperatures of each circuit; and

(b) wind conditions.

The following should be used as a guide for selecting appropriate aerial conductor temperatures and wind pressures.

3.7.1.3 Separation in still air

The aerial conductor temperature of the higher circuit should be the maximum design temperature.

In the case of a bearer wire supporting an aerial conductor bundle (e.g. as in Aerial Control Cable to AS/NZS 2373 or HVABC to AS/NZS 3599) the maximum design temperature would be the maximum temperature the bearer wire may reach under the influence of ambient temperature of the air, solar radiation and heat transferred to it from the aerial phase conductors, if applicable.

The temperature of the lower aerial conductor should be the ambient temperature.

3.7.1.4 Separation under wind

The aerial conductor temperature of higher circuit should be taken as t°C with aerial conductors hanging in the vertical plane, i.e. the wind direction is along the span, e.g. aerial conductors not displaced by wind, and Temperature t°C is the aerial conductor temperature applicable to the wind load conditions.

The aerial conductor temperature of lower circuit should be taken as t°C with aerial conductors displaced by P wind pressure, i.e. the wind direction is normal to the span, and Temperature t°C is the aerial conductor temperature applicable to the wind load conditions.

NOTE: This assumes that the aerial conductor temperatures of both circuits are at the temperature at which wind pressure occurs, e.g. aerial conductors have cooled to the air temperature.

Table 3.2 gives the temperature and electrical conditions for determining the electrical clearances

TABLE 3.2

CONDITIONS FOR DETERMINING CLEARANCES

Condition, P Top aerial conductor, t°C

Bottom aerial conductor, t°C Clearance

100 Pa wind Ambient temp Ambient temp Impulse

High wind on lower aerial conductor (500 Pa)

Ambient temp Ambient temp Power frequency

3.7.2 Aerial conductors of different circuits on the same support (attached crossing)

This Clause provides the minimum requirements to prevent circuit to circuit flashover, under operating conditions, between aerial conductors or cables that are attached to the same support and cross each other (see Figure 3.4).

Where two circuits of different or similar voltage cross each other and are attached to the same support, aerial conductors of a higher voltage circuit should be placed above a lower voltage circuit and the vertical separations between the different circuits at any point on the support under normal working conditions should not be less than specified in Table 3.3.

NOTE: For voltages in excess of 132 kV separations should be determined by the designer.

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FIGURE 3.4 ATTACHED CROSSINGS

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TABLE 3.3

VERTICAL SEPARATION FOR ATTACHED CROSSINGS (IN METRES)

UPPER CIRCUIT

U ≤ 132 kV U > 66 kV

Bare

U ≤ 66 kV U > 33 kV

Bare

U ≤ 33 kV U > 1000 V

Bare or covered

U ≤ 33 kV U > 1000 V Insulated

U < 1000 V Bare and covered

U < 1000 V Insulated

Other cables(Conductive)

Other cables (Non-

conductive)

66 kV <U ≤ 132 kV

Bare 2.4

L 33 kV < U ≤ 66 kV

O Bare (Note 1) 2.4 1.5

W 1000 kV < U ≤ 33 kV

E Bare or covered 2.4 1.5 0.9 0.9

R 1000 kV < U ≤ 33 kV

Insulated 2.4 1.5 0.9 0.2

C U < 1000 V

I Bare and covered 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.3

R U < 1000 V

C Insulated 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3

U Other cables

I (Conductive) 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2

T Other cables

(Non conductive) 0.2 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2

NOTES: 1 The clearances in the table are based on the lower circuit aerial conductors being attached to pin or post insulators. Additional clearance is required to allow for aerial

conductor movement, if the lower circuit is attached by suspension or strain insulators.

2 The clearances in this table may need to be increased to account for safe approach distances required for construction, operation and maintenances.


3.7.3 Aerial conductors on the same supports (same or different circuits and shared spans)

This Clause provides the minimum requirements between aerial conductors or cables attached to the same support, and sharing the same span to prevent circuit to circuit or phase to phase flashover under operating conditions.

Where aerial conductors or cables are carried on the same pole or support as those of a higher voltage the lower voltage aerial conductors should be placed below the higher voltage aerial conductors.

Any two bare aerial conductors having a difference in voltage with respect to each other should have vertical, horizontal or angular separation from each other in accordance with the values required by Clause 3.7.3.1 (refer to Figure 3.5), provided that the clearance at the support or at any part in the span is not less than the separation nominated in Item (b) (refer to Figure 3.6).

The separation given by Clause 3.7.3.1 is intended to cater for differential (out of phase and in phase) movement of aerial conductors under wind conditions with minimum turbulence. The separation given by Clause 3.7.3.2 is a minimum under any circumstances.

3.7.3.1 At mid span (See Figure 3.5)

FIGURE 3.5 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION AT MID SPAN (ONE CIRCUIT)

2 2i(1.2 )

150UX Y k+ ≥ + D l+ . . .(3.1)

where

X = is the projected horizontal distance in metres between the aerial conductors at mid span; (X = (X1 + X2)/2) where X1 is the projected horizontal distance in metres between the aerial conductors at one support and X2 is the projected horizontal distance in metres between the aerial conductors at the other support in the same span

Y = is the projected vertical distance in metres between the aerial conductors at mid span; (Y = (Y1 + Y2)/2) where Y1 is the projected vertical distance in metres between the aerial conductors at one support and Y2 is the projected vertical distance in metres between the aerial conductors at the other support in the same span

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U = is the r.m.s. vector difference in potential (kV) between the two aerial conductors when each is operating at its nominal voltage. In determining the potential between aerial conductors of different circuits or between an earthwire and an aerial phase conductor, regard should be paid to any phase differences in the nominal voltages

k = is a constant, normally equal to 0.4. Where experience has shown that other values are appropriate, these may be applied. Refer also to Note 5 of this Clause

D = is the greater of the two aerial conductor sags in metres at the centre of an equivalent level span and at an aerial conductor operating temperature of 50°C in still air

Ii = is the length in metres of any free swing suspension insulator associated with either aerial conductor

For the purposes of this Clause an equivalent level span shall mean a span—

(a) which has the same span length in the horizontal projection as the original span;

(b) in which aerial conductor attachments at supports are in the same horizontal plane; and

(c) in which the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tension is the same as in the original span.

As this Equation 3.1 is intended to cater for out-of-phase movement of aerial conductors under wind conditions with minimum turbulence, the aerial conductor sags are calculated at 50°C and the effect of different load currents are ignored (because of the significant cooling effect of the wind in these conditions). The wind is not sufficient to increase the sag, and therefore sag can be calculated assuming still air.

U can be determined by using the formula—

2 2a b a b2 CosU V V V V φ= + − . . .(3.2)

where

Va = upper circuit nominal voltage phase to earth value (kV)

Vb = lower circuit nominal voltage phase to earth value (kV) φ = phase angle difference between circuits (degrees)

3.7.3.2 At any point in the span

Where U ≤ 11 kV . . . . . . . . . . 0.38 m

Where U > 11 kV . . . . . . . . . . (0.38 + q (U − 11)) . . .(3.3)

where

q = constant which varies from .005 to .01 (normal). Where regional service experience has shown that other values are appropriate, these may be applied

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(b)

(b)

(b)

(a)

(a)

(a)

(a) Mid span separat ion equat ion 3.1 appl ies(b) Any point in span equat ion 3.3 appl ies

FIGURE 3.6 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION—ATTACHED ON SAME STRUCTURE

NOTES: 1 When aerial conductors of different circuits are located vertically one above the other,

consideration should be given to the need to prevent clashing of aerial conductors of different circuits under the influence of load current in one or both circuits. (See Figure 3.7).

2 This clause is not intended to apply to insulated aerial conductors (with or without earthed screens) of any voltage.

3 The spacing for covered aerial conductors may be reduced providing the covering is adequate to prevent electrical breakdown of the covering when the aerial conductors clash and a risk management strategy is in place to ensure that aerial conductors do not remain entangled for periods beyond what the covering can withstand.

4 Where spacers are used, spacing may be less than those specified. It is suggested that the spacer be taken to be an aerial conductor support for the purpose of calculating aerial conductor spacing.

5 The above empirical formula is intended to minimize the risk of aerial conductor clashing; however, circumstances do arise where it is not practicable to give guidance or predict outcomes. Some of these situations involve— (a) extremely turbulent wind conditions; (b) the different amount of movement of aerial conductors of different size and type under

the same wind conditions; and (c) aerial conductors movement under fault conditions (particularly with horizontal

construction).

The following k factors are recommended for overhead power lines which have phase to phase clearances at 1200 mm or less at midspan: (i) Extremely turbulent wind conditions—k to be in range 0.4 to 0.6. (ii) High to extreme bushfire prone areas—k to be in range 0.4 to 0.6 (iii) under high phase to phase fault conditions—k = 0.4 for fault currents up to 4,000 A, 0.5

for fault currents from 4,000 A to 6,000 A and 0.6 for fault currents above 6,000 A (iv) Aerial conductors of different mass/diameter ratios and at different heights—k = 0.4 to

0.6

In all other situations a k factor of 0.4 is recommended.

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6 Mid span clearances will need to be increased in situations where the aerial conductor

transition from horizontal to vertical or where the adjacent aerial conductors are of different characteristics (diameter, weight) which can cause out of phase movement..

7 The following situations may also need to be taken into account when considering spacing of aerial conductors but it is not practicable to provide guidance in this document. Knowledge of local conditions would be required to make design decisions. (a) Aircraft warning devices. (b) Large birds which may collide with aerial conductors, causing them to come together,

or whose wingspan is such as to make contact between bare aerial conductors and conducting crossarms.

(c) Flocks of birds resting on aerial conductors are known to ‘lift off’ simultaneously, causing violent aerial conductor movement.

(d) Ice and snow loading and ice shedding. (e) Terrain factors that may contribute to aerodynamic lift and/or random motion. (f) Spray irrigators. (g) Safety approach clearances for construction, operation and maintenance

8 Spacing may need to be increased in locations where bridging of the spacing by birds or animals is experienced or probable.

FIGURE 3.7 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION—INFLUENCE OF LOAD CURRENT—ATTACHED ON SAME STRUCTURE

3.7.4 Clearance to inter-span poles

Poles may be installed in between spans to accommodate street lights or low voltage services and electrical clearance needs to be provided for maintenance personnel. The minimum separation between the circuit at maximum operating temperature and interspan pole for 11 kV and 33 kV shall be 1.5 m (as shown in Figure 3.8).

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1.5 m

0.8 mWork ing zone

0.7 mApproach l imi t toc losest bare l i veconductor

Lowest superscr ipt conductor (up to 33kV )

Der ivation of in span clearanceIn spanclearance

Botom circuit atambient temp

Top circuit at max.design temp

Power DRstreetlight pole

FIGURE 3.8 CLEARANCE TO INTER-SPAN POLES

3.8 INSULATOR AND AERIAL CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT AT STRUCTURE

3.8.1 General

This clause provides the minimum requirements for the separation between aerial conductors or cables and any earthed structure to prevent flashover under operating conditions.

This clause applies to all transmission and distribution lines using bare aerial conductors and suspension insulators. It is intended to provide guidance in the selection of suitable air gap clearances between aerial conductors and the structure. Guidance in the selection of solid insulation levels is not covered here and should be considered separately.

Insulation at the structure is provided by a combination of solid insulators such as porcelain, glass or other composite materials and also by wood crossarms, air, or a combination of these. This insulation is subjected to electrical stresses resulting from power frequency voltages, switching surges and lightning impulse voltages.

The insulation levels and air gap clearances should be selected to withstand these over-voltages so that the desired operational performance is achieved. A good design should also provide for insulation coordination between the line insulation and terminal station insulation so as to avoid damage to station equipment from over-voltages.

If provision is to be made for live line maintenance, or for access or inspection under live conditions, then the physical distances to access and working positions should be adequate for the safe conduct of this work and to meet any statutory requirements where specified. To the extent practicable, hazards under live conditions should be mitigated by provision of adequate air gap clearances in preference to reliance on procedural precautions. These clearances should encompass the ergonomic and electrical distances necessary to safely provide for both natural and inadvertent movements of persons, together with the movement of aerial conductors possible under the range of working conditions permitted.

With suspension insulator strings, the air gap clearances change as the insulator string swings from its position at rest, due to wind action. Consequently the insulation strength of the air gap also changes. The air breakdown strength at any moment will depend on the physical gap, the shape of the electrodes, atmospheric conditions and altitude. Hence the ability to withstand different over-voltages resulting from power frequency, lightning impulse and switching surges constantly changes.

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Thus for a freely suspended aerial conductor, both the air gap and the over-voltages are random variables and probabilistic processes need to be used to determine the optimum coordination. Statistical considerations indicate that lightning or switching impulses combined with high swing angles of the insulator string (i.e. smaller air gaps to the structure) have a very low probability of occurrence. The angle of swing itself depends on several variables such as wind velocity, time and space distribution of wind, wind direction, topography and ratio of the wind to weight span.

3.8.2 Structure clearances

Based on operational experience and probabilistic considerations discussed in Clause 3.8.1, a simplified approach consisting of a three envelope system is recommended for the determination of aerial conductor clearances on structures.

Condition (a)—Low wind

Condition (b)—Moderate wind

Condition (c)—High wind

Table 3.4 provides recommended structure and aerial conductor clearances for conditions (b) and (c) for different system and impulse withstand voltages. Refer to Figure 3.9 for suspension insulator swing angle. These are suitable for most applications. Where unusual or extreme weather and climatic conditions exist, local knowledge and experience should be used to modify the clearances.

Crossarm

ReferTable 3.4

ReferTable 3.4

Clearance zone

Clearance zone

Angle of swing Ø

FIGURE 3.9 CLEARANCE TO STRUCTURES SWING ANGLE

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TABLE 3.4

CLEARANCES TO EARTHED STRUCTURES (IN METRES)

Nominal system voltage Lightning/switching impulse withstand

voltage

Clearance to earthed structure in metres for altitudes up to 1000 m

Moderate wind High wind or maximum swing kV (r.m.s.) kV (peak)

Condition (b) Condition (c)

11 95 0.16 0.10

22 150 0.28 0.13

33 200 0.38 0.18

66 350 0.69 0.28

110 550 1.1 0.40

132 650 1.3 0.50

220 950 1.9 0.75

275 1050 2.2 0.90

330 1175 2.6 1.10

400 1250 2.8 1.5

1300 3.1 1.75 500

1550 4.2 1.75

NOTES: 1 For structures with line post or pin insulators, the moderate wind distances recommended can be used to

establish structure clearances.

2 For voltages up to 66 kV, clearances may need to be increased in locations where bridging of insulators by birds or animals is experienced or probable.

3 For altitudes in excess of 1000 m – refer to altitude table (EN 50341-1).

4 Condition (b) relates to lighting impulse distance and condition (c) to power frequency flashover distance.

3.8.3 Calculation of swing angles

The aerial conductor tension H for insulator swing angle should be based on the relevant reference wind pressure and temperature.

The estimation of swing angles may be made using a simplified deterministic approach or a detailed procedure using meteorological data. The latter method should be used when greater precision is required or where unusual and/or extreme local conditions prevail.

There are other alternative insulator assemblies and appropriate clearances and line actions need to be considered. These alternative types include—

(a) bridging insulators;

(b) strain insulators;

(c) line post insulators;

(d) vee strings; and

(e) horizontal vee assemblies.

The swing angles of suspension insulator strings for both low and high wind conditions can be estimated using the approach in Appendix R.

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3.9 LIVE LINE MAINTENANCE CLEARANCES

Structures shall be designed to provide for live line maintenance. Relevant minimum live line approach clearances are provided in Table 3.5.

Reference should also be made to the provisions set out in Clause 3.6.4.

Relevant NZ references include NZECP 46 and EEA Guide to Use of Helicopters in Power Company Work.

TABLE 3.5

HVAC LIVE LINE APPROACH DISTANCES

Phase to earth selected distance

Phase to earth selected distance

Phase to phase selected distance

Phase to phase selected distance Nominal phase to

phase a.c. voltage Autoreclose on Autoreclose off Autoreclose on Autoreclose off

kV mm mm mm mm

11 500 500 600 600

22 500 500 600 600

33 500 500 600 600

50 600 550 750 700

66 700 600 900 800

88 850 700 1100 1000

110 950 800 1300 1200

132 1100 900 1500 1300

220 1600 1300 2300 2000

275 2100 1600 3100 2400

330 2700 1900 3900 3000

400 3000 2400 4600 3900

500 3500 2400 5600 3900

3.10 CLEARANCES TO GROUND AND AREAS REMOTE FROM BUILDING, ROADS, RAILWAYS AND NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS

3.10.1 Clearances to ground

3.10.1.1 Lines other than insulated service lines

This clause covers all overhead lines except insulated aerial conductors of an overhead service line and facade mounted insulated cable systems.

The aerial conductors or cables of an overhead line should be located so that the distances to level or sloping ground in any direction from any position to which any part of such aerial conductors may either sag at maximum design temperature or move as a result of wind pressure, should not be less than the distances specified in Table 3.6.

Departures from these specified distances are permissible where a comprehensive risk management assessment has been carried out using the methodology outlined in Appendix U or similar.

In Australia AS 6947 provide guidance on the installing power lines across waterways.

In New Zealand, the EEA/Maritime Safety Authority publication Guide to Safety Management of Power Line Waterway Crossings, provides guidance to protect waterway users from electrical hazards, as well as protecting power lines and cables from contact by watercraft and the resultant damage

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TABLE 3.6

CLEARANCE FROM GROUND, LINES OTHER THAN INSULATED SERVICE LINES

Distance to ground in any direction m

Nominal system voltage

U Over the carriageway of

roads

Over land other than the

carriageway of roads

Over land which due to its steepness or swampiness is

not traversable by vehicles more than 3 m in

height

Bare or insulated aerial conductor or any other cable U ≤ 1000 V

OR

Insulated aerial conductor with earthed screen

U > 1000 V

5.5 5.5 4.5

Insulated aerial conductor without earthed screen U > 1000 V 6.0 5.5 4.5

Bare or covered aerial conductor

1000 V <U ≤ 33 kV 6.7 5.5 4.5

33 V <U ≤ 132 kV 6.7 6.7 5.5

132 kV <U ≤ 275 kV 7.5 7.5 6.0

275 kV <U ≤ 330 kV 8.0 8.0 6.7

330 kV <U ≤ 400 kV 9.0 9.0 7.5

400 kV <U ≤ 500 kV 9.0 9.0 7.5

NOTES: 1 For the purpose of this clause, the term ‘ground’ includes any unroofed elevated area

accessible to plant or vehicles. 2 In the case of cliff faces or cuttings the clearances specified in the column headed ‘Over land

which due to its steepness or swampiness is not traversable by vehicles’ shall apply. 3 In the case of waterways, flood plains and snowfields, the clearances should be determined

having regard to local conditions and requirements. 4 Where the usage of land is such that vehicles of unusual height are likely to pass under an

overhead line, the clearances given in this clause may need to be increased. 5 The distances specified are final conditions for aerial conductors which have ‘settled in’.

When conductors are first erected, an allowance should be made for ‘settling in’ and ‘aerial conductor creep’. Refer to Appendix S.

6 The distances specified in are designed to protect supports from damage from impact loads on conductors as well as protecting vehicles from contact with aerial conductors

7 The above values are based on vehicles with a maximum height of 4.6 m.

3.10.1.2 Insulated service lines

Insulated aerial conductors of an overhead service line should be located so that the distance to level or sloping ground in any direction from any position to which any part of such aerial conductors may either sag at maximum design temperature or move as a result of wind pressure, should not be less than the distances specified in Table 3.7.

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TABLE 3.7

CLEARANCE FROM GROUND, INSULATED LV SERVICE LINES

Service line location Distance to ground in any direction m

Over the centre of a road 5.5

Over any other part of a road 4.6

Over a footway or land which is likely to be used by vehicles

3.0

Elsewhere 2.7

NOTES: 1 For the purpose of this Clause, the term ‘ground’ includes any unroofed elevated area

accessible to plant or vehicles. 2 In the case of waterways, flood plains and snowfields, the clearances should be determined

having regard to local conditions and requirements. 3 Where the usage of land is such that vehicles of unusual height are likely to pass under an

insulated overhead service line, the clearances given in this clause may need to be increased. 4 The clearances specified in Table 3.7 are final conditions for aerial conductors that have

‘settled in’. When aerial conductors are first erected, an allowance should be made for ‘settling in’ and ‘aerial conductor creep’. Refer to Appendix S.

3.10.2 Clearances to buildings, traffic routes, other lines and recreational areas

3.10.2.1 Structures and buildings

This clause specifies the minimum clearance from any structure, building, post or line support (other than a support to which the line under consideration is attached or a support of another overhead line which crosses the line under consideration) to any position to which an aerial conductor in an overhead line may swing under the influence of wind as defined in Appendix B or sag under the influence of load current and solar radiation, should be calculated by the methods specified in Appendix S.

NOTES: 1 The clearances to be maintained at the outer extremities of those parts on any structure on

which a person can stand are defined by an arc of radius A or B as appropriate. This arc has its centre at the outer extremity of the structure and extends outward to its intersection with a vertical line that is located at a horizontal distance specified in C, from the outer extremities of those parts of any structure on which a person can stand.

2 Table 3.8 does not apply to cable systems supported along the facade of a building. 3 Figure 3.10 illustrates the application of Table 3.8 to a particular building. The letters A to D

refer to distances A to D as set out in Table 3.8. The letter G refers to distance to ground.

3.10.2.2 Easements

When considering the width of an easement to provide clearance from structures, the position of the aerial conductors or cables under the influence of wind at any point along the span should be taken into account. A safety clearance should also be included. (See Figure 3.11).

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FIGURE 3.10 STRUCTURE CLEARANCES FOR TABLE 3.8

3.8

FIGURE 3.11 EASEMENT CLEARANCES

3.8

42 D

RA

FT O

NL

Y

DR

AFT

ON

LY

DR

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R - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

42 D

RA

FT O

NL

Y

DR

AFT

ON

LY

TABLE 3.8

CLEARANCES FROM STRUCTURES

U ≤ 1000 V U > 1000 V 1000 V < U ≤ 33 kV

33 kV < U ≤

132 kV

132 kV < U ≤

275 kV

275 kV < U ≤

330 kV

330 kV < U ≤

500 kV

Insulated Bare neutral

Bare active

Insulated with earthed screen

Insulated without earthed screen

Bare or covered Bare Bare Bare Bare

Clearance

m m m m m m m m m m

A

Vertically(1) above those parts of any structure normally accessible to persons

2.7 2.7 3.7 2.7 3.7 4.5 5.0 6.5 7.0 8.0

B

Vertically(1) above those parts of any structure not normally accessible to persons but on which a person can stand

0.1 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 3.7 4.5 6.0 6.5 7.5

C

In any direction (other than vertically above) from those parts of any structure normally accessible to persons, or from any part not normally accessible to persons but on which a person can stand

0.1 0.9 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.1 3.0 4.5 5.0 6.0

D

In any direction from those parts of any structure not normally accessible to persons

0.1(2) 0.3(2) 0.6(2) 0.1 0.6 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.0

G

In any direction from ground Refer to Table 3.6 Refer to Table 3.6 Refer to Table 3.6

(1) This should not be taken as meaning only the literal vertical. The actual clearance may also extend outwards in an arc until it intersects with the relevant ‘C’ dimension clearance, as indicated on Figure 3.11. See also Note 1 in Clause 3.10.2.1.

(2) This clearance can be further reduced to allow for termination at the point of attachment.

NOTE: The interpretation/confirmation of clearances that apply for different situations outlined in this Table may in some instances only be made following reference to Figure 3.11 to determine an actual clearance that is relevant for a particular application.


3.11 POWER LINE EASEMENTS

An easement is legally described as an encumbrance on the title of land limited in width and height above or below the land conferring a right to construct, operate and maintain an electricity power line, cable, or apparatus.

Easements are usually obtained or created to ensure electricity utilities can gain ready access to assets for maintenance, repair and upgrading the power lines and for the safety of persons living, working or playing near overhead lines.

An easement width can be established to accommodate an overhead energized line asset which ensures adequate safe electrical and mechanical spatial clearances are provided.

The easement width may be influenced by other factors such as audible noise, radio and television interference, or electric and magnetic fields.

3.11.1 Typical easement widths

Appendix DD provides typical easement widths for a range of voltages.

3.12 CORONA EFFECT

The surface voltage gradient on the aerial conductor should be limited to less than 16 kV/cm to limit the generation of corona discharges. For higher surface voltage gradients, all surfaces on hardware should be smooth and the corners rounded. At the higher voltage levels, the use of corona rings should be considered around the hardware to reduce corona.

3.12.1 Radio and television interference

Corona generates interference over a wide band of frequencies.

The degree of annoyance caused by radio and television interference is determined by the so-called ‘signal-to-noise ratio’ at the receiving installation. When establishing limits for the emission of radio noise, the radio and television signal strengths to be protected have to be determined.

The allowable levels of Radio Interference Voltage (RIV) and Television Interference (TVI) are given in AS/NZS 2344. For New Zealand, the applicable Standard is NZS 6869.

3.12.2 Audible noise

The most common form of audible noise is a hissing or frying sound (broadband crackle) audible in wet weather. During fair weather, a constant low frequency (100 Hz) hum may also be heard.

Designers need to ensure that audible noise levels comply with relevant EPA or local council regulations. The total random audible noise consisting of both broadband and 100 Hz hum needs to be addressed in the design process.

3.12.3 Corona loss

In cases where the surface voltage gradient is very high there can be a power loss along the aerial conductor due to corona emission. On overhead power lines, corona loss is expressed in watts per metre (W/m) or kilowatts per kilometre (kW/km). The power loss due to corona is typically less than a few kilowatts/kilometre in fair weather but it can amount to tens of kilowatts/kilometre during heavy rain and up to one hundred kilowatts/kilometre during frost.

In general if the surface voltage gradient is kept below 16 kV/cm, corona loss will be negligible compared to joule losses.

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3.13 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

3.13.1 Electric and magnetic fields under a line

The design of overhead lines can be influenced by the necessity to limit power frequency electric and magnetic fields produced by energized aerial conductors.

Limit values for electric and magnetic fields are not provided in this Standard. For such limits, reference shall be made where relevant to—

(a) for Australia—to ARPANSA, Draft Radiation Protection Standard for Exposure Limits to Electrical and Magnetic Fields 0 Hz–3 kHz; and

(b) for New Zealand—to ICNIRP Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields (Up To 300 Ghz).

3.13.2 Electric and magnetic field induction

Electric and magnetic fields near an overhead line may induce currents in and voltages on adjacent conductive objects such as long metal structures (e.g. communication installations, fences, lines or pipes) or bulky objects (e.g. conductive roofs, tanks or large vehicles) in proximity to power lines.

Mitigation measures should be considered to reduce these effects to acceptable levels contained in relevant Standards and Codes. Relevant Standards and Codes are HB 102 (CJC 6), and AS/NZS 4853.

3.13.3 Interference with telecommunication circuits

Telecommunication circuits can suffer electrical interference from power lines.

For interference calculations and measures to be taken to eliminate the effects or reduce them to acceptable levels, reference shall be made to relevant International and National Standards and/or to qualified Codes of Practice (i.e. ITU Directives (CCITT) Vol. VI and/or to particular agreements between the parties concerned. Relevant standards and codes are HB 102 (CJC 6) and NZCCPTS Noise Investigation Guide.

3.13.4 Electrostatic induction

Electrostatic induction is caused by the electric field surrounding the powerline and these fields can induce charges on nearby metallic objects. This effect is generally only significant at voltages above 200 kV and may influence the minimum ground clearance over parking areas.

For a person the thresholds for perception are given in Appendix H.

3.14 SINGLE WIRE EARTH RETURN (SWER) POWERLINES

3.14.1 General

Single wire earth return (SWER) are distribution powerlines that utilize the earth as a return circuit instead of a conventional aerial conductor.

These distribution lines are economical to construct in lightly loaded rural areas where long spans can be constructed.

A more detailed discussion on SWER distribution systems is found in The Electricity Authority of New South Wales document, High Voltage Earth Return for Rural Areas and in NZECP 41.

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3.14.2 Types of SWER distribution systems

The ‘isolated’ single wire system is the most common form. This type of SWER distribution system consists of an isolating supply transformer with the secondary winding connected to a medium voltage single wire pole line and earth. Local customer supply pole-type transformers are connected between the single aerial conductor line and earth. The primary winding of the isolating transformer is connected to a conventional medium voltage distribution system.

SWER distribution systems are utilized in the following arrangements:

(a) The ‘isolated’ single wire system as described above. This is the most common SWER distribution system.

(b) The ‘duplex’ system that uses an isolating transformer with the secondary earthed at the centre tap. The transformer supplies a two-wire backbone line to which single phase tee-offs are connected and

(c) The ‘un-isolated’ system that uses a conventional 3-phase backbone from which single wire tee-off lines emanate.

The design issues to be considered for SWER systems are—

(i) earthing systems need to be designed to take into account broken or poor earth conductor connections;

(ii) limited capacity due to the low conductivity of the aerial conductor commonly used as well as the limited sizes of isolating and customer transformers;

(iii) interference with Telecommunications Circuits—there is a limit of 8 A earth current as stipulated in various Codes of Practice for Telecommunications including NZECP 41;

(iv) interference with railway telecommunications and signalling circuits;

(v) harmonics caused by customer’s equipment overloading SWER system and some 3-phase converting devices; and

(vi) reduced visibility to low flying aircraft (which may be involved in crop dusting or fire fighting).

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S E C T I O N 4 A E R I A L C O N D U C T O R S A N D O V E R H E A D E A R T H W I R E S ( G R O U N D W I R E S ) W I T H O R W I T H O U T T E L E C O M M U N I C A T I O N

C I R C U I T S

4.1 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

4.1.1 DC resistance

The aerial conductor DC resistance is a function of the aerial conductor construction and stranding, material properties and temperature. The resistance shall be determined from either—

(a) a mathematical determination using the known properties of the aerial conductor materials and construction as described in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on conductors; or

(b) published values in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on conductors.

4.1.2 AC resistance

The aerial conductor AC resistance is a function of the aerial conductor DC resistance, construction and stranding, material properties, temperature, frequency and magnitude of the current. The resistance shall be determined from mathematical determination using the known properties of the aerial conductor materials and construction as described in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on aerial conductors. A recommended method and guidance to determine the AC resistance is given in IEC TR 61597.

Appendices AA and BB provide guidance on aerial conductor maximum operating temperature.

4.1.3 Steady state thermal current rating

The steady state thermal current rating of an aerial conductor is the maximum current inducing the maximum steady state temperature for a given ambient aerial condition and is based on aerial conductor heat gain equals conductor heat loss that is—

Pj + Ps = Pr+ Pc

where the heat gain terms are Pj which is the joule heating due to the resistance of the aerial conductor and Ps is the solar heat gain The heat loss terms are Pc which is natural and forced convection cooling and Pr is the radiation cooling. The terms for heat gain for cyclic magnetic flux, which is caused by eddy currents, hysteresis and magnetic viscosity; and corona heat gain are not considered. The evaporative cooling heat loss term is also not considered.

A recommended methodology to establish the steady state thermal ratings for bare aerial conductors is given in IEC TR 61597. For insulated aerial conductors, the steady state thermal rating shall be in accordance with the appropriate Australian and New Zealand Standards. The steady state thermal current rating shall be determined for coinciding wind velocity and incident angle, daily solar radiation, ambient temperature and aerial conductor surface condition.

4.1.4 Short time thermal current rating

The short time thermal current rating of an aerial conductor is the maximum current inducing the maximum steady state temperature for a given ambient condition and occurs when a step change in current flow results in a short term aerial conductor temperature change and the

aerial conductor stored heat = heat gain − heat loss

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The time constant for short time ratings is generally less than 20 min and meteorological conditions other than solar heat gain will generally not have a significant influence on final aerial conductor temperature. Initial aerial conductor conditions shall be assumed and include initial aerial conductor operating temperature. Short time current and associated aerial conductor temperature rise is illustrated in Figure 4.1.

TE

MP

ER

AT

UR

EC

UR

RE

NT

T IME

I2I1

f inal

in i t ia l

FIGURE 4.1 SHORT TIME CURRENT RATING AND TEMPERATURE

The final aerial conductor temperature shall not exceed the maximum operating temperature.

Appendix AA provides guidance on establishing the short time thermal current rating for bare aerial conductors. For covered and insulated aerial conductor the maximum short-term thermal rating shall be in accordance with the relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards.

4.1.5 Short-circuit thermal current rating

The short-circuit thermal current rating shall be based on adiabatic heating, that is due to the transient nature of the current flow the aerial conductor heat gain and loss at the surface of the aerial conductor shall be ignored. The rating is a function of the aerial conductor cross sectional area, the thermal conductivity of the aerial conductor, the specific heat capacity of the aerial conductor, the aerial conductor resistivity, the conductor temperature coefficient of resistance, the duration of the transient current, the aerial conductor initial temperature, the magnitude of the current and maximum permissible temperature.

In determining the rating for circuits where—

(a) the reactance to resistance ratio is greater than 10 then the d.c. asymmetrical heating component of the current shall be taken into account; and

(b) auto reclose protection is employed then the short-circuit duration shall be the sum of the initial fault duration and the successive auto reclose fault durations and the combined aerial conductor heating shall be cumulative.

The aerial conductor short-circuit thermal rating shall not result in exceeding—

(i) any specified permissible temperature rating of the aerial conductor including appropriate consideration of short time differential expansion of dissimilar materials (known as birdcaging);

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(ii) for covered and or insulated aerial conductors the insulation temperature rating as

specified in the appropriate Australian and New Zealand Standards;

(iii) the temperature rating of fibre optic cores;

(iv) the permissible loss of strength due to annealing as specified in Appendix BB;

(v) 0.5 times, 0.3 times and 0.2 times the melting point of zinc, aluminium and copper respectively; and/or

(vi) the drop point of any grease applied to the aerial conductor.

Appendix AA provides guidance on establishing the short time thermal current rating for bare aerial conductors. For covered and insulated aerial conductor the maximum short term thermal rating shall be in accordance with the relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards.

4.2 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS

4.2.1 Limit states

The overhead line is considered intact when its aerial conductors and or tension fittings are used at stresses below their damage limit.

When subjected to increasing loads, aerial conductors and or tension fittings may exhibit at some level, permanent deformation particularly if the failure mode is ductile; or for wind induced Aeolian vibration, aerial conductors may exhibit wire and or whole aerial conductor fracture. This level is called the damage limit and aerial conductors and or tension fittings will be in damaged state if the aerial conductors and or tension fittings have exceeded the damage limit.

If the load is further increased, failure of the aerial conductor and or tension fittings occurs at a level called the failure limit. The aerial conductors and or tension fittings will be in a failed state if the aerial conductors and or tension fittings have exceeded the failure limit.

The state of system and the damage and failure limits are illustrated in Figure 4.2.

state of system intact state damaged state fa i led state

conductor strength limits

damage l imit fa i lure l imit

FIGURE 4.2 LIMIT STATES OF AERIAL CONDUCTOR DESIGN

Indicative damage and failure limits of aerial conductors and tension fittings are illustrated in a typical aerial conductor stress strain characteristic illustrated in Figure 4.3.

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Ca

lcu

late

d b

re

ak

ing

lo

ad

S t ra in (% elongat ion)

Tens ion f i t t ing fa i lu re reg ion

E last ic e longat ion reg ion

Permanent e longat ionreg ion

FIGURE 4.3 LIMIT STATES OF AERIAL CONDUCTOR DESIGN

The damage and failure limits of aerial conductors and tension fittings shall be in accordance with Table 4.1 for the direct applied variable action consisting of the imposed loads specified in Clause 7.2.2 plus the everyday low velocity wind condition (defined in Clause 1.3.45).

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TABLE 4.1

DAMAGE AND FAILURE LIMITS OF AERIAL CONDUCTORS

Aerial conductors and tension fittings

Damage limit Failure limit

Bare

Lowest of—

– vibration limit (see Note 1); or

– 0.5 aerial conductor CBL (see Note 2)

0.7 aerial conductor CBL (see Note 3)

ABC and CC Not greater than the specified maximum working tension as described in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards

0.7 aerial conductor CBL (see Note 3)

OPGW

Lowest of—

– vibration limit (see Note 1); or


– maximum tension corresponding to the optical fibre strain free condition

– optical fibre failure (rupture)


ADSS

Lowest of—

– as agreed with the manufacturer; or

– maximum tension corresponding to the optical figure strain free condition

– optical fibre failure (rupture)

– optical tensile stress (rupture)

NOTES: 1 Long-term wind induced Aeolian vibration causes permanent aerial conductor damage, wire fatigue and in

some cases complete aerial conductor fracture. Aerial conductor vibration limit is a function of wind velocity and direction, temperature, terrain, aerial conductor construction, the type of aerial conductor fittings, aerial conductor tension and aerial conductor vibration control. The aerial conductor vibration limit shall be based on determining maximum static aerial conductor tension with or without any dynamic stress control that will result in fatigue free endurance for the design life of the overhead line. The maximum static aerial conductor tension shall be determined for the low velocity everyday wind direct applied variable action condition defined in Clause 1.3.45. Consideration shall be given in determining the damage limit state to any prestressing, over tensioning or temperature allowances to compensate for initial radial wire movement and longer term metallurgical creep of the aerial conductor material. In most situations, the governing criteria for aerial conductor tension will be the vibration limit state. Appendix S provides guidance on aerial conductor sag and tension calculations.

2 Damage strength limit state is 0.5CBL for the linear model and shall not be exceeded for the maximum wind direct applied variable action condition specified in Section 7. The factor of 0.5 may be increased to 0.7 by application of a non-linear stress strain model. Additional allowance for loss of strength due to aerial conductor annealing is not required. Damage limit may be the governing criteria for a small diameter aerial conductor subject to ice and or high wind loadings.

3 The 0.7 factor is based on the failure performance of tensions fittings. Factors greater than 0.7 may be used based on statistical analysis of tension fitting rupture tests and considerations of installation quality control. Additional allowance for loss of strength due to aerial conductor annealing is not required.

4.2.2 Aerial conductor tension

Aerial conductor tension change behaviour for any given span length and or equivalent span, is a function of the aerial conductor mass, initial aerial conductor tension, aerial conductor cross sectional area, aerial conductor modulus of elasticity and coefficient of thermal expansion, permanent elongation and loading conditions such as temperature, wind loading, and or ice loading. Aerial conductor tension changes shall be determined in accordance with Table 4.2.

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TABLE 4.2

AERIAL CONDUCTOR TENSION DETERMINATION MODELS

Model Application

– aerial conductors with maximum operating temperatures greater than 120°C Non-linear stress strain

– ultimate design tensions exceeding the damage limit

– aerial conductors with maximum operating temperatures less than 120°C

– ultimate design tensions not exceeding the damage limit

– steel aerial conductors Linear stress strain

– aerial bundled conductors

Aerial conductor creep shall be taken into account in the determination of aerial conductor tension change for aerial conductors under everyday conditions with catenary constants greater than 1000 m (see Appendix S).

Appendix S provides guidance on aerial conductor change of state determination.

4.2.3 Aerial conductor stress and fatigue

Aerial conductor stress is a combination of the static stress and dynamic stress. Static stress is a function of aerial conductor tension, bending stress over aerial conductor support fittings and compressive stress caused by aerial conductor fittings. Dynamic stress is a function of aerial conductor vibration amplitude and frequency.

Elevated aerial conductor static stresses combined with elevated dynamic stress caused by wind induced Aeolian vibration will result in permanent aerial conductor fatigue damage, wire fracture and in some cases complete aerial conductor fracture. Fatigue damage generally occurs at points where the aerial conductor is secured to fittings and the combined static and dynamic stresses are a maximum.

The aerial conductor vibration limit shall be based on limiting the static and dynamic stresses to less than aerial conductor fatigue endurance limit for the design life of the overhead line. Proven performance of overhead lines with aerial conductor damage free endurance based on a service history with similar aerial conductors, aerial conductor fittings, vibration control, terrain and climates may be used to validate the aerial conductor vibration limit.

Appendix S provides guidance on determining aerial conductor static tensions.

4.2.4 Aerial conductor permanent elongation

Aerial conductor permanent elongation consists of strand settling and metallurgical creep.

Permanent elongation begins at the instant of applied axial tensile load and continues at a decreasing rate providing tension and temperature remain constant. Aerial conductors operating at continuous elevated temperatures and or tensions are subject to elevated levels of metallurgical creep.

Metallurgical creep is plastic deformation that is a logarithmic in behaviour and a function of the aerial conductor type, aerial conductor construction, aerial conductor stress, aerial conductor temperature and time. Aerial conductor constants used to predict creep for the specific aerial conductors shall be determined in accordance with AS 3822 or equivalent Standards.

Aerial conductor creep will result in changes in aerial conductor sag and tension with time. Aerial conductor creep shall, as a minimum be determined for the average aerial conductor temperature and tension for the design life of the overhead line. For multiple predicted load cases aerial conductor creep shall be considered cumulative.

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Allowance shall be made for permanent elongation to ensure that the required electrical clearance specified in Section 3 is maintained for the design life of the overhead line. The allowance shall consider independently, strand settling at the damage limit and cumulative metallurgical creep.

Appendix V provides guidance on aerial conductor permanent elongation.

4.2.5 Aerial conductor annealing and operating temperatures

Annealing damage is caused by the heating excursions of the aerial conductor. During the annealing process the aerial conductor material experiences a change in its microstructure which results in a loss of tensile strength, an increase in conductivity and an improvement in material ductility. Annealing damage is cumulative and shall be determined by summing the loss of tensile strength for temperatures arising from the steady state, short time and short-circuit thermal ratings and associated durations for the design life of the overhead line.

The permissible aerial conductor cumulative annealing damage shall not exceed 15% of the CBL for the design life of the overhead line. No further allowance is to be made in the aerial conductor strength factor for annealing.

Annealing shall be considered for copper, aluminium and steel aerial conductors operating at temperatures greater than 70°, 80° and 200°C respectively.

Appendix BB provides guidance on aerial conductor annealing and maximum operating temperatures.

4.2.6 Aerial conductor final modulus of elasticity

The final modulus of elasticity of an aerial conductor is a function of a number of factors including the aerial conductor construction and stranding and material properties. The final modulus of elasticity shall be determined from either—

(a) a stress strain test carried out in accordance with AS 3822 or equivalent by which a complete understanding of the aerial conductor stress strain behaviour may be derived; or

(b) mathematical determination using the known properties of the aerial conductor materials and construction as described in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on bare aerial conductors; or

(c) published values in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on insulated aerial conductors.

Appendix W provides guidance on the determination of aerial conductor final modulus of elasticity.

4.2.7 Aerial conductor coefficient of thermal expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of an aerial conductor is a function of the aerial conductor construction and stranding and material properties. The CTE shall be determined from either—

(a) a thermal elongation test carried out in accordance with AS 3822 or equivalent; or

(b) a mathematical determination using the known properties of the aerial conductor materials and construction as described in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on aerial conductors; or

(c) published values in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on insulated aerial conductors.

Appendix X provides guidance on the determination of aerial conductor coefficient of thermal expansion.

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4.2.8 Aerial conductor cross sectional area

The aerial conductor cross sectional area shall be the total area of the mechanical load bearing wires.

4.2.9 Aerial conductor diameter

The mean of two measurements at right angles is taken at one cross section. For non-symmetrical sections, the largest section shall be one of the two measurements.

4.2.10 Aerial conductor drag coefficient

For uniform round wires symmetrically stranded and wind velocities less than 60 m. s−1 the aerial conductor drag coefficient shall be equal to 1.0. For other than uniform round wires, symmetrically stranded and or wind velocities greater than 60 m. s−1 the conductor drag coefficient shall be either measured or calculated.

4.2.11 Aerial conductor calculated breaking load

The calculated breaking load (CBL) of an aerial conductor shall be determined from the relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards for bare aerial conductors and or insulated aerial conductors.

4.2.12 Aerial conductor vertical and horizontal sag

Aerial conductor vertical sag, Sy is a function of the aerial conductor tension, aerial conductor equivalent mass and span length. Aerial conductor equivalent mass is a function of the aerial conductor mass, aerial warning markers, aerial conductor spacers and any contributing ice load. Aerial conductor vertical sag for low-tension spans is also influenced by the length and mass of supporting insulators. In addition, over time aerial conductor vertical sag changes and is a function of aerial conductor permanent elongation. Aerial conductor permanent elongation and ice load shall be determined in accordance with Clauses 4.2.4 and 7.2.3 respectively.

Aerial conductor vertical sag shall be determined for the maximum operating temperature of the overhead line to ensure that the required electrical clearance specified in Section 3 is maintained.

Aerial conductor horizontal sag, or ‘blow out’ is a function of the aerial conductor tension, aerial conductor equivalent diameter, aerial warning markers, direct applied action and span length. Aerial conductor equivalent diameter is a function of the aerial conductor diameter and any increase in diameter from deposited ice.

Aerial conductor horizontal sag inclusive of any insulator swing component shall be determined for the electrical power frequency clearance condition specified in Section 3.

Aerial conductor inclined sag inclusive of any insulator swing component shall be determined using the same applied action for the vertical and horizontal sag to ensure that the required electrical clearance specified in Section 3 is maintained.

Appendix S provides guidance on conductor sag determination.

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

4.3.1 Aerial conductor damage risks

Consideration shall be given to the potential damage arising from bushfires, sugar cane fires, lightning impact and cyclones, which may result in an aerial conductor being in a damaged or failure limit. The aerial conductor selection shall consider the risk and damage arising from exceeding the damage limit of the aerial conductor.

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4.3.2 Aerial conductor degradation

Consideration shall be given to aerial conductor degradation arising from surface pit corrosion of wires and in the case of non-homogeneous aerial conductors and or aerial conductors in contact with dissimilar metal fittings, galvanic corrosion. Pit corrosion particularly for aluminium wires may arise in atmospheres of elevated chloride and sulphur. Copper wires are also susceptible to pit corrosion in the presence of elevated levels of atmospheric ammonia or where aerial crop dusting is common.

Aerial conductors shall be selected to minimize pit and or galvanic corrosion and where considered appropriate aerial conductor protective coatings such as partly or fully greased aerial conductors shall be used.

Appendix Y provides guidance on the selection for various environments.

4.4 AERIAL CONDUCTOR CONSTRUCTIONS

4.4.1 Aerial conductor types and standards

Aerial conductors shall be designed, selected and tested to meet the electrical, mechanical, environmental and telecommunication requirements of the overhead line.

4.4.1.1 Bare aerial conductors

Bare aerial conductors shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with AS/NZS 1222.1, AS/NZS 1222.2, AS 1531, AS/NZS 1746, AS/NZS 3607 or an equivalent International Standard.

4.4.1.2 Insulated aerial conductors and cable systems

Insulated aerial conductors and cable systems shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with AS/NZS 3560.1, AS/NZS 3560.2, AS/NZS 3599.1, AS/NZS 3599.2 or an equivalent International Standard.

4.4.1.3 Covered aerial conductors

Covered aerial conductors shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with the AS/NZS 3675 or an equivalent International Standard.

4.4.1.4 Optical fibres

Optical fibre aerial conductors shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with international standard description and numbers IEC 60794-4.

4.4.1.5 Low-voltage aerial bundled cables (LVABC)

The following considerations apply:

(a) The tangential tension in the cable should not exceed 28% CBL. This is based on maximum working conductor stress of 40 MPa on 95 mm2 LVABC. This is the limit for transferring the conductor tension through the insulation to the strain clamp and is based on French experience with heavily filled XLPE compound.

(b) The highest horizontal tension used for the everyday load should take into account the working ratings of cable tensioning equipment such as lugalls, comealongs, etc. Also for three or four core cables experience has shown that the cores are difficult to separate to fit insulation piercing connectors at cable tensions exceeding 4.5 kN.

4.5 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SELECTION

Aerial conductor selection consists of consideration of wire size and material, electrical, mechanical, environmental and economic factors. Aerial conductor selection shall satisfy the—

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(a) electrical requirements for steady state and transient current ratings, corona

discharge, audible noise and radio and televisions interference, joule losses;

(b) mechanical requirements including annealing, drag coefficient, operating temperature, constructability (no birdcaging or unravelling), permanent elongation fatigue endurance, aerial conductor diameter, sag and strength relationship;

(c) environmental requirements for corrosion and lightning damage; and

(d) economic requirements for cost of losses, capital costs, load profile, interest rate, load growth, inventory costs and construction costs (ratio of tension to suspension structures)

Factors to be considered in the selection of aerial conductors are wire materials, wire shape, wire sizes and conductor constructions.

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S E C T I O N 5 I N S U L A T O R S

5.1 INSULATION BASICS

Insulation is required to withstand the electrical and mechanical stresses applied to it during its lifetime. The electrical stresses include power frequency, switching and lightning overvoltages and the mechanical stresses include the tensile, compressive or cantilever loadings from aerial conductor tension and weight.

When assessing the ability of insulation to withstand power frequency voltages, consideration is given to the contamination of the insulator surfaces. Contamination will build up on insulator surfaces over time and when the surfaces are lightly wetted because of high humidity, light rain, fog or dew, the leakage current increases and can result in the following undesirable outcomes:

(a) Visual sparking, audible noise; RIV and TIV interference causing annoyance to the public.

(b) Degradation of the insulator surface, thereby reducing its life expectancy.

(c) Power frequency flashover and subsequent outage.

The flashover performance of an overhead line is dependent on the electrical withstand of the insulator and the air gap distances. Proper co-ordination is required to ensure acceptable flashover performance, in particular, the arc distance on the insulator should be comparable to the air gap distance.

5.2 LINE AND SUBSTATION INSULATION COORDINATION

Substation insulation incorporates paper, oil and solid dielectric systems where any flashover may be destructive. This is termed non-self restoring insulation and must be protected from over voltages. Substation plant is available in standardized impulse insulation levels.

Line insulation is self-restoring and is designed for some low probability of flashover, not zero probability of flashover. Often line insulation levels exceed that of the substation equipment connected at either end. Lightning impulses and switching surges exceeding the capability of the substation plant can be conducted into the substation.

A lightning backflashover or direct strike close to the substation can create a large voltage transient that may damage insulation in substation plant, particularly transformers. It should be noted that lightning causes corona around the aerial conductor, up to around 1 m in diameter. This corona envelope dissipates energy and reduces the rise time and peak voltage as the transient travels along the aerial conductor.

In high lightning areas or for high reliability lines, precautions should be taken to ensure that lightning strikes close to the substation are attenuated to levels which do not cause damage to substation equipment (close to the substation is in the range 800 m to 5 km). Lightning protection for transmission lines may include one or more overhead earthwires and low structure earthing values, say below 5 ohms, for the first 2.5 km of any line from a substation to prevent back flashovers.

To ensure protection of the substation plant, a transient impulse study including line entry is required to determine the placement and number of surge arresters required to protect substation plant from lightning and switching overvoltages.

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5.3 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN

5.3.1 General

The insulators shall be designed to meet the general requirements for reliability and life for the overhead line. In particular, the design shall consider the relevant electrical and mechanical requirements as follows:

(a) Pollution.

(b) Power frequency voltage.

(c) Switching surge voltage.

(d) Lightning performance.

(e) Mechanical strength.

5.3.2 Design for pollution

When determining the insulation requirements for an overhead power line or an outdoor substation in a contaminated environment, the following criteria need to be considered:

(a) Creepage (or leakage) distance.

(b) The ability of the material to endure the electrical activity without being degraded.

(c) The shape of the insulator to assist in reducing the likelihood of contamination collection and facilitate washing.

AS 4436 provides guidance on the selection of insulators for polluted conditions. The basic concept is to increase the surface creepage distance so that it is long enough to prevent a pollution flashover across the surface.

5.3.3 Design for power frequency voltages (wet withstand requirement)

The line insulation should withstand the maximum voltage expected on the line. Overhead powerlines can operate continuously up to 1.1 per unit voltage and up to 1.4 per unit for effectively earthed systems during system disturbances, such as faults and load rejection. This voltage is regarded as the maximum dynamic overvoltage. The wet power frequency withstand voltage of the line insulation should be selected to exceed this maximum dynamic overvoltage.

5.3.4 Design for switching surge voltages

Switching surge overvoltages up to 3 per unit peak voltage can arise when overhead lines are switched. The extent of this overvoltage is dependent on—

(a) the point of voltage wave when the line is switched;

(b) the capacitance or amount of trapped charges on the line; and

(c) other equipment connected to the line.

When high-speed autoreclosing is installed, overvoltage can exceed 3 per unit voltage, particularly on transmission lines. In these cases, it would be common to install surge arresters on the line to limit the overvoltages to the designed line insulation.

5.3.5 Insulator mechanical design

The loads on an insulator shall be calculated using the limit state methodology outlined in Section 2.2.1.3. The recommendations for the insulator strength factor are given in Table 6.2.

A simplified approach to the design of insulators is given in Appendix CC.

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5.4 RELEVANT STANDARDS, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATORS

The Standards that are used to specify the various types of insulators in usage in Australia are shown in Table 5.2.

TABLE 5.2

STANDARDS FOR THE DESIGN, MANUFACTURE AND TESTING OF INSULATORS

STANDARD TITLE

AS 1154 Insulator and conductor fittings for overhead power lines

3608 Insulators—Porcelain and glass, pin and shackle type—Voltages not exceeding 1000 V a.c.

3609 Insulators—Porcelain stay type—Voltages greater than 1000 a.c.

4398 Insulators—Ceramic or glass—Station post for indoor and outdoor use—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.

4435.1 Insulators—Composite for overhead lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c—Definitions, test methods and acceptance criteria for string insulatr units

4436 Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions

60305 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1000 V—Ceramic or glass insulator units for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of the cap and pin type

AS/NZS 2947 Insulators—Porcelain and glass for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than

1000 V a.c.

4435.2 Insulators—Composite for overhead lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c—Standard strength classes and end fittings for string insulator units

IEC 60433 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1000 V—Ceramic or glass

insulator units for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of the long rod type 60575 Thermal-mechanical performance test and mechanical performance test on string

insulator units

60720 Characteristics of line post insulators

61466-2 Composite string insulator units for overhead lines with a nominal voltage greater than 1000 V – Part 2: Dimensional and electrical characteristics

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S E C T I O N 6 B A S I S O F S T R U C T U R A L D E S I G N

6.1 GENERAL

This Section of the Standard provides the basis and the general principles for the structural, geotechnical and mechanical design of overhead lines.

This clause should be read in conjunction with the relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards where applicable. The general principles of structural design are based on the limit state concept used in conjunction with a load and material strength factor appropriate to the reference limit state.

The values of the factors for actions and material properties depend on the degree of uncertainty for the loads, resistances, material properties, geotechnical parameters, geometrical quantities, design model, the type of structure and the type of limit state. These factors can also depend on the strength co-ordination principles envisaged for the line.

The structural design methods are based on ‘limit state’ concepts. Any element of an overhead line which carries structural load, or is a secondary structural or framing element should be considered as a ‘structural element’ of the line support structure in the context of this clause.

Structures and components should be designed using a reliability-based (risk of failure) approach. The selection of load factors, in particular for weather related loads, and component strength factors are based on achieving an acceptable risk of failure and operational performance for the line.

The performance of the structural system shall be evaluated for an appropriate combination of serviceability and strength limit states as set out in the following clauses.

NOTE:Some States and Territories of Australia and New Zealand may have Acts and Regulations which may have requirements in excess of this Standard

6.2 REQUIREMENTS

6.2.1 Basic requirements

An overhead electrical line shall be designed to withstand the ultimate load case combinations for the selected security level as defined below, based on the lines importance to the system (including system redundancy), its location and exposure to climatic conditions, and public safety and design working life.

6.2.2 Security levels

Security levels shall be distinguished as follows:

Level I Applicable to overhead lines where collapse of the line may be tolerable with respect to social and economic consequences. (Normal distribution lines)

Level II Applicable to overhead lines where collapse of the line would cause negligible danger to life and property and alternative arrangements can be provided if loss of support services occurs. (Higher security distribution lines and normal transmission lines)

Level III Applicable to overhead lines where collapse of the line would cause unacceptable danger to life or significant economic loss to the community and sever vital post disaster services. (Higher security transmission lines)

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6.2.3 Reliability load multiplier and security requirements

Reliability load multipliers for an expected design working life and security levels are provided in Table 6.1.

The design loads for an overhead line shall be based on 50-year return period wind speeds as defined in AS/NZ 1170.2. The calculated wind loads shall be then multiplied by an appropriate reliability load multiplier based on the required security level and design life as selected from Table 6.1

TABLE 6.1

RELIABILITY MULTIPLIER FOR DESIGN WORKING LIFE AND LINE SECURITY LEVELS

Minimum reliability load multiplier Mrel

Line security level

Design working life Level I Level II Level III

Temporary construction and construction equipment, e.g. hurdles, scaffolding and

temporary line diversions with design life of less than 6 months

0.67 0.67 0.77

< 5 years 0.77 0.9 1.0

25 years 0.9 1.0 1.2

50 years 1.0 1.2 1.4

100 years 1.2 1.4 1.4

NOTES: 1 When selecting the appropriate security level, additional factors such as the line length, number of

circuits and proximity to other lines or infrastructure should be considered.

2 For special exposed locations such as long span water or valley crossings, or difficult to access locations (where time and cost to restore the construction can be high), a higher security level may be adopted for a particular structure or short sections of the line.

3 For snow, ice and seismic loadings, the designer should use local experience in determining the appropriate Mrel.

6.2.4 Security requirements

Security requirements shall be provided in all designs to prevent or limit progressive or cascading structure failures in the event of collapse or failure of a support structure resulting from any external cause.

In general, longitudinal design loads relevant to residual loads for broken or terminated aerial phase conductor are provided to meet this requirement.

On distribution overhead pole lines, pole deflection combined with partial foundation failure may provide adequate containment.

6.2.5 Safety requirements during construction and maintenance

Safety requirements are intended to ensure that construction and maintenance operations do not pose safety hazards to people. The safety requirements in this Standard consist of special loads, as defined in Clauses 6.2.6 and 7.2.5 for which line components have to be designed.

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6.2.6 Additional considerations

6.2.6.1 Dynamic load effects—Seismic loads

In general, transmission/distribution lines are largely unresponsive to the dynamic forces associated with seismic activity, however, due consideration should be given to structures where the normal dynamic response is altered; e.g. ancillary devices such as pole mounted transformers, etc.

6.2.6.2 Environmental considerations

Consideration shall be given to any environmental and legal requirements that may exist.

Safety of human beings and protection of wild life and livestock, for example birds, cattle, etc. shall be properly considered.

This may require the installation of special deterrent devices for birds and reptiles: aerial markers for aircraft and ground based vehicle warning and deflection devices.

Structure loading for such devices shall be considered in design.

Vehicle impact and the effects of falling trees and airborne vegetation during high winds are accidental loads beyond the scope of this Standard. Their effects can however be mitigated by care in placement of support structures and the ongoing management of the overhead line corridor.

6.2.7 Design working life

The design working life is the assumed period for which an overhead line could be expected to be used for its intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without substantial repair being necessary.

NOTE: The operating life of an overhead line can be normally be expected be in the range of 30 to 80 years, depending on a number of factors including the level of preventative and corrective maintenance carried out on the total asset during its life.

Appendix D provides guidance on the service life of overhead lines.

6.2.8 Durability

The durability of an overhead line support or part of it in its environmental exposure shall be such that it remains fit for use during the design working life given an appropriate level of maintenance.

The environmental, atmospheric and climatic conditions shall be appraised at the design stage to assess their significance in relation to durability and to enable adequate provisions to be made for protection of the materials for the target design life.

6.3 LIMIT STATES

6.3.1 General

The structural design methods provided by this Standard are based on ‘limit state’ concepts.

Structures and components shall be designed using a reliability-based (risk of failure) approach, and the selection of load factors, in particular for weather related loads, and component strength factors are based on achieving an acceptable risk of failure for the loading condition being considered.

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The performance of the structural system can be evaluated for different circumstances, known as limit states with the following general limit state design equation for overhead lines:

φRn > effect of loads ( MRelWn + ΣγxX)

where

X = the applied loads pertinent to each loading condition

MRel = Reliability multiplier

γx = are load factors which take into account variability of loads, importance of structure, stringing, maintenance and safety considerations etc.

Wn = wind load based on a 50 year return period scaled by the appropriate reliability load factor or specified design wind pressure

φ = the strength factor which takes into account variability of material, workmanship etc.

Rn = the nominal strength of the component

Limit states are states beyond which the overhead line no longer satisfies the design performance requirements.

All support structures shall be designed for both ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states.

6.3.2 Strength limit states

Ultimate strength limit states are those associated with collapse or with other similar forms of structural failure due to excessive deformation, loss of stability, overturning, rupture, buckling, or localized failure.

Damage states prior to structural collapse, such as plastic deformation or local buckling of redundant structural elements, which, for simplicity, are considered in place of the structural collapse itself, are also to be treated as ultimate limit states.

Ultimate strength limit states concern—

(a) the reliability and security of supports, foundations, aerial conductors and equipment; and

(b) the safety of people.

Structural elements that fail essentially in buckling, or brittle fracture with little warning of impending failure, should be designed to withstand the design load without permanent distortion.

Structural elements that fail essentially by ductile yielding may, in accordance with the appropriate standard, at the discretion of the designer, be allowed to exhibit elastic-plastic yielding prior to failure, in accordance with the relevant Standard.

6.3.3 Serviceability limit states

Serviceability limit states shall provide for the following defined conditions beyond which specified service requirements for an overhead line are no longer met:

(a) Mechanical and structural functioning of supports, foundations, aerial conductors and equipment.

(b) Maintaining prescribed electrical clearances.

In addition, serviceability limit states that require consideration include—

(i) deformations and displacements which affect the appearance or effective use of the support;

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(ii) a reduction of critical electrical clearances;

(iii) vibrations which cause damage to aerial conductors, supports or equipment or which limit their functional effectiveness;

(iv) damage (including cracking) which is likely to affect the durability or the function of the supports; and

(v) aerial conductors, insulators and line accessories adversely affected.

6.3.4 Limit state design

Limit state design shall be carried out by—

(a) setting up structural and load models for the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit states to be considered in the various design situations and load cases; and

(b) verifying that the limit states are not exceeded when design values for actions, material properties and geometrical data are used in the models.

Design values are generally obtained by using characteristic or combination values (as defined in this Standard) in conjunction with strength and load factors as defined in this Standard and other Australian and New Zealand Standards.

6.3.4.2 Strength factors (φ)

Table 6.2 provides strength factors (φ) which takes into account variability of material and workmanship for structural components used in overhead lines. These φ values reflect accepted industry practice.

TABLE 6.2

STRENGTH FACTOR φ FOR COMPONENT STRENGTH

Part of overhead line (Rn)

Component Limit state Strength factor φ Reference Standard

Lattice steel towers Steel angle member elements Strength Refer Appendix G ASCE 10-97

AS 3995

Tubular steel structures Tubular structure Refer Appendix K

AS/NZS 4600 ASCE 48-05

EN 50341

Fasteners Bolts nuts and washers

Strength

≤0.9 Unless otherwise

specified

AS 4100 AS 1559

ASCE 10-97

Reinforced or prestressed concrete structures and members. Design based on design Standards

Poles Cross arms Strength Refer Appendix I

AS 3600 AS/NZS 4065

NZS 3101 AS/NZS 4676

Concrete or steel structures and members. Design based primarily on testing, e.g. concrete poles (see Note 2)

Poles Cross arms Strength 0.9

(max)

AS 3600 AS/NZS 4065

NZS 3101 AS/NZS 4676

Wood structures, poles or members (not preserved by full length treatment) (see Note 3 and Appendix F)

Poles Cross arms Strength 0.5 AS 2209

AS 1720

(continued)

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TABLE 6.2 (continued)



Wood structures, poles or members (not preserved by full length treatment)

Poles Cross arms Serviceability 0.3 AS 2209

AS1720

Wood structures, poles or members (preserved by full length treatment) (see Note 3 and Appendix F)

Poles Cross arms Strength 0.8 AS 2209

AS 1720

Wood structures, poles or members (preserved by full length treatment)

Poles Cross arms Serviceability 0.4

(see Note 3) AS 2209 AS 1720

Fibre reinforced composite poles. Design based primarily on testing

(see Note 7 and Appendix J)

Poles Cross arms Strength 0.9

Fittings and pins, forged or fabricated Strength 0.8 AS 1154

Fittings, cast Strength 0.7 AS 1154

Porcelain or glass cap and pin string insulator units

Strength 0.8

(electro-mechanical strength)

AS 3608

Porcelain or glass insulators other than cap and pin string insulator units

Strength 0.8 AS 3608

Synthetic composite suspension or strain insulators (See Note 2)

Strength

0.5 (one minute mechanical

strength)

AS 4435.1

Synthetic composite line post insulators (See Note 2)

Strength 0.9

(maximum design cantilever load)

AS 4435.4

Other synthetic composite insulators Strength Subject to further

research

Foundations relying on strength of soil (with conventional soil testing)

Strength 0.4 to 0.7 Refer Appendix L AS 2159

Foundations relying on strength of soil based on empirical assessment

Strength 0.4 to 0.6 Refer Appendix L

AS 2159 and

AS1726

Foundations relying on weight of soil Strength 0.8

Refer Appendix L

Aerial conductors Strength 0.7 (non linear

model) 0.5 (linear model)

(continued)

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TABLE 6.2 (continued)



Aerial conductors Serviceability Refer Section 4

Stay or guy and termination (cable) members

Strength 0.7 AS 1222 AS 3995

ASCE 10-97

NOTES

1 Design Standards based on limit state formats (usually) take into account exclusion limits and the coefficient of variation of structural members. When the φ factor is part of the code’s design equations it should not be applied again.

2 Where design Standards are used that do not employ similar strength factors, designers should decide where further application of relevant factors from the above table is appropriate to achieve the desired reliability level. If sufficient material or product data is available to support ± variation of these tabulated values then alternative values may be adopted.

3 For laminated timber cross-arms, refer to AS/NZS 1328.

4 Where there are sufficient material property tests of components to provide reasonable statistical data, the φ factor may be based on statistical analysis. All data from testing of similar designs should be included in the statistical analysis.

5 Where component manufacturers have included appropriate strength factors in their designs, the φ factor should not be applied again.

6 Where the design of wood structures is based on AS 1720.1, the strength factor may be based on the requirements of that code, however the following should also be taken into account:

(a) The recommended aerial conductor wind loads in this document incorporate a span reduction factor that has the effect of increasing the duration of the wind load being considered.

(b) Tests of poles and cross-arms that have been in service for long periods show a wide variation in the ratio of calculated to actual strength. Due to this uncertainty it is recommended that a strength factor at the lower end of the range be used in the absence of specific data suggesting high confidence

7 Composite fibre poles are highly flexible and serviceability limit due to deflection at working load may be limiting factor.

6.4 ACTIONS

6.4.1 Principal classifications

An action F, can be either—

(a) a direct action, i.e. force (load) applied to the supports, aerial conductors, foundations, and other line components; or

(b) an indirect action, i.e. an imposed or constrained deformation, caused, for example, by temperature changes, ground water variation or uneven settlement.

Actions are classified by their variation in time—

(i) Permanent action (G), i.e. self-weight of supports including foundations, fittings and fixed equipment

Self-weight of aerial conductors and the effects of the applicable aerial conductor tension at the reference temperature, as well as uneven settlements of supports are regarded as permanent actions. NOTE: The vertical reaction from self-weight of the aerial conductor at the support (in other words the weight span) is affected by deviations from the reference state of the aerial conductor tension due to aerial conductor creep temperature variations and wind action. Where critical for the design, especially if no other climatic conditions are present, the uncertainty in such a variation, unfavourable or favourable, should be considered by use of a factor on the self-weight (or on the weight span).

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(ii) Imposed actions (Q), i.e. wind loads, ice loads or other imposed loads

Wind loads and ice loads as well as applicable temperatures are climatic conditions which can be assessed by probabilistic methods (reliability concept) or on a deterministic basis.

Aerial conductor tension effects due to wind and ice and temperature deviations from the reference temperature are variable actions.

Imposed loads arising from aerial conductor stringing, climbing on the structures, etc. are assessed on a deterministic basis and refer to the safety aspect.

(iii) Accidental actions (A), i.e. failure containment loads, flood debris loads, avalanches, etc. These relate to the security aspect of the overhead line

Exceptional ice loads in alpine/sub-alpine regions including unbalanced ice loads can be treated as accidental actions by their nature and/or the structural response—

(A) static actions, which do not cause significant acceleration of the components or elements; and

(B) dynamic actions, which cause significant acceleration of the components or elements

It is usually sufficient to consider the equivalent static effect of quasi-static actions, such as wind loads, in the design of overhead line supports (including foundations). Special attention should be paid to extraordinarily high and/or slender supports.

6.5 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

As general principle, a material property is represented by a characteristic value, which corresponds to that value of the material property having a prescribed probability of not being attained in a hypothetical unlimited test series. It generally corresponds to a specified exclusion limit of the assumed statistical distribution of that property of the material. These values are used to determine the nominal strengths of the components (Rn) values discussed in Clause 6.3.1.

A material property value shall normally be determined from standardized tests performed under specified conditions. A conversion factor shall be applied where it is necessary to convert the test results into values, which can be assumed to represent the behaviour of the material in the overhead line.

NOTE: Material properties specified in other Australian/New Zealand Standards and in particular, Standards referred to herein may generally be applied if not determined otherwise in this Standard.

6.6 MODELLING FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND RESISTANCE

6.6.1 General

Calculations shall be performed using appropriate design models for the type of structure being analysed.

In the case of three dimensional space frames, such as lattice steel towers, it is normal practice to create geometrical models for the full range of heights and base leg combinations. These models normally simulate a fixed or pinned nodal base and should include the effects of settlement of foundations, and any vertical eccentricities that may be applied.

Full scale load testing may be applied to verify experimentally, the structural capacity, or assumed force distribution and adequacy of structural element connectivity for a given structural geometry in the case of space frame structures; and to verify flexural bending, axial load and shear capacity strengths for pole elements. (Refer also to Clause 8.5).

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It should be understood that such tests constitute a sample test for a particular height tower or length of a particular batch of pole. Different configuration of towers and poles may not necessarily perform to the same characteristics.

6.6.2 Interactions between support foundations and soil

Special attention shall be paid to the interaction of the following:

(a) Loads deriving from the support.

(b) Loads resulting from active soil pressures and the permanent weight of foundation and soil.

(c) Buoyancy effects of ground water on soil and foundation.

These, together with the reaction forces of the soil strata shall be taken into account in the calculation of the support foundations.

In the limit state the following criteria shall be taken into consideration:

(i) Acceptable/unacceptable settlement of the foundation including differential settlement.

(ii) Imposed deformations on the support or support members.

(iii) Inclinations of the support.

(iv) Load duration.

Provisions regarding the interaction of loads and recommendations on limit state criteria are given in Sections 7 and 8.

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S E C T I O N 7 A C T I O N O N L I N E S

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The following clauses are based on well-established principles supported by experience and long-term operation of overhead lines within Australia and New Zealand.

7.2 ACTIONS, GENERAL APPROACH

7.2.1 Permanent loads

Self-weight of structures, insulator sets, other fixed equipment and aerial conductors resulting from the adjacent spans act as permanent loads. Aircraft warning spheres and similar elements are to be considered as permanent dead loads. These vertical loads are designated as Gs and Gc

Gs represents the vertical loads on poles, towers, foundations, crossarms, insulators and fittings and shall be the vertical force due to their own mass plus the mass of all ancillaries and attachments.

Gc represents the vertical loads of aerial conductors/cables and attachments such as marker balls, spacers and dampers and forms the design weight span.

These are loads on the structural system with conductor temperature equivalent to the mean of the winter season temperatures with negligible wind loads, i.e. in still air.

7.2.2 Wind loads

Wind loadings shall be applied to all elements of an overhead line as determined in accordance with Appendix B.

Consideration shall be given to the design of structures for wind attack for a range of directions and shall include transverse, longitudinal and oblique directions.

The following wind events and directions shall be considered:

(a) Synoptic and downdraft wind

(i) Transverse direction Apply full transverse wind load on the aerial conductors, insulators and fittings and support, together with deviation loads at maximum wind tension and all relevant vertical loads.

(ii) Longitudinal direction Apply full longitudinal wind load on the support and insulators and fittings together with corresponding deviation loads and all relevant vertical loads.

(iii) Oblique (or yawed) wind—(Refer Appendix B) Apply full oblique wind at an angle to the transverse axis on the aerial conductors, insulators, fittings and support, together with deviation loads at maximum wind tension and all relevant vertical loads.

(b) Tornado wind (applicable to high security lines—(Refer Appendix B)

(i) Apply maximum wind load to the structure only to act from any direction, together with everyday deviation loads and all relevant vertical loads.

(ii) Torsional (for wide transverse structures, e.g. horizontal single circuit towers)

Apply maximum wind torsion with rotation about the support centre. Each tower body face is subjected to in-plane wind, and each crossarm face to projected perpendicular wind in a consistent rotational direction, together with everyday deviation loads and all relevant vertical loads.

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7.2.3 Snow and ice loads

Snow and ice loadings shall be applied to all elements of an overhead line in appropriate regions, as determined in accordance with Appendix EE.

7.2.4 Special loads

7.2.4.1 Forces due to short-circuit currents

Consideration should be given to the effects of the forces imposed on those overhead lines forming part of an overhead line system with very high short-circuit characteristics, typically within 1 span of a substation. These fault currents generally occur for very short durations. Appendix C provides guidance on forces caused by short-circuit currents.

7.2.4.2 Avalanches and creeping snow loads

When overhead lines are to be routed in or through mountainous regions where they may be exposed to avalanches or creeping snow on hill slopes consideration shall be given to the possible additional loads that may act on the supports, foundations and/or aerial conductors. Guidance information on this subject is given in Appendix C.

7.2.4.3 Earthquakes

When overhead lines are to be constructed in seismically active regions, consideration shall be given to forces on lines due to earthquakes and/or seismic tremors. Guidance information on this subject is given in Appendix C.

7.2.4.4 Other special loads

Other special loads such as impact from vehicles or flood shall be considered where appropriate.

7.2.5 Construction and maintenance loads

7.2.5.1 General

The supports shall be able to withstand all construction and maintenance loads, Qm, which are likely to be imposed on them with an appropriate load factor, taking into account working procedures, temporary guying, lifting arrangement, etc. Overstressing of the support should be prevented by specification of allowable procedures and/or load capacities.

The conditions should be based on the worst weather conditions (wind and temperature) under which maintenance will be carried out. The limiting design wind pressure for general maintenance work shall be 100 Pa. The designer needs to consider all potential aspects that may arise from maintenance practices affecting Gc, e.g. lowering the aerial conductor at the adjacent structure may result in the doubling of the weight span on the structure under consideration.

7.2.5.2 Loads related to line maintenance/construction personnel

The vertical maintenance load to be applied to a structure for a single person shall be 1.0 kN acting together with the permanent loads and other imposed loads resulting from the maintenance work method.

For lattice steel structures, these forces shall act at any point of structural elements.

For pole type structures, these forces shall act at any point on the superstructure to which it could be reasonably expected that construction or maintenance loading may be applied.

In particular, the following minimum loading allowances shall be made:

(a) Transmission structures ( including lattice steel towers and steel and concrete poles)—

(i) Earthwire peaks—provision for two persons plus 100 kg of tools and equipment

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(ii) Crossarms—provision for 4 persons plus 500 kg of tools and equipment

(b) Distribution structures (including wood and concrete pole structure if climbing provision is required)—

(i) Pole head and crossarm—provision for two persons plus 100 kg of tools and equipment.

(ii) Pole—component load of ladder with one person climbing

In addition, provision is to be considered for all structures required to be climbed for the provision of anchorage from any structural node point for the attachment of fall arrest system anchorage with a load capacity of 15 kN. Under this condition structural elements must be able to restrain this load in an elastic or plastic deformed state without release of the attached tackle system.

Where walkways or working platforms are installed, they shall be designed for the maximum loads required under the relevant code but provide not less than the provision for two men at any point; i.e. 2.8 kN point load.

For all structural elements that can be climbed and are inclined with an angle less than 30 to the horizontal, a characteristic load of 1.4 kN acting vertically in the centre of the member shall be assumed without any other co-existent loads.

Climbing steps (of any kind) shall be capable of supporting a concentrated load of 1.4 kN acting vertically at a position 50 mm horizontally from the underside of the extended step bolt head or step iron end slip restraint.

7.2.6 Coincident temperatures

Temperature effects for the following loading conditions shall be considered in the determination of aerial conductor tension on overhead lines:

(a) A minimum temperature condition to be considered with no other climatic action for the particular regional location, if relevant. Particular attention is to be given for short spans cases and minimum overnight winter temperatures

(b) The ambient temperature assumed for the ultimate wind speed condition.

(c) A minimum temperature coinciding with a reduced wind speed should be considered, if relevant. Particular attention is to be given in sub-alpine and alpine regions.

(d) A temperature to be assumed with icing. For both of the main types of icing a temperature of 0°C may be used, if not otherwise specified. A lower temperature should be taken into account in regions where the temperature often drops significantly after a snowfall.

(e) A maximum aerial conductor temperature to be assumed for the calculation of electrical clearances.

7.2.7 Security loads

Security loads in this Standard are specified to give minimum requirements on the torsional and longitudinal resistance of the supports by defining failure containment loads. The loads considered are the one-sided release of static tension in an aerial conductor and unbalanced longitudinal loads.

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7.2.7.1 Failure containment loads Fb

7.2.7.1.1 General

The loads on a structure arising from the failure of an adjacent structure are unpredictable. Consequently, the design approaches to failure containment are largely based on empirical observations and on reducing the effects of longitudinal loads. If the initial (primary) failure is caused by extreme winds, the structures adjacent to the collapsing structure may be subjected to both longitudinal loads and high winds.

In the case of direct buried pole type structures, sufficient rotational release from applied torsional loads, and translational deformation of the supporting soil can occur in most cases at the structure directly impacted by overload conditions; such that the load impacts are dissipated and contained within one or two structures.

The possibility of a structure failure initiating aerial conductor breakages should also be considered. This is particularly relevant to AAC and AAAC type aerial conductors when used on high voltage transmission where aerial conductors may be severed by falling sharp edged metal structure components.

For the failure containment condition, supports shall be designed for the equivalent longitudinal loads resulting from aerial conductors on the structure being broken with a minimum coincident wind pressure of 0.25 times the ultimate design wind.

The unbalance tension (Fb) resulting from these broken aerial conductors is the residual static load (RSL) in the aerial phase conductor after severance of an aerial conductor, or the collapse of an aerial conductor support system.

Intact aerial conductor tensions (Ft) shall be used for all other aerial conductors.

Fb and Ft tensions for aerial conductors shall be based on the temperature corresponding to the everyday load condition with a minimum nominal wind pressure of 0.25 times the ultimate design wind pressure.

7.2.7.1.2 Suspension or intermediate supports

For a single circuit support, the number of aerial conductors to be considered is one phase (with allowance for bundles) or the earthwire. For a double circuit support, the number of aerial conductors to be considered is the worst loading combination of either any two phases, or any phase and the earthwire.

For structure types having limited longitudinal strength alternative failure containment methods need to be applied (e.g. use of guys).

7.2.7.1.3 Tension supports

Depending on the intended purpose, tension supports shall be designed to withstand equivalent longitudinal load of one or two earthwires together with one phase per circuit.

For termination supports, longitudinal loads shall be applied for all the attached wires.

7.2.7.1.4 Distribution systems

In distribution systems using pin or post insulators with wire ties or equivalent fixing, and relatively flexible structures and their foundations, it is not necessary to design suspension supports for the RSL .

Tension and terminal distribution pole supports however, shall be designed for the RSL.

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7.2.7.1.5 Residual static load (RSL)

In absence of a more detailed assessment, an RSL factor of 0.70 should be adopted for aerial phase conductors supported by suspension strings. The RSL load applies to all sub conductors in a phase.

NOTE: While the equivalent span may be used to calculate tensions in a section of line, designers should be aware that if the span lengths in a line section have considerable variation, a RSL based on the equivalent span may underestimate broken aerial conductor tensions for some spans.

7.3 LOAD COMPONENTS

7.3.1 Loads from the supported wires

Although any attached wire will act as a single force, traditionally the force is split and calculated as three separate components (See Figure 7.1)—

1 horizontal component of aerial conductor tension in the line direction (Ft);

2 horizontal component of aerial conductor tension perpendicular to the line (part of Wn); and

3 vertical component of the aerial conductor tension (Gc)

In load combinations, Ft and Gc components are further multiplied by load factors.

FIGURE 7.1 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SHAPE AND FORCES UNDER WIND CONDITIONS

7.3.2 Conductor tensions

7.3.2.1 General

The horizontal component of the conductor tensions Ft used for design shall be based on the lowest temperature likely to coexist with the design wind pressure as provided in the following conditions.

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7.3.2.2 Maximum wind condition Ftw

Ftw is the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tensions in the direction of the line when subject to wind

Due to the spatial variation of wind velocities within a wind storm, an extreme 3 s peak wind gust, will not affect all spans between tension structures simultaneously.

7.3.2.3 Maintenance condition Ftm

Ftm is the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tensions in the direction of the line when subject to maintenance conditions.

This condition provides the maximum aerial conductor tension under which it can be reasonably expected for workmen to be expected to work transferring loads of aerial conductors during construction or maintenance activities. This tension is calculated based on a maximum transverse wind pressure of 100 Pa. Consideration should also be given for tension increase under minimum temperature conditions.

7.3.2.4 Everyday condition Fte

Fte is the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tension in the direction of the line under no wind.

This condition provides the nominal tension that can be expected to occur at the everyday temperature (Te) for the line location. This tension is calculated in still air and an average ambient temperature for the region.

7.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS

7.4.1 General

In the design of an overhead line, a range of loading conditions shall be considered that will provide due consideration for all possible service conditions that the line and individual supports may be subjected to through out its service life.

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7.4.1.1 Limit states loading conditions

TABLE 7.3

LOAD COMBINATIONS AND LOAD FACTORS

Load factor and application Loading condition Wn Sγ Gs Gc Ftm Ftw Fte Fb Q

Maximum wind and maximum weight

1.0 (see Note 2)

1.1 1.25 1.25

Maximum wind and minimum weight

1.0 0.9 0.0 (see Note 1)

1.25

Maximum wind and uplift

1.0 0.9 1.25 (see Note 1)

1.25

Everyday condition (sustained loads)

1.1 1.25 1.1

Snow and ice 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.25 1.25

Failure containment

1.0 1.1 1.25 1.25 1.25

Serviceability—deflection limit

1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1

Serviceability—damage limit

1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0

Maintenance 1.0 1.1 1.5 (see Note 4)

1.5 (see Note 4)

2.0

Seismic 1.3 (see Note 3)

1.3 1.25

NOTES: 1 Adequate allowance shall be made for differential loadings that can occur between adjoining spans at a

structure, particularly in mountainous terrain to allow for uplift loads under normal service conditions including low temperature effects.

2 Wind loads from all directions shall be considered.

3 Due considerations for vertical load effects, range from 0.8 to 1.3.

4 Aerial conductor tension and weight of aerial conductors under maintenance shall be treated as a live load Q with corresponding load factor of 2.0.

7.4.1.2 Deflections and serviceability limit state

Ultimate and serviceability limit state loads are to be considered in determining structure deflections and aerial conductor, insulator and fitting strength ratings.

The serviceability deflection limit loading condition is to be used for setting deflection limits of structures, such as poles, in situations where the electrical clearances will not be infringed. This condition may also be used as an upper limit for cracking criteria in pre-stressed concrete poles.

The serviceability damage limit loading condition shall be used where the damage is of a ductile nature.

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S E C T I O N 8 S U P P O R T S

8.1 INITIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Designs of overhead line structures shall be carried out in accordance with this Standard and referenced Standards Australian/Standards New Zealand, IEC and ASCE documents.

Materials used in the fabrication of overhead line supports should comply with the requirements of the relevant Australian and New Zealand material Standard or equivalent International Standards.

8.2 MATERIALS AND DESIGN

8.2.1 Lattice steel towers and guyed masts.

Lattice steel tower designs shall be carried out in accordance with AS 3995, AS 4100, ASCE 10-97 and Appendix G.

8.2.2 Steel poles

Steel poles shall be designed in accordance with AS/NZS 4677, AS 4600, AS 4100, ASCE 48-05 and Appendix K.

8.2.3 Concrete poles

Concrete poles shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of AS/NZS 3600, AS/NZS 4065 and Appendix I.

8.2.4 Timber poles

Timber poles shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of AS 1720.1, AS/NZS 1328 or AS 2209 and Appendix F.

8.2.5 Other materials

For all other materials, the material characteristics should be in accordance with the performance requirements of the finished product and shall also meet the functional requirements regarding both strength and serviceability (deformation, durability and aesthetics) and be in accordance with the relevant Australian, New Zealand, IEC or equivalent International Standard.

Where composite materials are used in pole elements, such as fibre reinforced resin or polymer, fibre reinforced concrete, using fibreglass, carbon or steel microfilament fibres; the design and performance characteristics of the pole element shall be supported by load tests.

8.2.6 Guyed structures

8.2.6.1 General

A guyed support can be any type of structure that is supported by guy wires for stability . Various types of configurations exist such as V-tower, portal, column, catenary, guyed timber poles, double guyed timber leg structures, multi-level guyed tubular leg structures, etc.

The following additional requirements shall apply.

8.2.6.2 Second order analysis

In larger more complex guyed structures where a second order analysis is justified the following aspects shall be taken into account:

(a) An initial out of straightness shall be assumed for sections hinged at both ends (tower legs), a normal design value of L/1000 shall be considered.

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(b) The slackening of one or more guys at different loading conditions shall be taken into

consideration.

8.2.6.3 Design details for guys

The characteristic resistance of the guy shall be the nominal value for ultimate breaking strength specified in appropriate standards with due consideration of the method of termination. The effective elastic modulus of the guy determined from a Standard, manufacturer or test may be used in analysis.

For guyed tower structures, galvanised steel wire strands or steel ropes with steel core shall be used for the guys, and shall be equipped with devices for retightening during the service life of the structure.

The connection between the guy rope and the anchor device shall be readily accessible, and the connections and tightening devices shall be secured against loosening in service.

On guyed tower structures, the guys shall be pre-tensioned to an appropriate force (5-10% CBL) after the erection of the structure, in order to reduce the deformation at extreme loads.

The angle or termination structures shall be vertical after the stringing of the aerial conductors at the everyday temperature.

Special attention shall be paid to preventing possible vibration, galloping and fluttering phenomena if this is a known characteristic of the region. Regions with constant low velocity prevailing winds and low temperatures need investigation.

Where cast steel sockets or cast wedge sockets are used in the guy terminations, freedom from defects in the casting should be ensured by an acceptable non-destructive test or manufacturer's certificate.

For a multi-level guyed support, instructions for the erection work are needed because the structure is sensitive to the pre-tensioning of the guys.

Due care shall be taken for protection of the guy in populated areas for possible galvanic corrosion and flashover.

Insulation of the guy above a point accessible from the ground by the public should be provided if a risk of failure of the energized conductors may exist, such that a guy wire could become energized.

Where no insulation in guy wires is used, appropriate step and touch potential mitigating systems shall be adopted.

In order to minimize the possibility of aerodynamic guy vibrations in stabilizing guy wires the pretension should be less than 10%.

For permanently loaded structural load carrying guy wires this requirement is not applicable, however if service experience indicates that aerodynamic vibrations are significant, then vibration damping protection should be considered.

8.3 CORROSION PROTECTION AND FINISHES

8.3.1 General

Metallic components of supports may be protected against corrosion in order to meet their design service life, taking into account the planned maintenance regime. The following clauses set minimum requirements that should be provided. Refer to AS/NZS 2312.

8.3.2 Galvanizing

All galvanized steel material and fastenings used in support structures shall be hot-dip galvanized and tested in accordance with AS/NZS 4680 or equivalent International Standard unless an alternative anti-corrosion coating system is utilized.

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8.3.3 Metal spraying

Where required by design considerations or where steel materials are too large or difficult to galvanize, they may be protected against corrosion by thermal spraying a zinc or zinc/aluminium coating over the base metal, performed in accordance with ISO 14713 to provide zinc deposit thickness not less than 200 μm. When this system is used, the inside surface of hollow sections shall also be protected against corrosion.

8.3.4 Paint over galvanizing (duplex system )

When an enhanced coloured cosmetic surface treatment paint coating is to be applied after hot-dip galvanizing of steel structures, this coating shall be applied in accordance with a coating manufacturer’s recommendation.

8.3.5 Use of weather-resistant steels

The use of weather resistance steels requires special design considerations and full-scale experience.

8.4 MAINTENANCE FACILITIES

8.4.1 Climbing and working at heights

Where climbing and working at heights from the structure is required, by authorized personnel, suitable facilities shall be incorporated in the designs of supports.

Reference should be made to Appendix M for guidance on industry standards.

8.4.2 Maintainability

In addition to climbing attachments, the provision of rigging and load transfer attachments, holes or fittings for the installation and use of maintenance equipment shall be provided in designs.

Reference should be made to Appendix M for guidance on industry standards.

8.4.3 Safety requirements

Provision shall be made on all climbable structures for the fixing of signage and devices to ensure the protection of the public from hazards associated with access to electrical works, and to provide public awareness of operational safety issues.

This may include—

(a) provision of safety information for the general public (e.g. warning signs, telephone number for emergency contact);

(b) prevention of unauthorized climbing;

(c) provision of aids to authorized personnel to enable them to correctly identify energized and de-energized aerial conductors (e.g. circuit identification markings);

(d) provision for bonding of earthwire and earthing of the support structure; and

(e) equipotential bonding.

8.5 LOADING TESTS

Full scale loading tests on overhead lines supports, when carried out, shall be generally in accordance with IEC 60652 and the following provisions.

8.5.1 Tower structures

Full scale load testing may be carried out to verify experimentally the structural capacity, or assumed the force distribution and efficiency of structural element connectivity for a given structural geometry, and for confirming force distribution in redundant bracing elements.

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It should be understood that such tests are a sample test for a particular height tower. Taller or shorter towers of the same structure type may not have identical performance characteristics.

8.5.2 Pole type structures

Full-scale load testing of prototype poles may be used as an acceptable alternative to strength calculations to verify flexural bending and shear capacity strengths for pole type elements.

Routine sample poles shall be tested to determine whether structurally similar poles are deemed to comply with the requirements for strength and serviceability of this Standard. Deflection characteristics of repetitive sample pole tests compared to prototype test deflections provides a useful tool for monitoring quality of pole product manufacture.

8.5.2.1 Test specimens

Specimen poles for prototype testing shall be manufactured, as a group for a normal production run, in sufficient numbers so that each required test can be carried out on a pole that is unaffected by any previous testing. However, serviceability and strength testing may be carried out sequentially, in that order, on the same pole.

The manufacture of the test specimens shall take into account the intended production procedures and the quality of materials and workmanship to be used during normal production.

The specimens shall be chosen to represent poles of similar structural design and may include poles of different nominal sizes.

8.5.2.2 Test requirements

Test loads shall be determined to reflect as close as possible design loadings. Loading devices shall be properly calibrated and care exercised to ensure that no artificial restraints to pole deformations are imposed by the loading systems. Test loads shall be applied to the test specimen at a rate that is as uniform as practicable.

Test loading and support conditions shall simulate the relevant design conditions as closely as is practicable.

Test arrangements depend on whether the pole elements are tested horizontally or in a vertical mode.

Performance indicators shall be measured and recorded, as a minimum, at least at the following times:

(a) Immediately before the application of the test load.

(b) When the test load is reached.

(c) Immediately after the entire test load has been removed.

8.5.2.3 Testing and acceptance

Test loads shall reproduce at critical cross-sections not less than the design action effect at the relevant limit state, multiplied by the appropriate factor given in Table 8.1, unless a reliability analysis shows that a smaller factor can be adopted safely.

The value of the coefficient of variation to be used in Table 8.1 shall be obtained from historical test data for the material, manufacturing method and action effect being considered. In the absence of such data the values given in Table 8.2 may be adopted.

Load testing of prototype poles may be used as an acceptable alternative to strength calculations to verify flexural bending and shear capacity strengths for pole types. Regular full scale load testing may be applied to verify the structural capacity, in the case of poles to verify strengths and quality of materials and workmanship.

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Where routine samples of poles are load tested to determine their quality and strength conformance, the lowest test result shall be divided by the COV factor in Table 8.1. All previously tested poles of similar types and lengths shall be included in the numbers of poles tested to select the correct COV factor. Deflection characteristics of repetitive sample pole tests compared to prototype test deflections provides a useful tool for monitoring quality of pole product manufacture.

TABLE 8.1 VALUES OF MULTIPLIER FOR TEST LOAD FOR ESTIMATED COEFFICIENT

OF VARIATION

Coefficient of variation of structural characteristics No. of similar units tested(1) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

1 1.20 1.46 1.79 2.21 2.75 3.45

2 1.17 1.38 1.64 1.96 2.36 2.86

3 1.15 1.33 1.56 1.83 2.16 2.56

4 1.14 1.30 1.50 1.74 2.03 2.37

5 1.13 1.28 1.46 1.67 1.93 2.23

10 1.10 1.21 1.34 1.49 1.66 1.85

30 1.07 1.15 1.24 1.34 1.46 1.60

50 1.05 1.10 1.17 1.24 1.33 1.42

100 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

NOTES:

1 The cumulative number of tested poles having the same characteristics, not per batch.

2 The coefficient of variation is equal to the standard deviation divided by the mean and usually expressed as a percentage.

3 Design strength by testing = lowest test result divided by the multiplier.

TABLE 8.2

MINIMUM VALUES OF COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION (COV) FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS AND ACTION EFFECTS

Minimum COV% Material

Steel Concrete Timber Method of manufacture or assembly All welded Spun or cast Stress graded Visually graded

Bending 5 5 25 30

NOTE: For on-site welded connections, a higher coefficient of variation may be appropriate.

8.5.3 Acceptance criteria

The acceptance criteria for strength and serviceability shall be as follows:

(a) For serviceability, the test specimen shall be deemed to comply with the serviceability requirements of this Standard if, under the serviceability limit-state test load, the measured serviceability indicators are within the specified limits appropriate to the pole application.

(b) For strength, the test specimens shall be deemed to comply with the strength requirements of this Standard if the specimens are able to withstand the strength limit-state test load for not less than 2 min.

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8.5.4 Test reports

The results of the tests on each test specimen shall be recorded in a report. The report shall contain at least the following information:

(a) A clear statement of the conditions of testing, including the methods of supporting and loading the specimen and the methods of measuring serviceability indicators.

(b) Identification of the test specimen.

(c) The values of the relevant test loads and, where appropriate, measured performance indicators.

(d) A statement as to whether or not the specimen satisfied the acceptance criteria.

If a specimen fails to satisfy an acceptance criterion, the load at which such failure occurred shall be recorded and reported.

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S E C T I O N 9 F O U N D A T I O N S

9.1 GENERAL

Foundations for supports may take the form of single foundations in the case of pole type structures and guy anchors or separate footings for each leg of towers.

The loading on single footings is predominantly in the form of overturning moment, which is usually resisted by lateral soil pressure, together with additional shear and vertical forces resisted by upwards soil pressure.

Common types of single foundations are direct buried poles, bored caissons, mono-bloc footings, pad or raft footings, bored pier foundations, and single pile or pile group foundations.

When separate footings are provided for each leg the predominant loadings are compression and uplift forces, however, shear forces should be considered.

Uplift and compression forces are usually resisted by combinations of dead weight of the foundation bulk, earth surcharges, shear forces and bearing in the soil. This also applies to guy foundations.

Common types of separate footing foundations are (stepped) block footings with or without undercut (pad and chimney, spread footings); auger bored footings with or without expanded base; pier or caisson foundations; grillage foundations; and vertical or raked pile foundations.

9.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Foundations for structures and the anchor of any stays or guy wires shall be capable of withstanding loads specified for the ultimate strength limit state and serviceability limit states conditions.

Foundation design should be based on appropriate engineering soil properties. Where soil test information is not available, an estimate of soil parameters should be made based on an appraisal of site conditions, soil types and geological structure.

Construction personnel shall be made aware of the assumed parameters and guidelines should be issued that will allow recognition of soils not conforming to the adopted design parameters.

In calculating the strength of foundations, recognition should be given for the different strength characteristics of soil under short-term and long term loads, and the difference in saturated and dry properties of the soil.

Failing the availability of soil tests, Appendix L provides guidance on various soil properties.

As a general principle, the foundation should not have component reliability less than that of the structure. The consequences of foundation failure (excessive movement or differential settlement) on rigid structures may induce high stress levels in the structure. The φ values provided in Table 6.2 are based on a component reliability factor of 1.0, and take into account the normal high coefficient of variation (COV) of soil generally.

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The consequences of partial foundation failure for pole structures or flexible guyed structures are not normally as severe. Designers should assess the cost of providing foundations that will remain elastic for all design loads versus the cost of straightening poles (or re-tensioning stays) that have been subjected to extreme weather events. It should be noted that the deflection of foundations of deviation structures most likely will reduce aerial conductor tension loadings. Pole head offsets provide a convenient means of negating this effect.

Permanent deflections due to extreme windstorm or floodwater events and long term creep of materials will increase stresses in the structure and its foundation due to the eccentricity of the structure vertical loads relative to the foundation centre (pΔ effect). This can cause foundation failure.

9.3 POLE AND TOWER FOUNDATIONS

Structure foundation design methods together with typical soil parameters are provided in Appendix L.

9.4 SOIL INVESTIGATION

Where carried out, soil investigations shall be to a depth that includes all layers which significantly influence the foundation strength.

The type, condition, extent, stratification and depth of the soil layers as well as ground-water conditions can be examined by boring and/or testing such as cone penetration test (CPT), standard penetration test (SPT), penetrometer, trial pits or other standardized tests, if available knowledge base does not provide sufficient information. The results of the soil investigations shall be recorded, in accordance with relevant standards or codes of practice.

In the absence of better information from soil investigations, the soil parameters provided in Appendix L may be used as a guideline for design. However it should be confirmed by inspection or testing, during construction, that the soil parameters used are appropriate.

9.5 BACKFILLING OF EXCAVATED MATERIALS

When backfilling is used, sufficient compaction shall be carried out to ensured foundation actions can be developed as designed. In certain circumstances, a possible reduction of consistency of cohesive soils should be taken into account in the calculations if compaction standards are to be relaxed.

When backfilling with granular soil in cohesive soil, the tendency of water to accumulate in the backfill shall be considered or lower values shall be used.

9.6 FOUNDATION DISPLACEMENTS

The design values for the limiting displacement of foundations will depend on the type of foundations, the type of structure, and the serviceably criteria assumed.

NOTE: As a guide, damage and failure limits given in IEC 60826 may be adopted.

9.7 LOAD TESTING OF FOUNDATIONS

Loading tests or tests on experimental models form a valuable method for justifying the design of foundations or to test the strengths of individual foundations, whether test or production foundations.

There are two categories of tests normally performed, i.e. proof tests, or design and research tests.

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9.7.1 Proof tests

These tests are undertaken on production foundations and they shall successfully pass the test at a percentage of the design load (nominally 85%) such that they remain fully serviceable after testing.

9.7.2 Design and research tests

These tests are carried out on specially installed foundations typically up to failure and are intended to verify specific design approaches or assumptions for the geotechnical parameters.

Such tests require efforts for ensuring accuracy of installation and monitoring the test. Provision for the following factors should be included:

(a) Design loading conditions.

(b) Difference in the ground conditions between the test and the actual construction.

(c) Duration of test loading.

(d) Scale effects, especially if smaller models are used.

(e) Climatic effects.

Details concerning the preparation of the tests, the testing arrangement, the test procedure and evaluation of results are given in AS 2159.

9.8 CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION

Details of the proposed method of interconnection between the support and the foundation shall be incorporated in the design.

Designs of foundations should include consideration of the method of construction and installation of foundations to ensure the assumed or designed geotechnical parameters are able to be realised.

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S E C T I O N 1 0 E A R T H I N G S Y S T E M S

10.1 GENERAL PURPOSE

An earthing system of overhead earthwires, earth down leads, grading rings and counterpoise earthing addresses the following objectives:

(a) Ensure protective equipment will operate in faulted situations.

(b) Provide acceptable reliability (lightning performance) on the line.

(c) Control touch and step potentials around the base of the structure.

(d) Provide a conductive path for fault current.

(e) Avoid damage to properties and equipment.

The dimensioning of earthing systems shall consider the following requirements:

(i) To ensure mechanical strength and corrosion resistance.

(ii) To withstand, from a thermal point of view, the highest fault current as determined by calculation

(iii) Limit lightning induced voltages on earth down leads

The transfer of potential by nearby metallic objects may occur due to fault currents flowing in the earth system.

Guidelines on individual cases should be determined by the utility.

These effects shall be reduced to acceptable levels contained in AS/NZS 3835 and HB 101(CJC5).

10.2 EARTHING MEASURES AGAINST LIGHTNING EFFECTS

The structure footing resistance values have an influence on the backflashover rate of the line and therefore affect the reliability. A low resistance provides good lightning performance and recommended values for high reliability lines are given in Appendix E.

10.3 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO CORROSION AND MECHANICAL STRENGTH

10.3.1 Earth electrodes

The electrodes, being directly in contact with the soil, shall be of materials capable of withstanding corrosion (chemical or biological attack, oxidation, formation of an electrolytic couple, electrolysis, etc.).

They shall resist the mechanical influences during their installation as well as those occurring during normal service.

Mechanical strength and corrosion considerations dictate the minimum dimensions for earth electrodes given in EN 50341. If a different material, for example stainless steel, is used, this material and its dimensions shall meet the requirements of (a) and (b) in Clause 10.1.

NOTE: It is acceptable to use steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete foundations and steel piles as a part of the earthing system.

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10.3.2 Earthing and bonding conductors

For mechanical and electrical reasons, the minimum cross-sections shall be—

(a) copper 16 mm2.

(b) aluminium 35 mm2.

(c) steel 50 mm2. NOTE: Composite conductors can also be used for earthing provided that their resistance is equivalent to the examples given. For aluminium conductors corrosion affects should be considered. Earthing and bonding conductors made of steel require protection against corrosion.

10.4 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO THERMAL STRENGTH

10.4.1 General

Because fault current levels are governed by the electrical system rather than the overhead line the values should be provided by the network utility. In some cases steady-state zero-sequence currents should be taken into account for the dimensioning of the relevant earthing system. For design purposes, the currents used to calculate the conductor size should take into account the possibility of future growth.

The fault current is often subdivided in the earth electrode system; it is, therefore, possible to dimension each electrode for only a fraction of the fault current.

The final temperatures involved in the design and to which reference is made in the following subclause shall be chosen in order to avoid reduction of the material strength and to avoid damage to the surrounding materials, for example concrete or insulating materials.

No permissible temperature rise of the soil surrounding the earth electrodes is given in this Standard because experience shows that soil temperature rise is usually not significant.

10.4.2 Current rating calculation

The calculation of the cross-section of the earthing conductors or earth electrodes depending on the value and the duration of the fault current is given in EN 50341. There is discrimination between fault duration lower than 5 s (adiabatic temperature rise) and greater than 5 s. The final temperature shall be chosen with regard to the material and the surroundings.

Nevertheless, the minimum cross-sections in Clause 10.3.2 shall be observed.

10.5 RISK BASED EARTHING - PERMISSIBLE VALUES

Overhead lines shall comply with the respective touch voltage curves shown in Figures 10.1 and Figure 10.2 or be based on a risk based approach.

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10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

10 100 1,000 10,000

Fault duration (ms)

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ou

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lta

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50 -m

200 -m

500 -m

1000 -m

Crushed

rock

Asphalt

NOTE: For the curves in Figure 10 1 and Figure 10. 2, a resistivity value of 3,000 Ωm has been used for crushed rock and 10,000 Ωm for asphalt.

FIGURE 10.1 PROSPECTIVE TOUCH VOLTAGE CURVES EXCLUDING FOOTWEAR RESISTANCE

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

10 100 1,000 10,000

Fault duration (ms)

Pro

sp

ec

tive

to

uc

h v

olt

ag

es (

V)

50 -m 200 -m

500 -m 1000 -m

Crushed

rock

Asphalt

NOTE: For the curves in Figure 10 1 and Figure 10. 2, a resistivity value of 3,000 Ωm has been used for crushed rock and 10,000 Ωm for asphalt.

FIGURE 10.2 PROSPECTIVE TOUCH VOLTAGE CURVES INCLUDING 2,000 Ω FOOTWEAR RESISTANCE

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10.5.1 Risk based approach to earthing

10.5.1.1 Introduction

Risks associated with earthing include the possibility of human and livestock fatalities, equipment damage and property loss. All these risks shall be assessed on the basis of cost and benefit. For human fatalities, a probability based approach is recommended.

10.5.1.2 Risk of fatality approach

Design of an earthing system based on a risk approach to human fatalities can be accomplished by the process outlined in Figure 10.3 and described in the points following:

(a) Identify the scenarios and the risks (e.g. a person touching a substation fence at the time of a fault).

(b) Based on the likely proportion of total earth fault currents flowing into the local earthing system and durations), determine the minimum earthing system that could meet the functional requirement. Detailed design is necessary to ensure that all exposed conductive parts, are earthed. Extraneous conductive parts shall be earthed, if appropriate. Any structural earth electrodes associated with the installation shall be bonded and form part of the earthing system. If not bonded, verification is necessary to ensure that all safety requirements are met.

(c) Determine the zone of interest. If it cannot be demonstrated that interconnection via either the primary or secondary supply systems is sufficient, then determine the soil characteristics of the zone of interest, taking into account the seasonal variation of the soil parameters.

(d) Based on soil characteristics and the estimated fault current discharged into the soil by the earthing system of the installation site, determine earth potential rise (EPR).

(e) Determine the tolerable step and touch voltages (see Appendix U).

(f) If the EPR is below the tolerable step and touch voltages, the design is completed.

(g) If not, determine if step and touch voltages inside and near the earthing system are below the tolerable limits.

(h) If not, assess the risk as detailed in Appendix U and as summarized below—

(i) estimate the frequency and duration of the fault events;

(ii) estimate the extent of hazard areas or zones;

(iii) estimate the total length of time per year that individuals are within hazardous areas or zones;

(iv) calculate the probability of individuals being at risk through exposure to hazardous voltages; and

(v) compare the level of probability of an event against the risk criteria and establish the cost benefit of reducing the level of probability to below acceptable levels (if required). Refer to Appendix U for definitions of the High, Intermediate and Low risk categories and associated actions required.

(i) Identify and implement appropriate risk treatment measures (if required) and then re calculate the residual risk level following treatment. Typical treatment measures are discussed in Appendix U.

(j) Determine if transferred potentials present a hazard outside or inside the high voltage installation. If yes, proceed with risk treatment at exposed location.

(k) Determine if low voltage equipment is exposed to excessive stress voltage. If yes, proceed with mitigation measures, which can include separation of HV and LV earthing systems.

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(l) Determine if the circulating transformer neutral current can lead to excessive

potential differences between different parts of the earthing system. If yes, proceed with mitigation measures.

(m) Assess and manage any inductive and conductive interference with other utility plant and personnel (e.g. telecommunications, pipelines, rail).

(n) Consider the need to implement any particular precautions against lightning and other transients.

(o) Once the above criteria have been met, the design can be refined, if necessary, by repeating the above steps.

(p) Provide installation support as necessary to ensure design requirements fulfilled and staff safety risk effectively managed.

(q) Review installation for physical and safety compliance following the commissioning programme.

(r) Documentation to include physical installation description, e.g. drawing, as well as electrical assumptions, design decisions, commissioning, data and supervision and maintenance requirements.

The risk assessment can also be formulated as, given a tolerable level of risk of fatalities, what is the maximum allowable number of contact events by people per unit time?

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1. Refer to Appendix U for definitions of the high, intermediate and low risk outcome categories and

associated actions required. 2. For low risk category, the risk is generally acceptable. However, risk treatment should be applied if the

cost of the risk treatment was small compared to the overall project cost. A cost benefit analysis may be required to assess the cost of the risk treatment against the overall project cost.

FIGURE 10.3 EARTHING SYSTEM DESIGN FLOW CHART

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10.6 ELECTRICAL ASPECTS OF STAYWIRE DESIGN

Important electrical considerations to be incorporated into the design for structure staywires consist of—

(a) corrosion of staywires and foundation steelwork due to leakage currents; and

(b) control of touch potentials on structure staywires.

10.6.1 Corrosion and leakage currents

The net flow of leakage current off a staywire will lead to eventual corrosion of the staywire, or the reinforcing steel in the staywire foundation. For most transmission and distribution applications, the provision of a stay insulator in the stay wire assembly will mitigate corrosion issues related to leakage current flow.

Typical examples of staywire insulators are outlined in AS 3609.

However, corrosion at the ground line interfaces between stay rods, soil and concrete encasement interfaces may still be an issue even with stay insulator fitted and these aspects should be considered in the structural design aspects of the stay assembly foundation.

There may be applications were a stay type insulator cannot be used. One example may be the use of high tensile stay wires with loads in excess of the specified mechanical rating of stay type insulators. For these instances, the structural design of the stay will need to account for corrosion, possible degradation and reduction in mechanical rating of the stay over the design lifetime of the staywire.

10.6.2 Stay earthing for control of touch potentials

10.6.2.1 Distribution and sub transmission lines

The addition of the stay insulator for leakage current, can also mitigate touch voltage hazards on stay wires. Common examples that can cause hazards in stay wires consist of power follow currents flowing to earth via the stay on a conductive structure, which are not sufficient to operate protection systems, or a dropped aerial conductor directly onto the structure stay.

Stay insulators should be positioned such that the staywire on the structure side of the stay insulator cannot be accessed from the ground by the general public when intact or when in a broken stay wire state and also positioned such to maximise the ability to insulate the stay to ground in the event of a fallen aerial conductor directly onto the stay.

10.6.2.2 Transmission lines

The addition of the stay insulator for leakage current, may only partly address touch voltage hazards on stay wires for transmission applications. There may be some situations, due to high prospective fault currents, that the stay insulator is insufficient to control touch voltages in the event of a fault occurring at this structure. Therefore, additional safety measures in the form of stay earthing, and installation of buried grading control conductors may need consideration by the designer.

Stay insulators should be positioned such that the staywire on the structure side of the stay insulator cannot be accessed from the ground by the public.

Stay wires, which do not utilize insulators, shall require by default additional safety measures in the form of stay earthing, and installation of buried grading control conductors to control touch voltages.

In addition to the specified mechanical requirements for the stay, an evaluation of electrical capability of the stay wire should also be considered. Fault currents shall be allowed to flow to earth via the structure and its associated stay wires, without damage being caused to the stay wire due to flow of fault current.

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10.7 CHOICE OF EARTHING MATERIALS

Where additional earthing and installation of buried grading conductors are used, consideration should be given to the suitability of the various earthing materials. The performance of earthing materials when bonded and installed in proximity to stay wires and their foundations shall be considered. Problems with dissimilar metals and galvanic corrosion should be avoided.

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S E C T I O N 1 1 L I N E E Q U I P M E N T — O V E R H E A D L I N E F I T T I N G S

11.1 GENERAL

Overhead line fittings shall be designed, manufactured and erected in such a way as to meet the overall performance requirement for the operation and maintenance for the line.

The design life of fittings and components shall be based on the design working life of the line.

11.2 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

11.2.1 Requirements applicable to all fittings

The design of all fittings shall be such that they are compatible with the specified electrical requirements for the overhead line. Grading rings or similar devices shall be used where necessary to reduce the electric field intensity at the line end of insulator sets, including the compression terminations of composite insulators.

11.2.2 Requirements applicable to current carrying fittings

Aerial conductor fittings intended to carry the operating current of the aerial conductor shall not, when subjected to the maximum continuous current in the aerial conductor or to short-circuit currents, exhibit corresponding temperature rises greater than those of the associated aerial conductor. In addition, the voltage drop across current carrying aerial conductor fittings shall not be greater than the voltage drop across an equivalent length of aerial conductor.

11.3 RIV REQUIREMENTS AND CORONA EXTINCTION VOLTAGE

Fittings, including spacers and vibration dampers, for overhead lines shall be designed such that under test conditions the levels of radio interference are consistent with the overall level specified for the installation.

11.4 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT AND POWER ARC REQUIREMENTS

Fittings shall, when required, comply with the specified short-circuit current or power arc requirements.

In particular insulator set fittings shall be such that if a short-circuit current or power arc test is required they retain, at least 80% of their specified mechanical failing load on completion of the test.

Arcing horns shall be capable of safely carrying the anticipated fault level current for the anticipated duration of the fault without adverse effect on the safety aspects of overhead line maintenance.

11.5 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS

Aerial conductor termination fitting and all component fittings in insulator string assemblies shall be capable of transferring the aerial conductor design failure containment load Fb to the structure termination point, for the complete design service life of the fittings.

Where accelerated corrosion due to electrical effects exists, or if there is a high potential for mechanical abrasion and wear of fittings, due allowance shall be made in the design or in the planned maintenance of the line to ensure the integrity of the line reliability.

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11.6 DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS

All materials used in the construction of overhead line fittings shall be inherently resistant to atmospheric corrosion, which may affect their performance. The choice of materials and/or the design of fittings shall be such that bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion of fittings or aerial conductor is minimized.

All ferrous materials, other than stainless steels, used in the construction of fittings shall be protected against atmospheric corrosion by hot dip galvanizing or other methods specified in the project specification or agreed by the purchaser with the supplier.

Fittings subjected to articulation or wear shall be designed, including material selection, and manufactured to ensure maximum wear resistant properties.

11.7 MATERIAL SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION

Materials used in the manufacture of overhead line fittings shall be selected having regard to their relevant characteristics. The manufacturer shall ensure that the specification and quality control of materials is sufficient to ensure continuous achievement of the specified characteristics and performance requirements.

Locking devices used in the assembly of fittings with socket connectors shall comply with the requirements of IEC 60372.

NOTE: When selecting metals or alloys for line fittings the possible effects of low temperature should, where relevant, be considered. When selecting non-metallic materials their possible reaction to temperature extremes, UV radiation, ozone and atmospheric pollution should be considered.

11.8 CHARACTERISTICS AND DIMENSIONS OF FITTINGS

The mechanical characteristics of insulator set fittings shall comply with the mechanical strength requirements of AS 1154.1 or IEC 60471.

11.8.1 Termination fittings

Termination fittings include deadends and joints. Termination fittings shall be generally designed and manufactured in accordance with AS 1154.1 or AS 1154.3 for helical fittings or equivalent International Standards. Termination fittings shall be designed for the holding strength nominated in the relevant standard. Terminations shall be designed to carry the steady state thermal aerial conductor current rating, short time thermal current rating and short-circuit current rating for the design life of the overhead line.

11.8.2 Suspension and support fittings

Suspension and support fittings include bolted suspension clamps, armour grip suspensions and wire ties. Suspension and support fittings shall be designed and manufactured in accordance AS 1154.1 or AS 1154.3 for helical fittings or equivalent International standards. Suspension and support fittings shall be designed to—

(a) achieve the mechanical strength nominated by the manufacturer or required by the purchaser;

(b) hold the slip strength nominated by the manufacturer or required by the purchaser; and

(c) be undamaged by the passage of the steady state thermal aerial conductor current rating, short time thermal current rating and short-circuit current rating for the design life of the overhead line.

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11.8.3 Repair fittings

Repair fittings shall be designed and manufactured in accordance with AS 1154.3 or equivalent International Standards. Repair fittings shall be designed to make good aerial conductors of which not more than 20% of the strands in the outermost layer have been fractured or have other equivalent damage to that outermost layer. For low tension aerial conductors (less than 10% CBL) repair fittings can be used for not more than 40% of fractured strands in the outermost layer. Repair fittings shall not be used to make good damaged steel wires.

11.8.4 Spacers and spacer dampers

Spacers and Spacer Dampers shall be designed and manufactured in accordance with AS 1154.1 or equivalent International Standards. Spacers and spacer dampers shall—

(a) be designed to maintain the nominated sub-conductor separation;

(b) be designed to minimize damage caused to the aerial conductors by the action of the wind;

(c) withstand the compressive forces associated with short-circuit currents;

(d) withstand the fatigue loads imparted by the aerial conductors as a result of the action of the wind;

(e) have an elastomer material which is semi-conducting and does not cause electrochemical corrosion with the aerial conductor; and

(f) be installed in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturers.

11.8.5 Vibration dampers

Vibration dampers shall be designed and manufactured in accordance with AS 1154.1 or equivalent International Standards. Vibration dampers shall be installed on all aerial conductors in accordance with Appendix Z. Vibration dampers shall be designed to minimize damage to the aerial conductors, suspension clamps and other hardware cause by wind induced Aeolian vibration. Vibration dampers shall be installed in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturers.

11.8.6 Aerial conductor fittings for use at elevated temperatures

Aerial conductor fittings for high temperature aerial conductors shall be selected to meet the steady state thermal aerial conductor current rating, short time thermal current rating and short-circuit current rating for the design life of the overhead line. In particular, fittings such as armour grip types of suspension clamps which use elastomer inserts shall be selected to ensure the elastomer components can withstand the steady state current rating.

The fittings shall be designed so the fitting is not prone to loosening because of thermal ratcheting.

NOTE: Thermal ratcheting can occur when dissimilar metals are used together such as a steel bolt in an aluminium clamp where the expansion coefficient of the aluminium is much higher than the steel and loosening of the bolt can occur as a result of the differential movement of each material during heating and cooling.

11.8.7 Aerial conductor fittings used at near freezing temperatures

Aerial conductor fitting shall be designed and manufactured to ensure the ingress of moisture and subsequent freezing does not compromise mechanical performance.

NOTE: Should moisture ingress occur in enclosed fittings such as termination fittings, the moisture may freeze and expand and cause the fitting to loosen on the aerial conductor or fracture of the fitting.

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11.9 TEST REQUIREMENTS

All tests on overhead line fittings shall be carried out in accordance with the requirements of AS 1154 and IEC 60471.

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S E C T I O N 1 2 L I F E E X T E N S I O N ( R E F U R B I S H M E N T , U P G R A D I N G , U P R A T I N G )

O F E X I S T I N G O V E R H E A D L I N E S

12.1 GENERAL

All overhead lines shall have ongoing planned maintenance to ensure they remain in an operationally serviceable condition without jeopardizing public safety.

If it is identified that an overhead line is no longer meeting its operational performance standard; or has exhibited degradation to a level that raises question concerning any component of the overall lines’ serviceability, or safety to the public or ongoing maintenance - it shall be subjected to a complete engineering assessment.

This assessment shall consider the following:

(a) Whether the support structures are no longer safe to the public or their ongoing maintenance as determined by further structural analysis and detailed assessment.

(b) Whether the support structures can economically be refurbished.

(c) Whether the overall line performance can be improved to an acceptable level by modification or replacement of line components.

(d) Whether the line should be taken out of service and decommissioned.

Where the line is to be refurbished by modification of the support structures, replacement of aerial conductors and insulation, it shall be subjected to a complete engineering assessment.

12.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES

Current design requirements provide a useful ‘bench mark’ for existing construction, but it is often appropriate to adopt a lower standard consistent with the ‘fitness for purpose’ for the overall network.

The reasons for a lower standard being appropriate are—

(a) most asset owners have overhead lines which have undergone ‘piecemeal’ replacement of individual supports since original construction;

(b) legislation has changed since original construction (i.e. the design requirements have increased over time); or

(c) this approach will achieve a more favourable network assessment outcome.

This reduced standard could be achieved using one or a combination of factors mentioned below.

12.2.2 Line importance

Asset owners often adopt a uniform risk profile throughout the network, hence allowing reduced loads to reflect the reduced remaining life of the assets. This ensures that all assets have the same likelihood of failure during their remaining lives.

However there is a minimum limit required to provide adequate safety to both the public and line personnel working on the structure. This reliability level is not related to remaining life, functional or economic loss, but protection of life.

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12.2.3 Inspection

An inspection of the complete line shall be carried out as part of the evaluation process.

It shall involve at least the following:

(a) An assessment of the condition of materials and elements including extent and significance of any deterioration found by physical measurement.

(b) Material sampling, if required.

(c) Verification of dimensional information.

(d) Assessment of design loads.

(e) Identification of any defective and unsafe components.

12.2.4 Material properties

The material properties assumed for analysis shall be based on one of the following methods:

(a) From drawings, specifications or other construction records.

(b) From nominal historical values.

(c) From cores or samples removed from the pole or component.

In order to obtain the characteristic value for calculation purposes, the results of the testing need to be adjusted using statistical methods. Any sampling shall be representative of the structure or entire group of similar components.

The statistical adjustment factor is usually based on—

(i) The number of units

(ii) The coefficient of variation (COV) of structural property

(iii) The minimum structural property value (Rmin)

12.3 COMPONENT CAPACITY

Each component strength capacity shall be based on the appropriate material standard and take into account the observed condition including effects of deterioration and reduction in gross section properties. It shall also allow for any deterioration likely to take place before the next inspection or modification or replacement.

12.4 PROOF LOADING

Proof loading may be undertaken either to verify the calculations and assumptions made or to increase the load limit.

Proof loading shall be carried out in accordance with this Standard or the relevant material Standard.

12.5 UPGRADING OF OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES

Reference should be made to Appendix N for guidelines on the upgrading of structures for service life extension.

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S E C T I O N 1 3 P R O V I S I O N S F O R C L I M B I N G A N D W O R K I N G A T H E I G H T S

All overhead line structures shall be designed from a whole of life concept and where necessary the provision shall be made in the design to provide facilities for climbing and working at heights from the support structure.

Where a design decision has been taken to provide no climbing facilities, then information to this extent should be clearly identified on the design documents.

In addition, provision should be made in the line layout design to provide means for access of mobile plant to maintain the facility.

Reference should be made to Appendix M for guidelines on climbing and working at heights on overhead lines.

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S E C T I O N 1 4 C O - U S E O F O V E R H E A D L I N E S U P P O R T S ( S I G N A G E , B A N N E R S ,

C O M M U N I C A T I O N S C A R R I E R C A B L E S , T E L E C O M M U N I C A T I O N S R E P E A T E R S )

14.1 SIGNS AND BANNERS AND TRAFFIC MIRRORS

While the design of flagpoles is outside the scope of this Standard, the attachment of banners to roadside poles is not uncommon for promoting special civic or community activities. As the presence of banners may add appreciable lateral loads to these poles under wind conditions, designers should make allowance for increased loadings, where it is likely to occur. eg along main thoroughfares and selected streets. In order to make this practicable, it is incumbent on the designer to place limitations on the location, size and duration of banner attachments to these poles.

14.1.1 Location

(a) The positioning of a banner on a pole should be not greater than 6 m above ground level.

(b) Double banners should be located diametrically opposite one another and in a vertical plane, which minimizes torsion effects with respect to any outreach arms.

14.1.2 Attachments

Where banners are attached at top and bottom to their mounting arms, the bottom attachment should be designed to release as soon as the design serviceability wind pressure is exceeded.

The attachment of all banners should be capable of retaining the banner on its top-mounting arm at the ultimate design wind pressure.

14.1.3 Size of banners

The area of one face of any single banner should not exceed 0.8 m2 and the total face area of banners on any single pole should not exceed 2.0 m2.

14.1.4 Duration of attachment

Banners or flags attached to poles may induce an undue aerodynamic response in the structure. This could result in the development of excessive stresses or fatigue stresses which could lead to catastrophic failure.

Unless pole structures are specifically designed for banner loadings, the risk of premature failure should be minimized by limiting the duration of the banner attachment. For example, attachment for 10 to 15 weeks in any 12 consecutive months may provide an acceptable level of control.

14.1.5 Wind loads on signs and banners

14.1.5.1 Strength limit state

At the strength limit state, all banners are assumed to be attached only to the top mounting arm and almost horizontal. In these circumstances, they resemble flags in a strong wind for which the total wind force on the flag may be determined from the following equation:

ff dfwf d f

C C GF p Ab κ

⎛ ⎞+ ×= ×⎜ ⎟×⎝ ⎠

. . .14.1

where

Fwf = total force on the banner (N)

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Cff = a friction factor

= 0.024

Cdf = a drag factor determined from Table 14.1

G = unit mass of wet banner material (kg/m2)

b = dimension of banner at right angles to wind direction (m)

κ = density of air, taken as 1.23 kg/m3

pd = design wind pressure at the strength limit state (Pa)

Af = area of (one) banner face (m2)

The mass per unit area of cloth materials, in a similar manner to paper, is usually quoted in grams per square metre (g/m2). Making this substitution, substituting the numerical values for Cff and κ, and puKz for pd, and converting to units consistent with Clause 1.4, Equation 14.1 becomes—

df gwf d Z T f

0.0080.024

C wF p K K A

b⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞

= +⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦

. . .14.2

where

Fwf = total force on the banner (kN)

Cdf = a drag factor obtained from Table 14.1

wg = mass per unit area of wet flag material (g/m2)

b = Dimension of banner at right angles to wind direction (m)

Af = area of one face of the banner

and pd, Kz and KT are obtained from Appendix B for the strength limit state.

It is assumed that Fwf acts horizontally at the level of the support arm where the arm intersects a vertical plane through the centroid of area of the banner.

TABLE 14.1

DRAG FACTORS FOR BANNERS

Af/b2 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0

Cdf 10 4.6 2.2 1.4 0.8 0.36 0.17 0.11

NOTE:See Figure 14.1.

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FIGURE 14.1 BANNER DIMENSIONS

14.1.5.2 Serviceability limit state

14.1.5.2.1 General

For the serviceability limit state, there is a need to differentiate between banners attached at the top only and those attached at the top and bottom to mounting arms.

14.1.5.2.2 Top attached banners

For top attached banners, Fwf is calculated from Equation 14.2 by substituting ps for pu, when pd is obtained from Appendix B for the serviceability limit state.

14.1.5.2.3 Top and bottom attached banners

For banners attached at both the top and bottom, each banner can be treated for wind load in a manner similar to any other attachment to the pole. The total force (Fwf) is calculated from the following equation:

Fwf = 1.6 pd × Kz × KT × Af . . .14.3

where 1.6 is the drag factor for a sharp-edged flat surface.

14.2 COMMUNICATIONS CARRIER CABLES

14.2.1 General

Where it is a likely requirement that an overhead line may be required to support aerial communications carrier cables that are owned by third parties, provision shall be made for their safe placement on the supports preferably in an under built mode.

These cables may be of an insulated self-supporting type (ADSS) or as a catenary cable supported system.

On existing overhead lines, where such cables are to be installed the structure designs shall be subject to a full engineering assessment.

14.3 TELECOMMUNICATIONS REPEATERS EQUIPMENT AND TRAFFIC MIRRORS

14.3.1 General

Telecommunications repeater installations on overhead line supports normally require the installation of microwave dishes, multiple cellular telephone antennae, antennae mounting support steelwork, and cables to a ground level relay station.

Traffic mirrors are installed to aid motorists in viewing around visually obstructed locations. The size of these mirrors can vary significantly.

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All overhead line structures to be fitted with these devices shall be subject to a full engineering assessment.

In the case of telecommunication, repeater sites the performance of the telecommunications facility may be sensitive to rotational deflection limits, and these should be checked.

14.3.2 Safety considerations

Radiation effects from antennae are an operational and maintenance issue that must considered and appropriate safety measures deployed.

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APPENDIX A

REFERENCE AND RELATED DOCUMENTS

(Normative)

A1 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

This Standard incorporates, by either normative or informative reference, provisions from other publications. These references are cited at the appropriate places in the text together with a statement indicating whether the reference is normative in this Standard or informative. All references are undated and the latest edition of the publication referred to applies.

AS 1154 Insulator and conductor fittings for overhead power lines 1154.1 Part 1: Performance, material, general requirements and dimensions 1154.3 Part 3: Performance and general requirements for helical fittings

1170 Structural design actions 1170.4 Part 4: Earthquake actions in Australia

1222 Steel conductors and stays 1222.1 Part 1: Bare overhead—Galvanized (SC/GZ) 1222.2 Part 2: Aluminium clad (SC/AC)

1531 Conductors—Bare overhead—Aluminium and aluminium alloy

1559 Fasteners—Bolts, nuts and washers for tower construction

1604 Specification for preservative treatment—Sawn and round timber

1720 Timber structures 1720.1 Part 1: Design methods 1720.2 Part 2: Timber properties

1726 Geotechnical site investigations

1746 Conductors—Bare overhead—Hard-drawn copper

1824 Insulation coordination (phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase, above 1 kV) 1824.2 Part 2: Application guide

2067 Switchgear assemblies and ancillary equipment for alternating voltages above1 kV

2159 Piling—Design and installation

2209 Timber—Poles for overhead lines

3600 Concrete structures

3607 Conductors—Bare overhead, aluminium and aluminium alloy—Steel reinforced

3608 Insulators—Porcelain and glass, pin and shackle type—Voltages not exceeding 1000 V a.c.

3609 Insulators—Porcelain stay type—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.

3822 Test methods for bare overhead conductors

3995 Design of steel lattice towers and masts

4058 Precast concrete pipes (pressure and non-pressure)

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AS 4100 Steel structures 4398 Insulators—Ceramic or glass—Station post for indoor and outdoor use—

Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.

4435 Insulators—Composite for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.

4435.1 Part 1: Definitions, test methods and acceptance criteria for string insulator units

4435.4 Part 4: Definitions, test methods, acceptance criteria for post insulator units

4436 Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions

6947 Crossing of waterways by electricity infrastructure

60305 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1000 V—Ceramic or glass insulator units for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of the cap and pin type

AS/NZS 1170 Structural design actions 1170.0 Part 0: General principles 1170.2 Part 2: Wind actions 1170.3 Part 3: Snow and ice actions

1252 High strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers for structuralengineering

1328 Glued laminated structural timber

1768 Lightning protection

1891 Industrial fall arrest-systems and devices 1891.1 Part 1: Harnesses and ancillary equipment 1891.2 Part 2: Horizontal lifeline and rail systems 1891.3 Part 3: Fall-arrest devices 1891.4 Part 4: Selection, use and maintenance

2312 Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the use of protective coatings

2344 Limits of electromagnetic interference from overhead a.c. powerlines andhigh voltage equipment installations in the frequency range 0.15 to 1000 MHz

2373 Electric cables— Twisted pair for control and protection circuits

2947 Insulators—Porcelain and glass for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c

3675 Conductors—Covered overhead—For working voltages 6.35/11(12) kV up to and including 19/33(36) kV

3560 Electric cables—Cross-linked polyethylene insulated—Aerial bundled—For working voltages up to and including 0.6/1(1.2) kV

3560.1 Part 1: Aluminium conductors 3560.2 Part 2: Copper conductors

3599 Electric cables—Aerial bundled—Polymeric insulated—Voltages 6.35/11(12) kV and 12.7/22(24) kV

3599.1 Part 1: Metallic screened 3599.2 Part 2: Non-metallic screened

3675 Conductors—Covered overhead—For working voltages 6.35/11(12) kV up to and including 19/33(36) kV

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AS/NZS 3835 Earth potential rise—Protection of telecommunications network users,

personnel and plant

4065 Concrete utility services poles

4435 Insulators—Composite for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.

4435.2 Part 2: Insulators—Composite for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.—Standard strength classes and end fittings for string insulator units

4600 Cold-formed steel structures

4676 Structural design requirements for utility services poles

4677 Steel utility services poles

4680 Hot-dip galvanized (zinc) coatings on fabricated ferrous articles

4653 Electrical hazards on metallic pipelines

HB 101 (CJC5) Coordination of power and telecommunications—Low frequency induction

(LFI): Code of practice

102 (CJC6) Coordination of power and telecommunications—Low frequency induction

NZS 1170 Structural design actions 1170.5 Part 5: Earthquake actions—New Zealand

3101 Concrete structures 3101.1 Part 1: The design of concrete structures

3404 Steel structures standard 3404.1 Part 1: Steel structures standard

3603 Timber structures standard

6869 Limits and measurement methods of electromagnetic noise from high voltagea.c. power systems, 0.15

NZECP 34 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for Electrical Safe Distances

41 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for SWER Systems

46 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for High Voltage Live Line Work

NZCCPTS Noise Investigation Guide

EEA\NZ SM-EI Industry Safety Rules Guide to Use of Helicopters in Power Company Work Use of Personal Fall Arrest Systems Maritime Safety Authority publication Guide to Safety Management of Power

Line Waterway Crossings Guide -Operation and Maintenance of Elevating Work Platforms

ENA LLM 01 Guidelines for live line barehand work LLM 02 Guidelines for live line stick work LLM 03 Guidelines for live line glove and barrier work

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ENA NENS 04 National guidelines for safe approach distances to electrical and mechanical

apparatus

NENS 05 National fall protection guidelines for the electricity industry

ESAA D(b)5* Current rating of bare overhead line conductors

EANSW * High Voltage Earth Return for Rural Areas

IEC 60372 Locking devices for ball and socket couplings of string insulator units—

Dimensions and tests

60433 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1 000 V—Ceramic insulators for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of the long rod type

60471 Dimensions of clevis and tongue couplings of string insulator units

60652 Loading tests on overhead line towers

60720 Characteristics of line post insulators

60794 Optical fibre cables 60794-4 Part 4: Aerial optical cables along electrical power lines

TR 60826 Loading and strength of overhead transmission lines

60865 Short-circuit currents 60865-1 Part 1: Calculation of effects

61466 Composite string insulator units for overhead lines with a nominal voltagegreater than 1000 V

61466-2 Part 2: Dimensional and electrical characteristics

TR 61597 Overhead electrical conductors—Calculation methods for stranded bare conductors

ISO 12494 Atmospheric icing of structures

14713 Protection against corrosion of iron and steel in structures—Zinc and aluminium coatings—Guidelines

EN 1993 Eurocode 3

Design of steel structures—General rules

1993-1-1 Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings

50341 Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV 50341-1 Part 1-1: General requirements—Common specifications

BS 8100 Lattice towers and masts 8100-1 Part 1: Code of practice for loading

ASCE 10-97 Design of latticed steel transmission structures

48-05 Design of steel transmission pole structures

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CIGRE TB196 Diaphragms for lattice steel supports

TB256 Current Practices regarding frequencies and magnitude of high intensitywinds

IEEE 691 Guide for Transmission Structure Foundation Design and Testing

ARPANSA Draft Radiation Protection Standard for Exposure Limits to Electric andMagnetic Fields 0 Hz – 3 kHz

ICNIRP Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields (Up To 300 Ghz)

* Available to members though Energy Networks Australia (ENA)

A2 RELATED DOCUMENTS

Attention is drawn to the following related documents:

AS 1289 Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes 1289.6.3.1 Method 6.3.1: Determination of the penetration resistance of a soil—Standard

penetration test (SPT)

1657 Fixed platforms, walkways, stairways and ladders—Design, construction and installation

1798 Lighting poles and bracket arms—Preferred dimensions

2560 Guide to sports lighting

2979 Traffic signal mast arms

AS/NZS 1158 Road lighting 1158.1.3 Part 1.3: Vehicular traffic (Category V) Lighting—Guide to design,

installation, operation and maintenance

1170 Minimum design loads on structures 1170.1 Part 1: Dead and live loads and load combination

NZS 3115 Specification for concrete poles for electrical transmission and distribution

4203 Code of practice for general structural design and design loadings forbuildings—Vol 1

IEC 60038 IEC standard voltages

60050 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary 60050-441 Chapter 441: Switchgear, controlgear and fuses 60050-466 Chapter 466: Overhead lines 60050-471 Chapter 471: Insulators 60050-601 Chapter 601: Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity—

General 60050-604 Chapter 604: Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity—

Operation

60287 Electric cables—Calculation of the current rating 60287-3-1 Part 3-1: Sections on operating conditions—Reference operating

conditions and selection of cable type

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IEC TR 60479 Guide to effects of current on human beings and livestock TR 60479-1 Part 1: General aspects

TR 60575 Thermal-mechanical performance test and mechanical performance test onstring insulator units

60724 Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables with rated voltages of 1 kV (Um = 1,2 kV) and 3 kV (Um = 3,6 kV)

60797 Residual strength of string insulator units of glass or ceramic material foroverhead lines after mechanical damage of the dielectric

60909 Short-circuit current calculation in three-phase a.c. systems

61109 Composite insulators for a.c. overhead lines with a nominal voltage greater than 1 000 V—Definitions, test methods and acceptance criteria

TR 61211 Insulators of ceramic material or glass for overhead lines with a nominal voltage greater than 1 000 V—Puncture testing

61467 Insulators for overhead lines with nominal voltage over 1 000 V—AC power arc tests on insulator sets

TR 61774 Overhead lines—Meteorological data for assessing climatic loads

62219 Formed wire concentric lay overhead electrical stranded conductors1

NZECP 35 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for risk based earthing

EN EN ISO 1461 Hot dip galvanised coatings on fabricated ferrous products—Specifications

and test methods

EN ISO 9001 Quality systems. Model for quality assurance in design, development,production

A3 REFERENCES

1 BURGESS, S., SALINGER, J., TURNER, R. and REID, S., 2007. Climate Hazards and extremes – Taranaki region. High winds and tornadoes. NIWA report WLG2007-048, 84 pp.

2 CARMAN, W.D. and BAXTER, B. Transmission Structure Hazard Mitigation Strategies. 11th CEPSI Conference, Kuala Lumpur, October 1996.

3 CIGRE STUDY COMMITTEE 23 – 1996, Brochure 105, The Mechanical Effects Of Short-Circuit Currents in Open Air Substations (Rigid and Flexible Bus-Bars), Volume 1.

4 CIGRE STUDY COMMITTEE 23 (Substations) Working Group 23-03, The Mechanical Effects Of Short-Circuit Currents in Open Air Substations (Rigid and Flexible Bus-Bars), Volume 2

5 CIGRE STUDY COMMITTEE 23—1996, Companion Book Of CIGRE Brochure 105 (Part II)

6 DURAŇONA, V., STERLING, M. and BAKER, C., 2007. An analysis of extreme non-synoptic winds. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95, 1000-1027

7 ESAA EG-1(1997) ESAA Substation Earthing Guide.

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8 GIBBS, H. Inquiry into Community Needs and High Voltage Transmission Line

Development. Published by New South Wales Government, 1991.

9 Guidelines for the Management of Electricity Easements. EC20, Electricity Council of NSW, February 1992.

10 HOWAT, C. and COOK, J. An Assessment of the Hazards Associated with Siting Swimming Pools Near Substations and Transmission Lines. ESEA Conference, Sydney, August 1991.

11 KIESSLING, NEFZGER, NOLASCO and KAINTZY, K. Overhead Power Lines (planning design construction). ISBN 3-540-00297-9, pp. 162-163.

12 MORGAN, V.T. Thermal Behaviour of Electrical Conductors, Steady, Dynamic and Fault-Current Ratings. Published in Brisbane by John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1991.

13 RAD, F.N., GARG, V.K. and COURTS, A.L. Study of Distribution of Ground Fault Currents in Below Grade Swimming Pools Located Near Transmission Lines. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 1980.

14 REESE, S., REVELL, M., TURNER, R., THURSTON, S., REID, S., UMA, S.R. and SCHROEDER, S., 2007. Taranaki Tornadoes of 4-5 July 2007: Post event damage survey.

15 NIWA report WLG2007-71, 43 pp.Reid, S.J., 1987. Wind speeds for engineering design. New Zealand Engineering, March 1, 1987, pp 15-18.

16 REID, S. and TURNER, R., 2008. Gust speeds for downslope sites using 2D modelling. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics. Submitted.

17 ROSS H.E. et al, Recommended procedures for the safety performance evaluation of highway safety features, NCHRP Report 350, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 1993

18 SMOOT, A.W. and BENTEL, C.A. Electric Shock Hazard of Underwater Swimming Pool Lighting Fixtures. IEE Transactions of Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 83, September 1964, pp.945-964.

19 TAIT, A., and REID, S., 2007. An analysis of extreme high winds in the Gisborne district. NIWA report WLG2007-25. 30pp

20 WOODHOUSE, D.J., NEWLAND, K.D, and CARMAN, W.D. Development of a Risk Management Policy for Transmission Line Easements. Distribution 2000, 4th International Distribution Utility Conference, November 1997, Sydney.

21 HOLMES, J.D., Physical modelling of thunderstorms downdrafts by wind tunnel jet. 2nd AWES Workshop 20-21 February 1992. Monash University, Clayton, Victoria.

22 LETCHFORD, C.W. and ILLIDGE, Topographical effects in simulated thunderstorm downdrafts by wind tunnel jet. 7th AWES Workshop, 28-29 September 1998. Auckland, New Zealand.

23 PANEER R., SELVAM and HOLMES, J.D., Thunderstorm downdrafts from a point of view of building design. 1st AWES Workshop, 7-8 February 1991. Pokolbin, New South Wales.

24 DAVENPORT, A.G., SURRY, D., GEORGIOU, P.N and LYTHE,G., The response of transmission towers in hilly terrain to typhoon winds. The University of Western Ontario, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, London, Ontario.

25 GEORGIOU, P.N., SURRY, D. and DAVENPORT, A.G., Codification of wind loading in a region with typhoons and hills. Proc. of the Fourth Int. Conference on Tall Buildings, Hong Kong and Shanghai, April/May 1988. CHENG, Y.K. and LEE, P.K.K. Eds. Organizing Committee of the Conference, Hong Kong, 1988. Vol. 1, 252-258.

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APPENDIX B

WIND LOADS

(Normative)

B1 AUSTRALIA

In Australia, transmission lines and their supporting towers and poles are vulnerable to extreme wind loads from both convective downdrafts (downbursts, microbursts) and synoptic winds (e.g. gales from East Coast lows in NSW, tropical cyclones in Queensland and WA).

Analysis of all extreme winds in Australia has shown that coastal stations experience many more high gusts per annum than do inland stations, although the number of extreme convective downdraft gusts from small thunderstorms are similar.

Generally it is clear that large gusts at inland stations within Australia are all generated by convective downdrafts. At coastal locations in the non-tropical regions, large gusts can be produced by both large-scale synoptic events or by convective downdrafts.

Figure B1 shows a zoning map to determine which storm type should be considered in design for wind. On the mainland, the regions on this map are delineated by a boundary 200 kilometres from the smoothed coastline.

Zone I—shown in blue in Figure B1, designs are to provide only for winds from synoptic events (including tropical cyclones in Northern Australia), using multipliers from AS/NZS 1170.2, together with ‘conventional’ span reduction factors as provided in the following sections.

Zone II—shown in beige, (i.e. inland Australia) designs are to provide only for convective downdrafts. Wind multipliers for terrain-height, and topography and span reduction factors for these events are as provided in the following sections.

Zone III—shown in green in Figure B1, both events can occur, with approximately equal probability, and designs are to provide for both types of events.

NOTE: Figure B1 is not intended to show the zoning system for the magnitude of the wind gust speed – just the types of event producing the extreme gusts required to be considered for design. Reference should be made to AS/NZS 1170.2 for the relevant wind velocities relevant to the line for the selected security level and design life as defined in Section 6.

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DARWIN

Broome200 km

Carnar von

PERTH

HOBART

SYDNEY

Cof fs Harbour

Graf tonBRISBANE

Rockhampton

Townsv i l leBowen

WeipaMcDonnel CreekMoreton

Mackay

BundabergMaryborough

CroydonOnslow

CairnsCook town

Gera ldton

200 km

200 km

25˚

Zone I I I - Synoptic and convect ive

Zone I I - Convect ive downdraf ts on ly

Zone I - Synoptic winds on ly

Zone I - Synoptic winds only

FIGURE B1 WIND REGIONS FOR AUSTRALIAN DESIGN WIND GUST TYPES

B2 NEW ZEALAND

In New Zealand, transmission lines and their supporting towers and poles are vulnerable to extreme wind loads from both convective downdrafts (downbursts and micro-bursts) and synoptic winds (e.g., gales associated with mid-latitude cyclones throughout the country and high winds from ex-tropical cyclones over the North Island). In addition there are regions in the leeward zones close to high mountain ranges where katabatic or downslope high velocity winds occur in which these structures are also vulnerable. Generally it is clear that large gusts at inland stations outside of leeward zones are generated by convective downdrafts.

Wind zones for the North and South Islands of New Zealand are shown in Figure B2

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FIGURE B2 WIND REGIONS FOR NEW ZEALAND

B3 SYNOPTIC WIND REGIONS (AUSTRALIA ZONE I AND ZONE III AND NEW ZEALAND ZONES REGIONS W, A6 AND A7 )

All structures shall be designed for a 3 s gust regional wind speeds for various return periods as defined in AS/NZS 1170.2. The basic site design velocity shall be determined by selecting an appropriate return period for the line (See Section 6) and applying formula variables from AS/NZS 1170.2.

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Cyclonic wind amplification factors Fc and Fd provided in AS/NZS 1170 shall be taken as 1.0 for all overhead lines, based on performance of overhead lines in cyclonic areas over time.

The calculation of wind forces on structural elements is based on the wind pressure on the structural element and the net drag coefficient for the element. AS/NZS 1170.2 deals with the calculation of wind velocities (for synoptic conditions) and drag coefficients for the more common structural shapes. The equations presented here are intended to provide a context for the drag (or force) coefficients that are of particular relevance to overhead lines. Designers are referred to AS/NZS 1170.2 as appropriate.

The selection of the regional wind speed should be based on the line’s location. Where an overhead line is of significant length, variations in wind loading may be required. The site design wind speed is the 50-year basic regional wind speed modified for the effects of the topography and terrain that the line traverses.

AS/NZS 1170.2 provides regional wind speeds for the 50-year return periods.

The design site wind speed shall be taken as—

Vz = V50MdMz,catMsMt

where

Mz,cat = gust winds speed multiplier for terrain category at height z. Refer AS/NZS 1170.2 for all regions use Table 4.1(A).

Md = wind direction multiplier. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2.

Ms = shielding multiplier. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2

Mt = topographic multiplier for gust wind speed. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2

V50 = basic regional wind velocity for the region corresponding to the 50-year return period. Refer AS/NZS 1170.2

Designers should be aware that changing land usage may alter the terrain category.

z for the aerial conductors may be taken as the mean height of the aerial conductors at EDT above the terrain.

z for structures under 50 m may be taken at the 2/3 structure height or at the centre of each panel in lattice towers.

Md < 1.0 may be applied when determining design loads for sections of lines.

Ms is normally taken as 1.0.

B4 DOWNDRAFT WIND REGIONS REGIONS (AUSTRALIA ZONE II AND ZONE III AND NEW ZEALAND ZONES REGION A7)

Convective downdraft wind gust sometimes referred to as high intensity winds (HIW) are generated by severe thunderstorms and are the dominant design winds that occur across most regions of Australia and New Zealand. They take the form of downdrafts associated with cold air and hail columns, meso–cyclonic cells and tornadoes within storm front systems or mature subtropical thunderstorm cells. Evidence from the damage of many severe storms across Australia and New Zealand suggests that these events are responsible for many of the wind-related failures on overhead lines.

They occur in both coastal and inland regions and are associated with, and embedded in many severe thunderstorms. They can also occur within tropical cyclone storm cells.

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B4.1 Downdraft winds

Downdraft winds, more commonly referred to as downbursts, macrobursts, or microbursts; are high velocity wind columns of cold air that can form within a thunderstorm cell, usually but not always associated with a hail column. The cold air column falls vertically from great height and strikes the ground, and due to the translation of the storm cell, the wind draft radiates from the impact site. The resulting gust widths can vary in width from typically a hundred metres to a kilometre.

These gusts create damage swaths in vegetation at ground level and the wind can envelop one or more spans simultaneously and renders the application of the synoptic wind based span reduction factors inappropriate..

A span reduction factor shall be applied as provided in Figure B7.

Studies have indicated that downdraft winds can have significant variability in direction due to their association with hail and cold air downdrafts and are also influenced by large scale topographical features. The maximum velocity also has been observed in recent failures to be generally above a plane at approximately 15 m above ground as a result of the localized influence of vegetation and ground surface roughness.

Downdraft gust wind speeds are provided in AS/NZS 1170.2 for each region and for the range of return periods.

Wind pressures are to be calculated as for synoptic winds except for modification to Mz and Mt factors as provided below.

Terrain -Height Multiplier Mz,cat has been found from laboratory and field tests to vary with height as shown in Figure B3 and according to the following rules:

Height (m) Mz,cat

0–50 1.0

50–100 1.0–0.5*(H–50)/50

Above 100 0.5

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Downdraf t Mz,cat

Mz,cat

He

igh

t [m

]

FIGURE B3 TERRAIN-HEIGHT MULTIPLIER FOR CONVECTIVE DOWNDRAFTS

Topographic multiplier Mt,downdraft has also been found from research to be half of the modification provided in AS/NZS 1170.2 for synoptic winds. Mt,downdraft values shall be calculated in accordance with the following:

Mt, downdraft = 1 + 0.5 (Mt,synoptic −1)

B4.2 Tornadoes (applies to all high security/high reliability overhead lines only such as regional transmission interconnectors)

B4.2.1 General

Evidence exists of the occurrence of Tornadoes in several regions around Australia and New Zealand of an intensity <EF3 (Enhanced Fujita Tornado Scale) classification with maximum velocities in the 45–74 m/s range. Most are either EF0 or EF1, i.e. maximum velocities <50 m/s. No evidence currently exists of either EF4 or EF5 tornadoes having occurred in Australia or New Zealand. Tornadoes can be considered very rare events at particular locations and should not be considered in normal range of overhead line designs. However, two regions of New Zealand (the coastal zones near New Plymouth and Greymouth) are known to experience on average one tornado a year.

B4.2.2 High security and high reliability overhead lines

The following provision should be made for tornado wind loads on long high security and high reliability lines, in particular, important long lines.

Tornadoes are small rotational (50–100 m diameter) cells usually embedded within and traversing at the same speed and direction as the thunderstorm. The thunderstorm translational speed could be in the order of 10–20 m/s and the tornado circumferential speed of 50 m/s or higher. Combining the two speeds gives a resultant gust speed of the order of 60+m/s

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Tornadoes crossing lines between supports are unlikely to cause any structural damage but may cause aerial conductors to clash resulting in feeder trips. Tornadoes intercepting with supports have caused isolated known lattice structure failures in recent decades in Australia and with a higher frequency in overseas countries.

Adopting the 60 m/s as the ultimate regional tornado wind speed (for all but the high importance lines), and taking all the wind (M) multipliers as 1.0 gives a design dynamic wind pressure of 2.2 kPa.

This shall be applied as a uniform pressure (ie unmodified for height) to the support and insulators from any direction.

In addition wide tower structures shall be also designed for a torsion wind (of the same pressure) rotating about the support centroid. Each tower body face should be simultaneously subjected to in plane wind, and each crossarm face to projected perpendicular wind in a consistent rotational direction as indicated in Figure B4.1 and Figure B4.2.

No wind is applied to the aerial conductors in either case.

FIGURE B4.1 SQUARE BASED TOWERS

FIGURE B4.2 RECTANGULAR BASED OR WIDE TOWERS

B5 WIND PRESSURES

The design pressure qz shall be calculated as follows:

qz = Mrel × 2 3z0.6 10 kPaV −× . . .B1

B5.1 Wind pressures on lattice steel towers

For each panel in the tower, the force on structural sections in the direction of the wind shall be calculated as follows:

Fx = qzKxCdA* . . .B2

where

Kx represents factors accounting for aspect ratio, wind direction and shielding of the member. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2 for specific values.

Cd is the drag force coefficient of the member.

A* is the projected area of the structure section under consideration in a plane normal to the wind direction.

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For lattice towers that are essentially square in plan the force in the direction of the wind on the whole tower section under consideration shall be calculated as follows:

Fsθ = qzCdA

where

A = is the projected area of one face of the structure section under consideration in a vertical plane along the face.

Cd = drag force coefficient in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2

TABLE B1

LATTICE TOWER PANEL DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR MULTIPLE FRAMES AND SINGLE FRAMES

Square tower Single frames Solidity

Cd0° Cd45° CD Shielding η

0.1 3.4 3.9 1.9 0.8

0.2 2.9 3.3 1.8 0.7

0.3 2.5 3.0 1.7 0.5

0.4 2.2 2.7 1.6 0.4

0.5 2.0 2.5 1.6 0.3

0.6 1.8 2.2 1.6 0.2

Solidity is the ratio of solid projected area to total enclosed area.

For rectangular towers which are symmetrical about each axis—

Fsθ = qz [Cd1 (A1 + ηA3) kθcos2 θ + Cd2 (A2 + ηA4) kθsin2θ] . . .B3

where

A1, A3 and A2, A4 are projected areas on longitudinal and transverse faces respectively

Cd = drag force coefficient for single frames (panels) (See Table B1)

η = shielding factor (See Table B1)

kθ = factor for angle of incidence θ of wind to frames

(calculated by the equation)—

kθ = 1 + k1 k2 sin2(2θ), . . .B4

where

k1 = 0.55

k2 = 0.2 for δ ≤ 0.2

k2 = δ for 0.2 < δ ≤ 0.5

k2 = 1 − δ for 0.5 < δ ≤ 0.8

k2 = 0.2 for 0.8 < δ ≤ 1.0

Where ancillaries such as antennae, mounting frames, cable runways, signage and banners are attached to a tower that have significant area, they should be included in the calculated force using the appropriate Cd, area and shading factor from Australian Standards and component manufacturers information. The interference factor (Kin) shall be taken as 1.0 in all cases for lattice towers. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2.

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There is some variation in recommended Cd factors for single and multiple frames between the various national codes. The approach used in BS 8100 Part 1 provides detailed procedures for calculation of drag coefficients for rectangular (in plan) towers for different angle of incidence of wind. The BS 8100 Part 1 approach has been used here.

Alternatively computational techniques may be used that provide for the automatic calculation of wind effects on individual structural elements of tower structures, particularly for some towers of less common geometry where the wind on face method can be difficult to implement. An example of such tower geometry is a flat configuration single circuit tower with 4 longitudinal faces in the upper body and a large cross beam with a small longitudinal face area.

The alternative method is to load all members of the tower based on fluid dynamic principles, an average drag factor and simplified member area calculations. This method would be difficult to implement using hand calculations but very simple to implement in a computer program. The results are generally conservative in comparison to the face method.

The resulting force on each member is perpendicular to the member longitudinal axis and in the plane formed by the wind velocity vector and the member axis. (See Figure B5).

FIGURE B5 FORCES ON A MEMBER

The force is determined by the following equation:

Fm = CfqzAmcos2(α)

where

Fm = resultant force on the member

qz = dynamic pressure at the member mid height

Am = simplified member area – length x width

Cf = drag force factor

angle members Cf = 1.6

round members Cf = 1.0

α = angle between wind velocity vector and the normal to the member axes

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From 3D geometry, the resultant force direction vector can be determined using the vector products:

T = W × M

D = T × M

W – wind velocity vector

M – member axis vector

T – vector perpendicular to the wind-member plane

D – resultant force direction vector

Angle a can be calculated ffrom scalar product of the wind direction and resultant force direction vectors:

cos(a) = WDW D

. . .B5

The resultant force components in the global coordinate directions (X, Y, Z) can be finally calculated by multiplying the resultant force value by the normalized direction vector.

B5.2 Wind pressure on poles

Due consideration shall be taken on the affect on the aerodynamic shape factor Cfig for poles due to the attachment of all ancillaries

Significant attachments to circular cross-sections such as ladders, pipes etc will induce aerodynamic separation and in these case is Cd = 1.2.

The aerodynamic shape factor Cfig shall be determined for specific elements, surfaces or parts of surfaces in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2

For round timber poles, a minimum Cd of 0.9 applies.

For round smooth surface poles, a minimum Cd of 0.85 applies.

For other poles, of circular or polygonal cross section—

(a) the determination of the appropriate forces can be taken as the sum of the forces for the components of the pole and the ancillaries attached to the pole; or

(b) a detailed approach can be adopted by considering the height of the structure as a series of sections. A minimum of 5 sections should be considered and each section should be of similar construction. Each section shall in turn be assessed to determine the proportion of projected area of the ancillaries to that of the pole to determine the appropriate Cfig/Cd and the appropriate Az. as follows:

(i) if the pole surface is smooth and the projected area of the ancillaries is less than 0.01 of the projected area of the pole section under consideration, then the total force on the section shall use the Cfig/Cd of the smooth pole only and Az shall be the projected area of the pole only.

(ii) if the pole surface is smooth and the projected area of the ancillaries is between 0.01 and 0.05 of the projected area of the pole section under consideration, then the total force on the section shall use the Cfig/Cd of the non smooth pole only and Az shall be the projected area of the pole only.

(iii) if the pole surface is smooth and the projected area of the ancillaries is greater than 0.05 of the projected area of the pole section under consideration, then the total force on the section shall use the Cfig/Cd of the non smooth pole and the appropriate Cfig/Cd of the ancillary and Az shall be determined for both the projected area of the pole and the ancillary.

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(iv) if the pole is not smooth then the same procedure as i), ii) and iii) shall be

adopted with the Cfig/Cd of the pole being that for a non-smooth section.

B5.3 Wind forces on aerial conductors

Wind force perpendicular to aerial conductors shall be calculated as follows:

Fc = qz.C.L.d.SRF.cos2α (N) . . .

where

C = drag coefficient of aerial conductor. This is assumed to be equal to 1 in the absence of more accurate information. NOTE: This value may vary between 1.2 and 0.8 dependent on aerial conductor diameter outer surface roughness, and wind velocity. Smooth profile aerial conductors are available that specifically provide even lower wind drag.

L = aerial conductor length under consideration (m)

d = aerial conductor diameter (m)

SRF = span reduction factor (see below)

α = angle between wind direction and the normal to the aerial conductor (deg)

The span reduction factor takes account of the spatial characteristics of wind gusts and inertia of aerial conductors.

When determining wind pressure on aerial conductor for aerial conductor tension calculations, The SRF for the related tension section should be used.

qc = qz .C. SRF cos2(α)

qc – aerial conductor tension related wind pressure

The tension section is the overhead line length between the related strain supports where the suspension supports provide a sufficient longitudinal flexibility to enable aerial conductor tension equalization between the strain supports.

The tension section is the overhead line length between the related strain supports where the suspension supports provide a sufficient longitudinal flexibility to enable aerial conductor tension equalization between the strain supports

B5.3.1 Span reduction factor (SRF) for synoptic wind regions

For regions governed by synoptic winds Figure B6 applies. The curve in Figure B6 is based on the following relationship:

2100.59 0.41L

SRF e−⎛ ⎞

⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠= +

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Span Reduct ion Factor

Span [m]

SR

F

FIGURE B6 SRF FOR SYNOPTIC WIND

B5.3.2 Span reduction factor (SRF) for downdraft wind regions

For regions governed by downdraft wind Figure B7 applies. The curve of Figure B7 is based on the following expressions:

For spans ≤200 m SRF = 1.0

For spans >200 m SRT = 1.0 − ( 200

1000L − ) 0.3125

For tension calculations on tension sections greater than 1000 m, the synoptic wind should be used instead of the downdraft wind.

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Span Reduct ion Factor

Span [m]

SR

F

FIGURE B7 SRF FOR DOWNDRAFT WIND REGIONS

B5.4 Wind forces on insulators and fittings

Force on insulators and fitting assemblies shall be considered and is given by the following expression:

Fi = qz.CdA

where

C = 1.2

A = projected area of insulators and fittings in true length normal to wind (m²) – (See Figure B8)

These forces shall be considered to act on the attachment point on the support in the wind direction.

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View transverse to l ine

Projected area is shaded

View along l ine

Attachment point

F i = qz.Cd A

Tru

e l

en

gth

FIGURE B8 PROJECTED AREA OF INSULATOR STRINGS

B6 TOPOGRAPHICAL EFFECTS

The following information is provided for guidance in the design layout of overhead lines.

Reference should be made to CIGRE TB 256 for detailed design methods where required.

AS/NZS 1170.2 provides general rules for speed-up of winds over hills and escarpments.

There are however limitations for the application of these general rules for treating extreme terrain roughness, predominate hill forms and high mountainous escarpments, that can be encountered in the siting of an overhead line route.

In particular closer attention needs to be given to the effects on wind speeds in more varying terrain where the roughness characteristics change significantly over short distances, down to the scale of an overhead line span; topographic generated features such as corner effects along the foot of mountains and hills; funnelling effects in valleys or in between hills; vortex formation behind steep terrain as well as other effects that may cause significantly increased wind speeds in the local terrain.

Such topographic features may have length scales ranging from a hundred metres up to several kilometres.

Experiences from overhead line collapses and damage to buildings and other structures during the last fifty years, have revealed that many of these effects were neither known of at that time nor taken into account by designers.

Local wind speeds can be reduced or increased due to the topography.

It is a matter of fact in hydrodynamics that when the wind is reduced in some places, it shall likewise be increased in other places in order to comply with the equation of continuity. Such increases are often found in places like—

(a) over hill crests;

(b) near sharp edges (escarpments) exposed to high level winds over surrounding terrain;

(c) on the side of hills and mountains ‘corner effect’;

(d) in valleys or fjords where the airflow may be compressed locally ‘funnelling effect’;

(e) rotor formation behind a mountain; and

(f) behind steep mountain sides (or edges) where particular turbulence may be formed ‘vortex streets’.

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B6.2 Turbulence generation behind steep hills and ridges

In complex terrain, it is often experienced that wind speeds on the leeward side of a steep mountain or hill may be significantly higher than they are on the windward side. This may occur both on—

(a) the leeward side of a rounded mountain ridge perpendicular to the wind; and

(b) behind singular hills with steep slopes on the windward side.

Typical areas for such phenomena are within and on the downwind side of high mountain ranges.

The same effects are also frequently found on the downwind side of a major mountain or isolated hill ridges of even smaller scale.

The occurrence of the second phenomenon b) is not as well known as the first, mainly because of more limited extensions of each hill, and the possible lack of recent reported wind damage. Effects of this kind are generally known as ‘rotors’ and ‘vortex streets’.

The distribution of wind velocity with height is known to be significantly different in narrow windstorms such as severe thunderstorms than in fully developed gales or cyclones. Physical and numerical modelling of thunderstorm downdrafts by Holmes, (See Paragraph A3, reference [20]), Letchford, (See Paragraph A3, reference [21]), Selvam and Holmes, (See Paragraph A3, reference [22]) have shown that there is a maximum wind speed developed between 0.3 and 0.6 delta above ground. Where delta is the height at which the velocity reaches half its maximum value. Above this height the velocity has been found to drop off markedly.

These studies indicate that a structure approximating a 50–70 m tower will be fully loaded over its height if impacted by these high wind gusts.

These studies have also examined the speed up effect that occurs over hills and ridges. This speed up is usually referred to as a topographical multiplier Mt, which is the ratio of speed at a height over the feature to the speed at the same height in flat terrain. Holmes, (See Paragraph A3, reference [20]) investigated a single hill of slope 0.25 and found that the speedup on the crest was a maximum of 1.2 near ground and decreased linearly to an effective height of 100 m above the crest of the hill.

Studies by Letchford, (See Paragraph A3, reference [21]) on embankments from 0.2 to 0.6 found similar results with a slight increase for the steeper ridges. This later work recommends, in the absence of further data, a value of Mt = 1 + slope to be adopted and be applied at a height of 10 m above the ridge where the slope exceeds 0.10.

B6.3 Escarpments

Observations of high wind damage during tropical cyclones in Northern Queensland indicate that speed up effects can also occur during high winds on the upper slopes of coastal mountain range escarpments, crest of escarpments. Analysis of damage patterns suggest a speed up of 1.2 × basic gust wind velocities can frequently occur. The upper level of amplification of this speedup is dependent on the escarpment slope profile, height and basic wind velocity. AS/NZS 1170 provides for values up to 1.5.

Overhead lines traversing an escarpment need to be carefully evaluated and have structures position to avoid as far as possible, these potential extreme gust zones immediately below the escarpment edge, and in the zone immediately behind the crest. If siting cannot be avoided then stronger structure types should be assessed.

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Structures located on the slopes of escarpments and subject to the speed up effects also need to accommodate the potential for resonance caused to the structure by localised wake turbulence from terrain variations. Tower failure investigations carried out by Prof A. Davenport, (See Paragraph A3, references [23] and [24]) in Hong Kong confirmed that earthwork benching to enable towers to be constructed created vortex shedding during a Typhoon wind storm that resulted in severe resonance of tower members and resultant fatigue failure of towers.

B6.4 Local effects

B6.4.1 Channelling effects

Where windstorms have the potential to track within frontal weather system over relatively flat to undulating land, they normally travel in a predominate direction.

However, thunderstorm winds generated from such systems occur as outflow winds or as isolated wind phenomena such as down bursts or severe downdrafts, are normally characterized by narrow damage paths with widths up to 2000 m at ground level.

When these high intensity wind gusts with velocities ranging from 30–60 m/s approach local mountains, the wind flow patterns may be significantly modified and can be channelled and redirected.

Placement of structures within predominate features such as gaps between mountain ridges, in narrow river valleys through mountainous zones, and on low ridges and plateaus within higher mountain zones can be severely effected.

Velocity speedup, local turbulence and wind eddies can have complex effects on structure wind loadings.

Evidence from transmission line tower failures within a narrow valley between 500 m high mountain ridges in Queensland, during a severe thunderstorm downburst has indicated speedup effects of 30% at 10 m reference wind velocities and possible high turbulent effects 30m height above the valley floor as they affected a 54 m high structure. Wind gust directional changes of 45° were also observed.

B6.4.2 Funneling effects

High intensity wind flows along valleys provide directional control of wind flow patterns. Where there is a narrowing of these valleys, such as towards and at the valley head, there is the potential for wind speed up effects to occur. Studies for wind turbine sites indicate velocity speeds can increase typically up to 20% above the crest.

In a similar way to the channelling effects of valleys, converging mountain ranges and passes have a similar effect on wind velocities. Structure sites located within narrow passes need to be carefully considered.

B6.4.3 Katabatic wind effects

In many high mountainous regions, down drafts of cold air from high plateaus, ice and snow regions, and from high altitude airflows because of large scale temperature inversion or draw down effects from weather systems, can occur.

These are sometimes more pronounced in some falling valleys from these mountainous regions and wind velocities up to 60 m/s have been recorded.

These valley areas are in most cases denuded of vegetation and have normally never been used for residential purposes. Where vegetation has survived over time evidence usually exists of wind effects to plant growth.

Generally this type of wind occurs for extended periods with the potential to significantly damage any structure placed within its path.

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B6.4.4 Extensive fetch distances

Overhead line structure placement often needs to occur on elevated positions where the line route passes over low ranges or around other significant topographical features.

Such positions are more exposed to any approaching significant windstorm and in some cases the terrain at the elevated site may be Category 1 even though the immediate local terrain could appear to be Category 4. (Reference AS/NZS 1170.2.)

Consideration should be given to providing increased structure design wind loadings, or strength for such situations.

B6.4.5 Air turbulence near airports

Overhead lines located in close proximity to the flight paths of major airport runways may be subject to the effects of wind turbulence effects from some types of aircraft during take off. Rotating vortexes have been found to spin off the wingtip zones of the aircraft and cause clashing of aerial conductors as these turbulent effects impact lines. Under grounding of overhead lines should be adopted if these effects are experienced.

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APPENDIX C

SPECIAL FORCES

(Informative)

C1 GENERAL

This Appendix sets out requirements to be considered in overhead line design regarding special forces that may be encountered on some lines.

C2 FORCES DUE TO SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS

In flexible aerial conductor systems, such as, landing spans to the substation gantries from towers/poles and spans within close proximity to the substation, the mechanical effects due to short-circuit effects produce aerial conductor tensile forces resulting from the swing-out of elastically and thermally expanded aerial conductors, which in turn can be the cause of secondary short-circuits. These aerial conductor tensile forces when compared in magnitude with the maximum wind tensions can be significantly high and require the designers to consider these when designing the supporting structures.

The systems of equations required to represent the mechanical response of the supporting systems are non-linear. In the IEC 60865-1, a simplified method is stated for calculation of maximum values of the following:

Effect Force 1 at time t1

** Force 2 at time

t2**

Force 3 at time t3

** Horizontal

displacement

At short-circuit inception * bundled aerial conductors

Pinch force, Fpi (tensile force in the aerial conductor) when the sub-conductors clash or reduce their distance without clashing

Short-circuit tensile force, Ft due to swing-out in the aerial conductor bundle during or at the end of the short-circuit current flow

Short-circuit drop force, Ff (tensile force in the aerial conductor) when the span falls down from the highest point of movement

Horizontal displacement, bh, during swing-out of the span

At short-circuit inception *single aerial conductor

—

Short-circuit tensile force, Ft due to swing-out in the aerial conductor during or at the end of the short-circuit current flow

Short-circuit drop force, Ff (tensile force in the aerial conductor) when the span falls down from the highest point of movement

Horizontal displacement, bh, during swing-out of the span

* The times t1, t2 and t3 are derived from the total short-circuit duration.

** The above forces, Fpi, Ft and Ff are related to the initial static tension existing within the span. Therefore, the initial static tension or everyday tension is an important parameter in the calculation of the above forces.

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The simplified approach depends on general data such as span length, everyday tension, and distance between phases, structure stiffness, aerial conductor data, short-circuit current and duration. In particular, this may involve the following:

(a) A short-circuit level should be specified with reference to the levels specified for switchgear rating.;

(b) The short-circuit current used for checking is the maximum level allowed by the substation equipment (even if it is not attained in the present stage of development of the transmission system) in order to facilitate further evolution of the system.

(c) The supports close to the substation should be checked taking into account the reduction of the short-circuit current due to line impedance.

(d) The support check ceases where the short-circuit current decreases to less than the above specified levels.

(e) This rule should be applied to check 5 to 10 spans from the substation. Usually, only 1 span is affected by the excessive swinging and 1 or 2 supports adjacent to the substation are subjected to the mechanical overloads from short-circuits.

(f) Only the 2-phase short-circuit currentshould be checked.

The reduction of short-circuit current with time should also be taken into account according to the electrical characteristics to the system. The primary fault clearing time should be used.

The load combinations required to assess and design structures able to withstand short-circuit forces is of considerable interest, in addition the safety factors taken into account on the generated tensile forces due to short-circuit is important so as not to over-estimate this effect.

Wind load and short-circuit load both vary in time, independently of each other. In addition, the direction of wind varies. There are no mathematical procedures available or standards for a true or reasonable combination of short-circuit and wind loads. Therefore, it would be sufficient to consider a 25% ultimate wind effect in the load combination related to short-circuit loadings.

In practice, short circuit loadings are treated as dynamic loadings due to their short time evolution. In the simplified approach, this load is treated as an ‘exceptional load’ and a safety factor of 1.25 is recommended. In the case of short impulsive loads for which large stress rates occur, structural steels experience a delayed plastic flow phenomenon that results in a temporary increase in strength (yield point).

Based on the above, the following load combinations are to be considered for the landing gantries to the first span from poles/towers under short-circuit loadings—

Short-circuit load φRn > 0.25Wn + 1.25Ft + 1.1Gs + 1.25Gc + 1.3Fsc* . . .C1

Ft tensions for aerial conductors not in short-circuit on one of the 3-phases shall be based on temperature corresponding to everyday load condition with a nominal wind pressure of 0.25 times the ultimate design wind pressure.

Fsc* short-circuit tensions are the maximum of the Ft, Ff and Fpi tensions from the calculation methods described above.

Design of foundations under short-circuit loadings is not practical due to the short duration of the forces and the response of the heavy and inert foundations. Therefore the reactions resulting from the short-circuit loadings can be considered for the steel anchor bolts and the steel structure itself, whereas the normal load conditions are suitable for the foundation design.

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C3 CREEPING SNOW

Creeping snow is to be considered with regard to the potential for additional loadings on foundations and lower parts of supports (especially bracing members).

Principles of calculation of loadings caused by creeping snow cannot be fully defined and local experience is important.

Appropriate loading assumptions or protective measures should be adopted to reduce the risk of failures of supports.

Protection measures should be taken where possible to deflect or restrain by means of an independent structure any potential creeping snow accumulations

C4 EARTHQUAKES

Wind loadings are usually the more determining factor in the design of overhead line towers, however seismic loads may lead to additional loading forces that should be considered in known very active seismic zones.

In these locations consideration needs to be given to the natural period of vibration of the structure, the site-structure resonance factor (depending on the soil conditions), and the height, weight and mass distribution of the support structure.

Since the frequency of the support is higher than that of aerial conductors, the dynamic load from aerial conductors obviously is not significant. For the same reasons no important effects from the support on aerial conductors should be expected.

However, the ground acceleration due to earthquakes may influence the design of rigid and heavy concrete pole structures, particularly pole mounted transformer supports.

Reference should be made to AS 1170.4 and NZS 1170.5 for appropriate general design provisions. In addition the following specific provisions for overhead lines should be considered.

C4.1 General principles relating to overhead lines

The design of any overhead line near a known active fault or in an area susceptible to earthquake-induced liquefaction, shall recognize the large movements which may result from settlement, rotation and translation of foundations. In this case, consideration should be given to the social and economic consequences of failure in developing mitigation options.

In general, pole and tower structures have proven not to be susceptible to damage from earthquake shaking motions.

Structures of the following types however, shall be designed to resist earthquake loads:

(a) Pole structures supporting heavy equipment (i.e. transformers).

(b) Pole structures in alpine areas subject to high ice loads (as defined in AS/NZS 1170.3) where at least 50% of the contributing mass (including ice) is located in the top third of the structure height.

(c) Pole structures supporting a short span attached to a rigid termination structure (e.g. substation termination).

Pole structures with a longer fundamental period (T1) and located in deep alluvial soils are often sensitive to the amplification effects of ground motion. This should be taken into account as appropriate.

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C4.2 Seismic mass

The seismic mass of the pole/tower structure shall include—

(a) the dead load arising from all permanent parts of the structure including hardware, equipment, the self weight of tower and any maintenance platforms, ladders and climbing facilities; and

(b) the mass of aerial conductors and stays.

If the pole structure is located in an alpine area, the additional weight of snow/ice on the aerial conductors and towers shall be considered in determining the seismic weight.

C4.3 Fundamental period of structure (T1)

The fundamental period can determined using the Rayleigh method in NZS 1170.5 or by computer analysis. Alternative calculation methods can be found in ANSI/TIA-222G.

The typical fundamental frequency of power structures is typically—

(a) Single pole 0.5 to 1.5 Hz;

(b) H-frames 1 to 3 Hz; and

(c) Lattice structures 2 to 6 Hz.

C4.4 Ductility factor

The maximum ductility factor (μ) used for design of any structure is limited to—

Structure type Maximum ductility factor (μ)

Timber 1

Steel 2 Free standing pole

Concrete 1.25

Free standing lattice tower 3

Guyed tower 3

C4.5 Modelling of cables and aerial conductors

The aerial conductors and cables may be modelled as linear spring (with due allowance for sag of the cable) by adjusting the modulus of elasticity as follows:

2

3( )112

ceff

c

EEL Eγσ

=+

. . .C2

If this is to be modelled as a horizontal spring, then the horizontal component of cable tension should be taken as—

2, cos c ff

eff h

A EK

Lα= . . .C3

where

Ac is the cross sectional area of the aerial conductor or cable (mm2)

Ec = the modulus of elasticity of the aerial conductor or cable

Eeff = the effective modulus of elasticity (MPa)

σ = the tensile stress in the aerial conductor or cable (MPa)

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L = the cable length (m)

γ = the cable unit weight (N/m)

α = the angle of the cable to the horizontal (degrees)

If the horizontal distance between the structure base and stay anchor point exceeds 300 m, out-of-phase excitation of the anchor point shall be included in the analysis.

C4.6 Methods of analysis

C4.6.1 Equivalent static force method

The equivalent static force method may be used provided all of the following conditions are met:

(a) The plan stiffness and mass distribution should be approximately symmetrical in both orthogonal directions, i.e. the eccentricity between the centre of mass and centre of stiffness is less than 30% of the smallest plan dimension of the structure.

(b) The vertical regularity should be also constant with no abrupt changes of stiffness, i.e. the stiffness does vary by more than 50% between adjacent sections.

(c) The mass regularity of a section (mass per unit length) should not vary by more than 200% from an adjacent section. Concentrated masses within the top third of the structure which contribute less than 50% to the total base overturning moment are acceptable.

(d) The structure height is less than—

(i) Poles 15 m

(ii) Lattice towers 30 m

(iii) Guyed structures no limit NOTES: 1 On a lattice tower, a section shall be considered the distance between vertical leg

connections but not exceeding 15 m. 2 The mass of stays is excluded from determining mass irregularities. 3 Antenna mounts, platforms, torque arms and cross arms shall not be considered a stiffness

irregularity.

C4.6.2 Modal response spectrum analysis

A modal analysis is required when the structure does not meet the requirements of Equivalent Static Force Method (i.e. significant mass or stiffness irregularities exist) and the height is less than

(a) Poles 60 m

(b) Lattice towers 180 m

A modal analysis should be undertaken where the relative displacement between points on the structure is important. (The lateral force method underestimates the magnitude of differential displacement between points on a structure due to the contribution of higher modes).

C4.6.3 Time history analysis

A time history analysis is required when the relative displacement between points on the structure is important or where the horizontal distance between the structure base and stay anchor point exceeds 300 m (out of plane movements are included in the analysis) or exceeds the height requirements for a modal analysis.

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C4.7 Combination of effects

A combination of effects of orthogonal actions shall be applied to the structure to account for the simultaneous effects of shaking in the two perpendicular directions using either—

(a) combination of effects from two orthogonal directions for a static analysis—

(i) CASE 1: 100% from direction X plus 30% from direction Y

(ii) CASE 2: 100% from direction Y plus 30% from direction X;

(b) the square root of sum of the squares (SRSS) or CQC methods for a modal analysis; or

(c) 3D time history analysis using the Z orthogonal earthquake component.

C4.8 Second order effect analysis (Pδ)

Second order effects (Pδ) need not be considered when δM/Mo < 0.10 where δM is the overturning effect due to second order effects and Mo is the first order overturning moment.

Second order effects shall be considered for all guyed structures.

C4.9 P-Δ Effects

Second order effects (PΔ) need not be considered when at least one of the following conditions is met:

(a) Fundamental period is less than 0.45 s.

(b) Structure height less than 15 m and the fundamental period is less than 0.8 s.

(c) The ductility factor is less than 1.5.

(d) Lattice towers less than 140 m height where height (h/W) to face ratio is less than 10.

A rational analysis method which takes into account the post elastic deflections of the structure shall be used to determine the PΔ effects.

C4.10 Vertical seismic response

The structures shall be designed to remain elastic under both positive and negative vertical acceleration. This shall be considered to act non-concurrently with the horizontal seismic response.

C4.11 Seismic displacements

Where the structural system can be simulated as a single degree of freedom structure, the seismic displacement at the centre of mass can be taken as follows, unless a more detailed study is undertaken:

21

2

( )4

pC T gZRS Tμπ

Δ = . . .C4

where

Δ = the seismic displacement at centre of mass (m)

g = 9.81 ms2

T1 = the fundamental period of the structure (s)

C(T), Z, R, Sp are factors in NZS 1170.5

C4.12 Liquefaction

Liquefaction of loose saturated, cohesion-less soils (sands, silts and loose sandy gravels) during strong seismic tremors shall be taken into consideration in the route selection of lines.

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The consequences of liquefaction shall be considered, including—

(a) foundation failure in saturated sands and sandy clays;

(b) loss of pole or pile lateral or vertical capacity;

(c) subsidence; and

(d) lateral spreading of slopes, embankments and ground towards river banks.

The risk of liquefaction shall be consistent with the other performance requirements for the pole or line section.

C4.13 Holding-down bolts

Where base plate mounting of structures are used, holding-down bolts shall provide a minimum net vertical uplift reaction under design earthquake conditions not less than 50% of the dead load reaction.

C5 MINING SUBSIDENCE

Where overhead lines are located in areas subject to underground coal mining the impact of ground subsidence and horizontal displacement of soil strata shall be considered in design. This type of mining is generally carried out in softer sedimentary rock strata.

In the case of other mineral mining, they are normally in hard rock formations and the impact on overhead lines can be ignored.

C5.1 General design provisions

Pole lines at lower voltage are not sensitive to mining subsidence unless electrical clearances are breached.

Transmission line towers however, can be affected due primarily to the spread of the tower base.

In general ‘bore and pillar’ mining techniques provide columns of rock that safely support the mine overburden, and it has been common practice to locate tower structures over these columns where mine workings are within 100 m of the surface. Mine workings at greater depths normally have no impact at the ground surface.

However in the case of older coal mines, these pillars weather over time and can collapse and cause general subsidence at the surface. This effect can normally be expected to occur over a period of time and to have limited or no damage to tower lines.

‘Long wall’ coal mining techniques, however progressively remove all material and allow the overburden to settle behind the advancing working face. This has the effect of translating rapid subsidence to the surface and progressively to ‘bend’ the surface strata as the earth mass settles. These bends cause stretching effects and horizontal displacement will occur. Horizontal displacements over a 10 m base spread, have been observed to be in the range of 100–300 mm.

If the tower bases in these locations are tied together with reinforced concrete or steel tie beams, damage to the above ground structure can be limited or avoided. Consideration needs to be given however to the horizontal forces applied to the structure foundation in these situations.

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APPENDIX D

SERVICE LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES

(Normative)

D1 GENERAL

The service life of a structure is the period (generally in years) over which it will continue to serve its intended purpose safely, without undue maintenance or repair disproportionate to its cost of replacement and without exceeding any specified serviceability criteria. This recognizes that cumulative deterioration of the structure over time will occur, due to ‘wear and tear’ or environmental effects. Therefore, due maintenance and possible minor repairs will be required from time to time to maintain the structure in a safe and useable condition over its service life.

The design life, or target nominal service life expectancy, of a structure is dependent on a number of variable factors. The information contained in this Appendix is given as a reasonable basis for the economic evaluation of alternative support systems; the selection of a particular structure type for given site conditions; the detail design of a particular structure; or the selection of suitable materials or protective treatment.

It is generally considered that structures and fittings located within 1.0 km of the sea will be subjected to more severe exposure and would normally require either special protection or a shorter service life.

D2 SUGGESTED NOMINAL SERVICE LIFE

Based on the aboveground exposure classes defined in Table D1 and Figures D2 and D3 the nominal service lives given in Table D2 are suggested.

D3 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

D3.1 Soil type

Support structures and their foundations constructed or embedded in aggressive soils should have suitable protective barriers or preventative measures incorporated in their construction. Alternatively, a significantly reduced service life should be considered. The presence of landscaped gardens and lawn and the associated effects of water and fertilizers should be considered.

D3.2 High water tables

Poles embedded in sites prone to high water tables should be suitably treated to maintain consistent performance above and below ground.

D3.3 Accumulation of condensation

When assessing the life of a hollow steel or concrete pole structure, consideration should be given to the potential effects of condensation entrapment due to pumping action due to temperature variations, if the internal void does not have adequate venting or drainage.

D3.4 Regions of low humidity

In regions of low humidity, an extended service life is usually expected when compared to regions of more humid conditions.

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D3.5 Accidental damage

Accidental damage, such as vehicle impact or falling trees, can cause substantial overloads and even complete structure failure. Wind speeds in excess of the design wind speeds can similarly create substantial overloads. Many such accidents can occur and thus reduce the service life.

D3.6 Fire

In regions susceptible to uncontrolled fires, consideration should be given to the use of fire-resistant materials. The post-fire strength and durability of poles should be assessed by a competent person.

D3.7 Concrete poles

Concrete poles, like other concrete structures, are typified by minimal maintenance, long service life and good aesthetics. Service life considerations include the following:

(a) Environmental High quality concrete exposed to normal ‘arid’ or ‘temperate’ conditions would be regarded as having an indeterminate service life—a life beyond 100 years. Studies have shown that the depth of carbonation in spun concrete has been immeasurable (less than 1 mm) after a period of typically 30 years. This Standard recognizes this fact and specifies a minimum cover of 9 mm, provided that the concrete is proven to be high quality by achieving a water absorption value less than 5.5%.

The existence of chlorides in the environment is much more damaging. Poles being vertical structures have an inherent ability to shed surface contaminants, such as airborne sea spray, to a certain extent but the in-ground portion can be highly exposed. Except in marine splash conditions it is generally the below-ground portion of a pole that needs the most attention to cope with chlorides.

(b) Cracking Excessive cracks will reduce the service life. The commonly accepted crack-width criteria for different exposures are as follows:

(i) Width <0.3 mm Exposure Classifications A1, A2, B1 (see Table D1).

(ii) Width <0.2 mm Exposure Classification B2.

(iii) Width <0.1 mm Exposure Classification C.

Generally, cracks are barely measurable in most concrete poles. The self-healing process (autogenous healing) normally seals cracks after some time.

D3.8 Timber poles

The values of design life given in Table D4 assume that the poles are subject to a systematic program of inspection, at least as rigorous as that recommended in Table D3, and that appropriate maintenance is promptly carried out when an inspection indicates a need for it.

The primary hazard agencies that need to be considered with respect to timber poles are decay, termites and weathering. Allowance for this has been made in the design provisions of Appendix F by the use of pole degradation (kd) factors.

Where supplementary maintenance such as the provision of diffusion preservatives (boron rods) or specific protection systems for termites are provided, the service life of poles will be shorter.

The exposure classifications in Table D1 refer to generalized conditions, and it should be kept in mind that timber poles are susceptible to localized microclimatic effects.

Aggressive termites can be found in most parts of Australia and the following termite hazard map Figure D1 provides a general guide to the extent of the potential problem.

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While New Zealand has three known native termites species, they do not pose a concern to timber poles. There are however potential imports of Australian termites that need to be monitored and eradicated if identified.

LEGEND:

= Ver y h igh = High = Moderate = Low = Ver y low = Negl ig ib le

A l ice Spr ings

Broome

PERTH

HOBART

SYDNEY

Narrabim

BRISBANE

Rockhampton

Townsv i l le

Cairns

Gera ldtonDubbo

Newcast le

Bega

Kalgoor l ie

A lbany

Por t Hedland

Char lev i l le

MELBOURNE

ADEL AIDEMount Gambier

CANBERRA

DARWIN

Albur yMi ldura

Mount Isa

FIGURE D1 TERMITE HAZARD MAP OF AUSTRALIA

D3.9 Steel poles and lattice steel towers

D3.9.1 General

Steel materials are normally used with zinc coating applied by a hot-dip galvanizing process to extend the service life.

The use of untreated mild steel in normal arid conditions may provide a service life in excess of 75 years.

D3.9.2 Environmental

The protective life of metallic zinc coatings on steel is roughly proportional to the mass of zinc per unit of surface area, regardless of method of application. Hot-dip galvanizing provides a minimum average coating mass of 350 g/m2 on steel less than 2 mm thick, 450 g/m2 on steel between 2 mm and 5 mm thickness and 600 g/m2 on steel over 5 mm thick. The expected life for a given coating mass (years) in different atmospheric environments is shown in Table D2.

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TABLE D1

ABOVE-GROUND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATION (AUSTRALIA)

Climatic zone (see Figure D2) Geographic region(1) Industrial proximity(2) Exposure class(3)

Non-industrial A1 Inland

Industrial B1 Near-coastal — B1

Arid

Coastal — B2 Non-industrial A2

Inland Industrial B1

Near-coastal — B1 Temperate(4)

Coastal — B2 Non-industrial B1

Inland Industrial B2

Near-coastal — B1 Tropical

Coastal — B2 (See Note 4) Any — C

NOTES: 1 The boundaries of the regions are related to the distance from the coastline to which prevailing

onshore winds carry salt-laden air. The boundaries will be affected by both latitude and local topography and, therefore will vary from place to place. However, for exposure classification purposes the regions are defined in Australia as follows:

(a) Inland — greater than 50 km from coast.

(b) Near-coastal — between 1 km and 50 km from coast.

(c) Coast — less than 1 km from coast.

In general, for coastal locations, exposure classification B2 applies, except where it can be shown that there is an absence of airborne chlorides, e.g. due to the nature of the coastal topography, the lesser exposure classification B1 applies.

2 Industrial proximity is classed as non-industrial if it is greater than 3.0 km from industrial plants that discharge air pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3), which form acids with airborne moisture. It is only appropriate for inland regions.

3 Classes A1 to C represent increasing degrees of severity of exposure.

4 The New Zealand climate is classified as ‘temperate’ throughout, and the regions to which the Exposure Class A2 applies is taken directly from Figure D3. The coastal region for application of Exposure Class B2 extends shoreward for 500 m from the high-tide mark. The near-coastal region to which Exposure Class B1 applies extends from there to the boundary of the A2 region. Active volcanic/geothermal areas may be regarded as Exposure Class C.

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FIGURE D2 CLIMATIC ZONES FOR AUSTRALIA

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FIGURE D3 (in part) NEW ZEALAND REGIONS FOR EXPOSURE CLASSES A2 and B1

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FIGURE D3 (in part) NEW ZEALAND REGIONS FOR EXPOSURE CLASSES A2 and B1

D3.10 Composite fibre poles (fibre reinforced resin composite material )

There is limited service history of composite fibre poles in Australia and the world. The longest experience is in North America where a service life of 40 years has been experienced.

Composite fibre poles should have a UV protective coating or additives applied during manufacture to extend the service life of the pole.

Moisture ingress into the fibre cores will cause fibre ‘blooming’ and lead to failure if the pole is not maintained.

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TABLE D2

SUGGESTED RANGE OF NOMINAL SERVICE LIFE OF STEEL STRUCTURES AND CONCRETE POLES

Suggested nominal service life (years)

Galvanized steel(5) Concrete Exposure class

200 g/m2(1) 400 g/m2(1) 600 g/m2(1) C(2)

A1 60–100+ 100+ 100++ 100+

A2 25–60 60–100 75–100+ 80–100

B1 12–25 25–50 35–75 60–80

B2 8–25 15–50 35–75 50–60

C(3) 3–12(6) 6–25(6) 9–35(6) 50(4)

NOTES: 1 Preservative treatment is hot-dip galvanized, for the mass/square metre as noted, with no

additional coatings such as chromate, paint or plastic. These figures are indicative only and make no allowance for any corrosion of the underlying steel.

2 Cover to reinforcement, C = 9 mm, or 19 mm. 3 It should be noted that above-ground conditions may differ from below-ground conditions.

Aggressive below-ground environments may be regarded as a Class C exposure. 4 Past experience has shown that uncoated steel can have a reasonable service life in arid

conditions.

TABLE D3

RECOMMENDED INSPECTION PERIODS FOR TIMBER POLES

Recommended inspection periods (years) Species and class Preservative treatment

First Subsequent Hardwood (Euc.Spp) Durability Class 1

Nil 10 every 3 to 6

Hardwood (Euc.Spp) Durability Class 1

H5 to sapwood 20 every 3 to 6


Nil 10 every 3 to 6


H5 to sapwood 20 every 3 to 6

Softwood (Australian) H5 20 every 3 to 6

Softwood (New Zealand) H5 10 every 3 to 6

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TABLE D4

SUGGESTED RANGE OF NOMINAL SERVICE LIFE OF TIMBER POLES

Service life expectancy (years)

H5 treated timber to AS 1604 Desapped untreated timber Zone (see

Figure D4) Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 1 Class 2

1 45–55 35–45 25–35 40–50 25–35 15–25

2 50+ 50+ 30–40 50+ 30–40 25–35

3 50+ 50+ 40–50 50+ 50+ 30–40

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APPENDIX E

DESIGN FOR LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE

(Normative)

E1 GENERAL

Lightning induced outages are one of the major cause of outages on overhead lines in areas of moderate to high ceraunic activity. A moderate ceraunic level is between 1.5 and 2.5 ground strikes per sq km per year (30 and 50 thunderdays), and high level above 2.5 ground strikes per sq km per year (50 thunderdays).

The acceptable outage rate due to lightning is therefore one of the most dominant design parameters for an overhead line.

E2 ESTIMATION OF LINE OUTAGES DUE TO LIGHTNING

The prediction of lightning outages is not an exact science and the methods adopted in one Authority may not be appropriate in others. It has been found that the parameters which can be varied to achieve the largest influence on the lightning performance of overhead lines are—

(a) installation of earthwire;

(b) having wood in the flashover circuit (crossarm or pole);

(c) critical flashover voltage (CFO) of the insulators; and

(d) pole footing resistance.

Overhead earthwires are used to shield the line from lightning strikes and are usually installed on high reliability lines operating at sub-transmission and transmission voltage levels. They are also installed on overhead distribution lines for short distances (typically 800 m) out of a substation to protect the substation equipment from damaging overvoltages. One earthwire is usually sufficient to cater for shielding flashovers on structures below 20 m, but higher structures will need two earthwires to achieve effective shielding. With a single earthwire, the shielding angle is usually in the range of 30 to 40°.

The arc quenching property of wood has been used by Authorities to reduce lightning induced outages on the network. When wood is added to the insulation path, the combined insulation strength of the insulator and wood is increased. The higher the impulse strength of the insulator/wood combination, the higher the resistance to flashover (see reference at the end of this Appendix) for the electrical properties of wood. The effective impulse strength of a series wood and insulator path can be calculated as follows:

Itotal = [Iwood2 + Iinsulator

2]1/2 . . .E1

where

Iwood = Impulse strength of wood

Iinsulator = Impulse strength of insulator

When an overhead earthwire is installed on powerlines, generally a down lead is run to earth to provide a low resistance path to ground. A low pole footing resistance not only reduces the probability of lightning induced backflashovers but also offers the following advantages:

(i) Reduces risk of injury to persons or animals due to rises in earth potential at the structure and the surrounding soil.

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(ii) Provides a low impedance path for earth faults to ensure there is sufficient fault

current to operate protection relays.

E3 MEASURES TO IMPROVE LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE

A reduction in lightning outage time on transmission lines can be achieved by installing auto-reclosing schemes.

An improvement in lightning outage rates, particularly for distribution lines can be achieved by using wood in the crossarms or poles. The wood increases the impulse strength of the line to ground and can quench the lightning arcs thereby avoiding a power frequency fault.

This performance can be described by the shielding failure flashover rate, Rsf, and by the backflashover rate, Rb. It is fixed by operational considerations and depends on the insulation strength of the line and on the following parameters:

(a) The lightning ground flash density.

(b) The height of the overhead line.

(c) The aerial conductor configuration.

(d) The protection by shield wire (s).

(e) The tower earthing.

(f) The installation of surge arresters on the overhead line.

Reference: DARVENIZA, M. Electrical Properties of Wood and Line Design published by University of Queensland, 1978.

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APPENDIX F

TIMBER POLES

(Normative)

F1 GENERAL

Design properties and design methods for timber utility poles and components shall be in accordance with AS 1720.1 or AS/NZS 1328. Where specifically defined for round timbers, they shall be in accordance with Paragraphs F1.2 to F1.4.

F1.1 Characteristic strengths and elastic moduli

The characteristic strengths and elastic moduli for untrimmed poles that conform in quality to the grade requirements specified in AS 2209 shall be as specified in Tables F1 and F2, unless verified by ingrade testing.

Strength groups and joint group classifications shall be assigned to species in accordance with AS 1720.2.

TABLE F1

POLE TIMBERS GRADED TO AS 2209—RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH GROUPS AND CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES (MPa)

Tension parallel to grain (f′t)(3) Strength

group Stress grade

Bending (f′b)(3)

Hardwood Softwood

Shear (f′s)(3)

Compression parallel to

grain (f′c)(3)

Short duration

modulus-of elasticity

(E)

S1 F34 100 60 — 7.2 75 21500

S2 F27 80 50 — 6.1 60 18500

S3 F22 65 40 — 5.0 50 16000

S4 F17 50 30 26 4.3 40 14000

S5 F14 40 25 21 3.7 30 12000

S6 F11 35 20 17 3.1 25 10500

S7 F8 25 15 13 2.5 20 9100

NOTES: 1 The equivalence expressed in the table above is based upon the assumption that the poles are cut from

mature trees.

2 The modulus of elasticity includes an allowance of about 5% for shear deformation.

3 See Paragraph F2.1.

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TABLE F2

CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES (MPa) FOR BEARING AND SHEAR AT JOINTS

Bearing Strength group Perpendicular to grain

(f′n) (see Note) Parallel to grain (f′t)

(see Note)

Shear at joint details (f′s) (see Note)

S1 60 — 7.2

S2 50 — 6.1

S3 40 — 5.0

S4 30 26 4.3

S5 25 21 3.7

S6 20 17 3.1

S7 15 13 2.5

NOTE:See Paragraph F2.1.

F1.2 Design factors—Material

F1.2.1 Capacity factor

Values for the capacity factor (φ), for calculating the design capacity of poles (φR), shall be determined using Table F3.

TABLE F3

CAPACITY FACTORS FOR TIMBER POLES

Basis for determining characteristic strength properties Characteristic design property to which the value of ø shall apply

for calculating the design capacity

φ

Poles graded to AS 2209 All properties 0.90

(f′b) (see Note) 0.95 Poles graded using proof grading in accordance with Section 7 of draft code All other properties 0.90

(f′b) (see Note) 0.95 Poles with bending properties established from in grade evaluation and subject to periodic testing/monitoring of properties All other properties 0.90


F1.2.2 Duration of load effects (strength)

The effect of duration of load on strength of timber poles and components is given by the modification factor k1, as defined in Table F4. The effective duration of load refers to the cumulative duration for which the peak load occurs. Guidelines for determination of the effective duration of load are detailed in AS 1720.1.

F1.2.3 Duration of load effects (stiffness)

For timber poles subject to sustained bending, creep effects should be considered. The effect of duration of load on stiffness of timber poles and components shall be determined in accordance with AS 1720.1 or NZS 3603. For other timber components, the short-term deflection shall be multiplied by the appropriate creep factor j2 or j3, as given in AS 1720.1 or NZS 3603

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TABLE F4

DURATION OF LOAD FACTOR FOR STRENGTH

Type of load Effective duration of peak load

Modification factor (k1) for strength of poles and timber components (see

Note)

Modification factor (k1) (see Note) for strength of timber connections using laterally loaded

fasteners

Instantaneous (e.g. ultimate wind and earthquake)

3 seconds 1.00 1.14

Short-term (e.g. construction maintenance)

3 hours 0.97 0.86

Medium term (e.g. snow/ice in sub-alpine areas)

3 days 0.94 0.77

Long-term (e.g. snow/ice in alpine areas)

3 months 0.80 0.69

Permanent >1 year 0.57 0.57


F1.2.4 Pole degradation factors

For all timber poles, the design shall allow for loss of strength and stiffness associated with degradation of the critical section of the pole at and below the ground line over its expected design life. The degradation factor (kd) shall be determined from Table F5, unless more accurate durability information is available.

The values of kd given in Table F5 are based upon expected loss of effective section. In cases where the local environment in which the pole will be located is known, to be of high hazard (e.g. due to excessive moisture or high probability of insect attack) more conservative values may be appropriate.

NOTE: Where a systematic inspection and maintenance program is in place and where any evidence of degradation is effectively preservative treated (e.g. using diffusion preservatives), then the values of kd given in Table F5 for untreated timbers will be conservative and higher values may be appropriate.

TABLE F5

POLE DEGRADATION FACTORS

Pole diameterd <250 mm

Pole diameter 250 ≤d

≤400 mm

Pole diameterd >400 mm

Type of pole Design life

(years)

kd kd kd

20 1.0 1.0 1.0 Full length preservative-treated softwood in accordance with As 2209 50 0.80 0.85 0.90

20 1.0 1.0 1.0 Full length preservative-treated hardwood in accordance with AS 2209 50 0.80 0.85 0.90

20 0.80 0.90 1.0 Durability Class 1 untreated hardwood in accordance with AS 2209 50 0.50 0.55 0.60

20 0.70 0.80 0.90 Durability Class 2 untreated hardwood in accordance with AS 2209 50 0.30 0.40 0.45

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F1.2.5 Factor for immaturity

For poles having mid-length diameters less than 250 mm, due allowance shall be made for the properties of immature timber, using the modification factors k20 and j9 from Table F6, for strength and stiffness respectively.

TABLE F6

IMMATURITY FACTORS k20 FOR DESIGN CAPACITY AND IMMATURITY FACTORS j9 FOR STIFFNESS

Immaturity factor k20/j9 Species

d = 100 m d = 125 m d = 150 m d = 175 m d = 200 m d = 225 m d = 250 m

Eucalypt and Corymbia

0.90 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

Softwoods 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.00

F1.2.6 Shaving factor

For timber members, the design characteristic strength properties shall be reduced if the poles have been shaved, when modified from the natural pole form. The shaving factor for strength k21 shall be determined as specified in Table F7. In addition to this modification for strength, the values specified for stiffness in Table F1 shall be reduced by 5% for shaved poles.

TABLE F7

SHAVING FACTOR k21

Characteristic property Eucalypt and Corymbia species k21

Softwood species k21

Bending 0.85 0.75

Compression parallel to grain 0.95 0.90

Compression perpendicular to grain 1.00 1.00

Tension 0.85 0.75

F1.2.7 Processing factor

Where poles are steamed as a part of the manufacturing and fabrication process, the characteristic strength properties shall be reduced using k22.

For poles that are steamed, k22 = 0.85, otherwise k22 = 1.0

F2 DESIGN CAPACITY

F2.1 Notation

The following notation is used in this Clause:

k1 = the duration of load factor

k12 = the stability factor for compression, determined in accordance with Section 3 of AS 1720.1, except that the slenderness coefficient (S) shall equal 1.15 L/dp where—

L = the distance between effective restraints in any plane and;

dp = the nominal mid length diameter between the points of restraint

k20 = the immaturity factor

k21 = the shaving factor

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k22 = the processing factor

kd = the degradation factor

f′t = the characteristic strength in tension

f′c = the characteristic strength in compression parallel to grain

f′n = the characteristic strength of timber in bearing perpendicular to grain

f′b = the characteristic strength in bending

f′s = the characteristic strength in shear

Ac = the cross-sectional area at the critical section

= 2p

4dπ

As = the shear plane area

= 3p3

16dπ

Z = the section modulus

= 3p

32dπ

dp = the pole diameter at the critical section

ZT = torsional section modulus

= 3p

16dπ

F2.2 Bending strength

The design capacity of poles in bending (φM) for the strength limit state, shall satisfy the following:

φM ≤ M* . . .F1

φM = φk1 k20 k21 k22 kd [f′b Z] . . .F2

F2.3 Shear strength

The design capacity of poles in shear (φV) for the strength limit state, shall satisfy the following:

φV ≥ V* . . .F3

φV = φk1 k20 k22 kd [f′s As] . . .F4

F2.4 Compressive strength

The design capacity of poles in axial compression (φNc) for the strength limit state, shall satisfy the following:

φNc ≥ N* . . .F5

φNc = φk1 k12 k20 k21 k22 kd [f′c Ac] . . .F6

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F2.5 Combined bending and compression strength

Where a pole is subjected to combined bending and compression load effects, the diameter shall be such that the following is satisfied:

** 1c

c

NMM Nφ φ

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞+ ≤⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ . . .F7

F2.6 Torsional strength

The design capacity of poles under torsion about the pole axis (φT) for the strength limit state shall satisfy the following equations:

φT ≥ T* . . .F8

φT = φk1 k20 k22 kd [f′s ZT] . . .F9NOTE: The torsional rigidity of timber poles is normally very high, with the result that in most situations the pole will rotate in the ground rather than induce resultant torsional forces in the wood. As such, torsional strength is only considered in exceptional circumstances where the pole is embedded rigidly into a foundation.

F2.7 Pole top deflection

Designers shall note that the modulus of elasticity (or stiffness) of poles in the ‘green’ state, or re-wetted by waterborne CCA preservative, can be significantly less than that of dry or seasoned poles. The values of modulus of elasticity (MOE) specified in Appendix F and in AS 1720.1 are average values for unseasoned timber.

For situations where pole deflection is critical, designers shall use fifth percentile values of MOE. For poles, an approximation of the fifth percentile MOE is obtained by multiplying the average MOE by 0.5. Specific guidance on design for serviceability limit states is presented in AS 1720.1.

It is recommended that poles subjected to sustained resultant loads be considered deflection sensitive. For example, a service, street light fitting or slight angle, may result in the structure developing a pronounced permanent bend as it undergoes in-situ drying.

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APPENDIX G

LATTICE STEEL TOWERS (SELF SUPPORTING AND GUYED MASTS)

(Normative)

G1 GENERAL

Lattice steel tower designs shall comply with the requirements of AS 3995 or ASCE 10-97 and the following special provisions:

G2 CALCULATION OF INTERNAL FORCES AND MOMENTS

G2.1 Method of analysis of lattice steel towers

In most cases, a single tower type can be used in various configurations with a number of different body extensions and leg combinations. Each of these configurations will result in a unique force distribution.

To capture the most unfavourable forces in the tower members, it is recommended to model all the likely configurations and select the member sizes to satisfy each of these configurations.

As many of the tower models will have a non-symmetrical leg combination it is important to consider loading from all possible directions.

Primarily latticed towers are analysed as ideal elastic three dimensional trusses pinned connected at joints. Such elastic analyses produce only joint displacements tension, and compression in tower members and tension in guy stays.

Moments from normal framing, eccentricities are not calculated in the analysis. However, bending moments in members because of framing eccentricities, eccentric loads, distributed wind load on members can affect the member selection.

First-order linear elastic truss analysis treats all members as linearly elastic (capable of carrying compression as well as tension), and assumes that the loaded configuration of the structure is identical to its unloaded configuration consequently ignoring the secondary effects of the deflected structure stipulating that the forces in the redundant members are equal to zero.

This type of analysis is generally used for conventional, relatively rigid, self-supporting structures. In a second-order (geometrically nonlinear) elastic analysis, structure displacements under loads create member forces and these additional member forces are called the P∆ effects. A second-order elastic analysis may show that redundant members carry some load.

Flexible self-supporting structures and guyed structures normally require a second-order analysis.

When performing a computer analysis of an existing structure, careful attention shall be given to the method of analysis employed when the structure was originally designed by manual algebraic or graphical methods. A three-dimensional computer analysis may indicate forces in the members that are different from those used by manual methods.

Bending moments caused by wind loads on individual member are generally negligible, but they may need to be considered in the design of slender bracings or horizontal edge members.

It is normally unnecessary to consider deflections or vibration of lattice towers.

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G2.2 Guyed structures

Guys produce uplift loads on the guy foundation or anchor and compression loads on the structure and its foundation. The guys shall be adjustable in length to permit plumbing of the structure during construction and to account for elastic shortening of the mast, creep in the guy and any initial movement of the uplift anchor.

Externally guyed supports (i.e. guyed masts) utilizing multiple stay arrangements are sensitive to inaccurate amount of pretension in the guys.

The initial and final modulus of elasticity of the guys, creep of the guys together with the flexibility of the tower shall be used to compute the forces in tower members and foundation reactions.

G3 EMBEDMENT OF STEEL MEMBERS INTO CONCRETE BY MEANS OF ANCHORING ELEMENTS

The total tensile or compression load of steel leg members anchored in concrete is transferred to the concrete by two methods—

(a) steel angle stubs with anchoring elements such as angle cleats or studs These shall be checked for shear due to the compression stresses between the element and the concrete. No bending moment in cleats or studs should be considered; and

(b) base plate and holding-down bolts The holding-down bolts shall be checked for shear, axial load as well as possible bending moments due to lateral displacement of the bolts.

G4 CRANKED K BRACING

For large tower widths, a bend may be introduced into the main diagonals (see Figure G1). This has the effect of reducing the length and size of the redundant members but produces high stresses in the members meeting at the bend and necessitates transverse support at the joint.

Diagonals and horizontals should be designed as for K bracing, effective lengths of diagonals being related to the lengths to the knee joint.

FIGURE G1 CRANKED K BRACING

G5 PORTAL FRAMES

A horizontal member is sometimes introduced at the bend to turn a braced panel into a portal frame (see Figure G2). The main disadvantage of this is the lack of articulation present in the K brace.

This system is sensitive to foundation settlement or movement and special consideration should be given to this possibility.

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FIGURE G2 PORTAL FRAME

G6 SECONDARY (REDUNDANT) MEMBERS

The following rules should be applied to the nominal bracing design. (See Figure G3):

(a) Face bracing—

(i) All members inclined ≤10° are considered horizontal—

Load = 2.5%2

= 1.77% of main member force

(ii) Members inclined >10° and connected to the main leg—

Load = 2.5%2


(iii) Members inclined >10° and not connected to the main leg— Force to balance vertical component of the connected inclined members

(iv) Members inclined ≤30° to be checked for bending with 1.4 kN load in the middle of member. Bending check is independent from the axial load check.

(b) Hip bracing—

(i) All members inclined ≤10° are considered horizontal— Load = 2.5% main member force

(ii) Members inclined >10°—

Load = 2.5%2


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1.0% of the main leg loadbalancing 1.25% f rom theconnected brace

Restra int2.5% P/√2

Brace load 2.5% P/2 each

LEGEND:P = Max imum main member compress ion force

Inc l ined brace2.5% P/√2

Hor izonta l brace2.5% P

Inc l ined braces2.5% P/2

Force balancing ver ticalcomponent of memberconnected to the main legB1=B2* sin (a2) / sin (a1)

Hor izonta l braces2.5% P/√2 each

B2B1

a1 a2

FIGURE G3 SECONDARY (REDUNDANT) MEMBERS

In case of cranked K bracing with an angle between the diagonal and main leg close to 15°, secondary effects should be taken into consideration (global instability, main leg shortening and bolt slip).

G7 SECURITY OF FASTENERS

G7.1 General application

All bolt nuts on lattice steel towers shall be locked in their tightened position against loosing by aerodynamic induced vibration by the use of heavy-duty spring washers or locking pins.

G7.2 Bolts in tension

Where bolts on major loaded connection points are in permanent tension, they shall be fitted with lock nuts.

G7.3 Deterrent to vandalism

All bolts within 3000 mm of the ground should be secured to prevent or significantly deter their removal by vandalism.

G8 ANTI CLIMBING DEVICES

Unauthorised climbing of structures supporting energized overhead lines is a public safety issue that requires a national uniform standard of approach.

Consideration should be given to anti climbing devices or measures to prevent or significantly deter unauthorised climbing.

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G9 PLAN BRACING

Horizontal plan bracing should be installed on all lattice steel towers at—

(a) the first horizontal structural member above ground;

(b) changes of leg slope;

(c) the lower face of all crossarms; and

(d) vertical intervals not exceeding 15.0 m in the tower body.

Reference may be made to CIGRE TB 196 for guidance on choice of an appropriate bracing panel arrangement.

G10 STRENGTH FACTORS (φ)

Strength factors (φ) which takes into account variability of material and workmanship for structural components used in lattice steel towers shall be taken as 0.9 unless otherwise provided in the reference standard being used.

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APPENDIX H

ELECTRICAL DESIGN ASPECTS

(Normative)

H1 CORONA

Corona occurs when air is ionized. The most important corona effect for overhead lines is around the aerial conductors. When the electric field on the surface of an aerial conductor exceeds the corona inception voltage, the corona discharges in the form of arcs and streamers can generate radio interference, television interference and audible noise.

Corona discharges usually occur during inclement weather (i.e. rain, fog ) when the surface voltage gradient on the aerial conductor exceeds 16 kV/cm. During dry weather there is almost negligible corona generated.

Other possible sources of corona are hardware surfaces and insulators. Polluted insulators may have significant surface leakage current activity that can also cause corona.

Another related effect is spark discharges that may occur between discs of bridging strings that are lightly loaded, mechanically. Spark discharges can generate radio interference, television interference and audible noise.

H1.1 Design

The radial electric field at the aerial conductor surface is known as the surface voltage gradient. It is influenced by voltage, number of aerial conductors per phase bundle, size of aerial conductors, phase spacing, and to a lesser extent, line configuration, line phasing, line height, and line proximity to other lines or wires.

Aerial conductor surface finish also has an effect. Care is required during stringing to ensure there is no damage to aerial conductor surfaces. Any high points due to scratches on the aerial conductor will have a high electric field and may act as a source for corona generation. In the first few months of energized operation, aerial conductor surfaces are not yet weathered, and corona levels can be above expectations. Over time, the high points are burnt off and the corona activity reduces.

At voltages above 110 kV, it is often the requirement to meet the RIV, TVI and audible noise levels which decide the aerial conductor to install on the overhead line rather than thermal rating requirements. Avoiding corona is the main reason that aerial conductors are bundled on lines at the higher voltage levels. Bundling has the effect of reducing the electric field on the surface of the aerial conductors.

The recommended design approach to control corona is to limit the surface voltage gradient to less than 16 kV/cm. The secondary effects of radio interference, television interference and audible noise can be estimated based on empirical formulae using aerial conductor surface voltage gradient as an input.

H1.2 Radio interference voltage

The most important design influence on the corona-generated radio noise levels produced by any high voltage line is the electric field very close to the aerial conductors. This field is influenced by voltage, number of aerial conductors per phase bundle, size of aerial conductors, phase spacing, and to a lesser extent, line configuration, line phasing, line height, and line proximity to other lines or wires. Radio noise levels are also influenced by the local earth conductivity and the relative smoothness of aerial conductor and hardware surfaces.

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Generally, corona generated radio-noise levels become a significant design concern only for lines operating at voltages of 110 kV or above. For these high voltages, noise-level prediction methods assume that line hardware is designed or shielded so that only the corona on aerial conductors will be responsible for observed radio noise levels, and that aerial conductors are installed taking care not to damage their surface. In the first few months of energized operation, aerial conductor surfaces are not yet weathered, and radio noise levels can be a few decibels above ultimate expectations.

Guidance on limits for electromagnetic interference from overhead lines can be found in AS/NZS 2344.

H1.3 Audible noise

The principal source of foul weather acoustic noise is water drops. Whether hanging from a wet line or on insulators, arriving at the line as raindrops, or streaming from the line, water can give rise to various types of discharge. Snow and ice rime on aerial conductors may also give rise to noise.

H1.3.1 Design influences

The most important design influence on the audible noise levels produced by a high-voltage line is the electric field very close to the aerial conductors (surface electric gradient). This field is influenced by voltage, number of aerial conductors per phase bundle, size of aerial conductors, phase spacing, and to a lesser extent, line configuration, line phasing, line height, and line proximity to other lines or wires. Audible noise levels are further influenced by the relative smoothness of aerial conductor and hardware surfaces and contamination due to hydrophobic materials.

In general, audible noise levels become a significant design concern only for lines operating at voltages of 110 kV or above. For these high voltages, noise-level prediction methods assume that line hardware is designed or shielded so that only the corona on aerial conductors will be responsible for observed audible noise levels in wet weather, and that aerial conductors are installed taking care not to damage their surfaces.

As with radio noise, audible noise levels may be a little above ultimate expectations during an initial weathering period.

H1.4 Corona loss

In cases where the surface voltage gradient is very high there can be a power loss along the aerial conductor due to corona emission. On overhead power lines, corona loss is expressed in watts per metre (W/m) or kilowatts per kilometre (kW/km). The power loss due to corona is typically less than a few kilowatts/kilometre in fair weather but it can amount to tens of kilowatts/kilometre during heavy rain and up to one hundred kilowatts/kilometre during frost.

The magnitude of fair-weather corona loss is insignificant in comparison with foul-weather loss (maximum corona loss). However, fair weather losses occur for a large percentage of time and affect the value of the total energy consumed by the line (yearly average corona loss).

H2 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION

Electrostatic induction is caused by the electric field surrounding the powerline and these fields can induce charges on nearby metallic objects. Unless these charges are addressed properly by proper earthing, they can cause shock to the public. These shocks can range from fingertip touch perceptible to hand grab annoyance. The thresholds for these sensations are given in Table H1.

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TABLE H1

REACTION TO SPARK DISCHARGES

Threshold Reaction/sensation

Energy (milliJoules Charge (μCoulombs)

Fingertip touch perception 0.14 0.30

Hand grab perception 0.50 0.50

Fingertip touch annoyance 1.30 0.90

Hand grab annoyance 4.00 1.60

The charge induced to the metallic object is dependent on the surface area of the object and the overhead line’s electric field strength. The charge can safely be discharged to earth by installing earth leads to the metallic object.

On extra high voltage lines (above 345 kV) the electric field strength on the power line can be quite high and lead to high charges on large vehicles parked under the line. The high discharge currents can be a hazard to the public in proximity to the vehicle.

H3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic induction is caused by the load current and/or fault currents flowing in the overhead line. These currents can generate high voltages in parallel metallic circuits. For telecommunication coordination, the limits are set out in SA HB 102 For pipelines, the levels are outlined in AS/NZS 4853.

These high induced voltages into nearby circuits or objects can be mitigated by the following methods:

(a) Earthing the circuit or object at regular intervals.

(b) The installation of insulators to sectionalize the object.

(c) Installing a shield wire on the overhead line.

(d) Increase the separation between the circuit or object and the overhead line.

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APPENDIX I

CONCRETE POLES

(Normative)

I1 GENERAL

Design properties for concrete, reinforcement and tendons shall be as given in AS 3600 or NZS 3101.1, or as may be otherwise specified.

I2 STRENGTH

I2.1 Characteristic or specified compressive strength

The characteristic or specified compressive strength at 28 days (fNc ), shall be not less than 40 MPa.

I2.2 Characteristic flexural tensile strength or modulus of rupture

The characteristic flexural tensile strength or modulus of rupture after 28 days of standard curing may be taken as one of the following values as appropriate:

(a) For pole elements subject to sustained tensile stresses, 0.6√fNc.

(b) For pole elements subject to transient tensile stresses, 0.8 √fNc.

I2.3 Combined bending and compression strength

Where a pole is subjected to combined bending and compression load effects, the diameter shall be such that the following is satisfied:

** 1c

c

NMM Nφ φ

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞+ ≤⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ . . .I1

I3 STRENGTH CAPACITY FACTOR

For poles designed by load testing in accordance with Clause 8.5, the strength capacity factor (φ) should not be taken as greater than 1.0.

For poles designed by calculation, φ shall be taken as not greater than the following values, as appropriate for the type of action effect being considered:

(a) Bending, 0.9.

(b) Compression, shear, or torsion, or any of these in combination, 0.8.

(c) Bearing, 0.7.

(d) Combined bending and compression 0.9

I4 SERVICEABILITY

I4.1 General

Concrete poles shall meet the serviceability criteria, appropriate to the use of the pole, set out in Paragraphs I4.2 to I4.3.

I4.2 Deflection and rotation

For electromotive transport poles, communication equipment poles, and some floodlighting poles, deflection and rotation parameter shall be determined by the operating system constraints. For most other uses, deflection and rotation shall not be considered a serviceability constraint unless specified by the purchaser.

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I4.3 Crack width

Crack widths at the serviceability limit state shall not exceed 0.25 mm unless otherwise provided in design calculations. For sustained dead loads or cable tension loads, the long-term effects of creep and shrinkage shall be considered.

NOTE: For further information on concrete crack width see Appendix D.

I5 CONCRETE COVER

I5.1 Exposure classifications

The exposure classification for poles shall be determined in accordance with AS 3600 or NZS 3101.1 as appropriate.

I5.2 Exposure classifications other than C, or U more severe than C

For all exposure classification other than C, or other than U more severe than C, the clear cover to reinforcement (including tie wires) and tendons shall be not less than the greatest of—

(a) the maximum nominal aggregate size;

(b) three-quarters of the nominal diameter of the bar, wire or tendon to which the cover is measured; or

(c) when tested in accordance with Appendix O, if—

(i) absorption ≤5.5%, cover = 9 mm;

(ii) 5.5% < absorption ≤6.5%, cover = 19 mm;

(iii) absorption >6.5%, cover as per AS 3600 or NZS 3101.1; or

(iv) other methods of providing suitable durability.

I5.3 Exposure classification C, or U more severe than C

For exposure classification C, or U more severe than C, or for poles within 1 km from a coastline with prevailing onshore winds, one or more of the following additional protective actions should be adopted to achieve the required design life:

(a) Increase the thickness of concrete cover.

(b) Increase the specified strength grade, or otherwise reduce the permeability of the concrete.

(c) Apply a protective coating to exposed surfaces.

(d) Apply a corrosion-resistant coating to the reinforcement or tendons.

(e) Provide cathodic protection to the reinforcement or tendons.

(f) Seal the base of spun concrete poles.

(g) Any other appropriate action.

I6 REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS

I6.1 General

All reinforcement and tendons shall be effectively maintained in their correct position during manufacture of the pole. All supports used for this purpose shall be made from durable and stable materials that are not deleterious to the concrete or the reinforcement.

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I6.2 Poles designed by load testing

For poles designed by load testing in accordance with Section 8, the following exceptions apply to the requirements for reinforcement and tendons specified in AS 3600 or NZS 3101.1:

(a) The minimum clear distances between parallel bars and tendons may be waived.

(b) Lateral restraint of compression reinforcement by ties, or similar fitments, may be omitted.

(c) Enclosure of bundled bars, or bundled tendons, within ties or similar fitments may be omitted.

(d) Shear reinforcement may be omitted if the tested prototypes contain no shear reinforcement and the tests demonstrate that the design strength can be achieved without failure.

I6.3 Poles designed by calculation

For poles designed by calculation, shear reinforcement may be omitted if the calculated shear strength provided by the concrete alone is not less than the minimum levels specified in AS 3600 or NZS 3101.1 for the omission of shear reinforcement in beams.

I7 ELECTRICAL EARTHING

Provision shall be made for bonding electrical equipment and external metalwork to steel reinforcing and any earthing electrode.

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APPENDIX J

COMPOSITE FIBRE POLES

(Normative)

J1 GENERAL

Poles made from composite materials shall be designed in accordance with the appropriate and relevant Australian or New Zealand Standard or by theories supported by rigorous prototype testing.

The materials used shall be suitable for the exposure and design service conditions without jeopardising operational security of the line.

Special attention shall be given to use of fire resistant materials in rural/semi rural applications.

J2 STRENGTH

Composite fibre poles are thin walled structures and typically fail due to buckling.

Pull through strength on the wall of the pole applied by bolts may be limited with standard washers and large curved plates may be required for surface bearing.

Crushing torque is limited and is typically less than 150 Nm.

J3 SERVICABILITY LIMITS

Composite fibre poles typically exhibit large deflection limits and these limits must be considered in the design. Manufacturer test data will provide deflection limits at appropriate loads for use in design of the pole.

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APPENDIX K

STEEL POLES

(Normative)

K1 GENERAL

Steel pole structure designs shall comply with the requirements of AS 4100, NZS 3404.1 or AS/NZS 4600, or ASCE 48-05 as appropriate, and the following provisions.

K2 STRENGTH FACTORS (φ)

Strength factors (φ) which takes into account variability of material and workmanship for steel pole components used shall be taken as 0.9 unless otherwise provided in the reference standard being used.

Loading considered in design shall include combined bending and axial loading of the pole element.

K3 MINIMUM THICKNESS

The thickness of steel plate used in any structural pole elements shall be not less than 1.6 mm.

K4 REQUIREMENTS FOR PLATE THICKNESS LESS THAN 3MM

Where the thickness of steel plate used in a pole is less than 3 mm, the following requirements apply:

(a) Welding Special attention shall be given to weld quality in thin-walled elements and in particular to the avoidance of weld undercut.

(b) Fatigue Structural detailing shall avoid stress concentrations and connections subject to cyclic loading which rely on the localized bending resistance of thin-walled components.

(c) Handling Consideration should be given to the need for special handling of thin-walled elements to avoid localized distortion.

(d) Durability Due consideration should be given to the potential for accelerated corrosion at and below ground level where pole elements are direct buried into soil or where special backfill is used around the embedded pole element.

K5 LOW TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS

Steel grades for poles subject to low temperature conditions shall be chosen in accordance with the requirements for brittle fracture resistance given in AS 4100 or NZS 3404.1 as appropriate.

K6 WELDING PROCEDURE FOR THICK BASE PLATES

Care should be applied in the use of thick base plates that have been cut from thick steel blooms that may contain string inclusions that have the potential to open and delaminate after cutting, welding and during galvanizing due to release of locked in stresses.

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K7 HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT ISSUES WITH HOT DIP GALVANIZING AFTER INCREMENTAL BENDING

Where incremental bending techniques or pressing is employed to form thick plates generally greater than 16 mm and the finished product is acid de-scaled and hot dip galvanized, care needs to be applied to avoid hydrogen embrittlement of cold worked materials.

K8 INTERNAL TREATMENT OF STEEL POLES

All closed steel sections will have the potential to accumulate and trap condensation from the air due to temperature variations. This has the potential to accelerate corrosion of the internal surfaces if the internal space cannot vent to the atmosphere. Consideration shall be included in designs for the appropriate treatment of the internal surface to eliminate corrosion; to minimize corrosion effects; or to provide for limited corrosion of the internal surfaces over its intended design service life.

K9 SLIP JOINTING

Where joints in segmented construction make use of overlapping close tolerance slip joints they shall be detailed such as to provide a minimum overlap of 1.3 times the largest inscribed circle of the components being joined.

Designs shall nominate required dimensional tolerances of fitted sections together with recommended jacking forces for lap joints to ensure full load transfer can be achieved between sections being joined.

K10 ANCHOR BOLTS

Pole footing base plate holding-down bolts may be proportioned to comply with Table K1.

K11 ELECTRICAL EARTHING

Provision shall be made for bonding electrical equipment and external metalwork to steel reinforcing and any earthing electrode.

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TABLE K1

DESIGN OF HOLDING-DOWN BOLTS

Straight anchor Anchor with bend Anchor with plate

Lb

l 2

D

D = 4I1

t

v = min ( l ,d1) Io

D d1

t > 0,3 r

Fa,Rd = π × × Lb × fbd Φ Fa,Rd = π × Φ × Lb × fbd

with Lb = (l1 + 3.2D + 3.5l2)

Fa,Rd = π × × Lb × fbd Φwith

Lb = 2.45φ2

02 0.25 1cd

bd

f r r lf v

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞− −⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟Φ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠+

Fbd = bonding stress of steel into concrete

with: ckbd

c

0.36 ff

γ= for plain bars and c t k0.05

bdc

2.25 ff

γ= for deformed bars

with: fck = 0.7fctm and fctm = 0.3fck2/3

where fck = characteristic strength of concrete in compression fctm = average strength of concrete in tension fctk0.05 = characteristic strength of concrete in tension γc = bonding reduction factor of 0.67 for example with N20/25 concrete— fck = 20 MPa; fctm = 2.2 MPa; fctk0.05 = 1.55 MPa; and fbd = 1.1 MPa for plain bars; or fbd = 2.3 MPa for deformed bars The anchoring length shall be such that— Fa,Rd = π × × Lb × fbd ≥ Ft,Sd Φwhere Ft,Sd = design tensile force per bolt for the ultimate limit state The size of the bolt shall be such that— Ft,SD ≤ Ft,Rd = 0.9 × fub × As × γMb

where fub = ultimate tensile strength of holding-down bolt As = tensile stress area of holding-down bolt γMb = component strength factor on resistance of holding-down bolt = 0.8 NOTE: According to ENV 1993-1-1, when threads are cut by a non-specialist bolt manufacturer, the relevant value of Tr,Rd shall be reduced by multiplying it by a factor of 0.85.

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APPENDIX L

STRUCTURE FOOTING DESIGN AND GUIDELINES FOR THE GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS AND ROCKS

(Informative)

L1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

This Standard addresses fundamental performance criteria and the design methods associated with overhead line footings and their foundations, and are not to be considered as a rigid set of rules. The principles of this design standard are equally aimed at the design of new and existing foundations. If the foundations are upgraded to meet new loading requirements, care must be taken to assure the structural adequacy of the foundation.

Many alternative approaches can be used for the design of footings and the interpretation of the foundation conditions, and the designer should exercise sound engineering judgment in determining which method is most appropriate for the situation.

When designing overhead line foundations, the designer has the option to design each footing for site-specific loadings and subsurface conditions or to develop standard designs that can be used at predetermined similar sites.

In addition, the relative distribution of the loads between the guys and the support (lattice tower or pole) depends on the guy pretension and the potential creep of the foundation. The flexibility of the guy, together with the flexibility of the structure is needed to compute the ultimate footing reactions and anchor loads. The initial and final modulus of elasticity of the guys, together with the creep of the guys, should be considered.

Reference should be made to IEEE Standard 691.

L2 GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS AND ROCKS

Geotechnical investigation should be carried out along the easement of transmission line to obtain geotechnical parameters required to design the transmission structure footings. As a minimum, the investigation should provide geotechnical parameters required to establish the ultimate load-bearing capacity of the subsurface foundation material and the overlying material properties. At the completion of a geotechnical site investigation a report should be prepared.

Generally, to determine the foundation ultimate load carrying capacity the shear strength of soil is required.

s = c + σntan φ . . .L1

where

s = shear strength

c = cohesion

σn = normal stress

φ = angle of internal friction

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A cohesive soil can generally be expected to resist design loads for a short duration of time without experiencing significant movements; however when the design loads are applied over the service life of the structure, they may result in excessive displacements. The foundation design for long duration loads should be based on the effective stresses and drained properties of the soil. Soils that have cohesive properties in short term loading usually exhibit no cohesion under long term loads, though the angle of internal friction will increase to typically between 20° and 40°.

Granular soils have similar properties under short and long-term conditions and this standard recommends that for ‘granular’ soils the same properties are to be used under both long and short term loads. Dense saturated granular materials typically show a reduction in internal friction of 1° to 2° from the dense dry values

L2.1 Typical soil properties

Geotechnical parameters for soil strata may be taken from Tables L1, L2, and L4. The values in Table L3 are based on research data and pull out tests on test piles, and their use should be assessed against any known properties from soil tests where these are available. The reduction in shear strength may occur when the soil is partially saturated (see below). In addition, soft clay (or even firm clay) may become very soft clay when it is partially saturated.

TABLE L1

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF COHESIVE SOILS

Weight Shear strength, Cu (kPa) Term

(kN/m3) Unsaturated Saturated Field guide to consistency

Very soft 16–19 0 to 10 ≤6 Exudes between fingers when squeezed in hand

Soft 17–20 10 to 25 6 to 12 Can be moulded by light finger pressure

Firm 17.5–21 25 to 50 12 to 25 Can be moulded by strong finger pressure

Stiff 18–22 50 to 100 25 to 50 Cannot be moulded by fingers. Can be indented by thumb

Very stiff 21–22 100 to 200 50 to 100 Can be indented by thumb nail

Hard 20–23 ≥200 ≥100 Can be indented with difficulty by thumb nail

NOTE: Saturated means that all voids are filled with water. The saturated weight is not necessarily buoyant weight, though there is minimal increase in the degree of saturation required to produce a buoyant condition. Soils may be partially saturated. At optimum moisture content, this produces the maximum dry density. Typically OMC range is 10% to 20%. Exceeding that figure will progressively reduce density.

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TABLE L2

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-COHESIVE SOILS

Unit weight Angle of friction, ϕ Soil type

(kN/m3) (degrees)

Loose gravel with sand content 16–19 28º–30º

Medium dense gravel with low sand content 18–20 30º–36º

Dense to very dense gravel with low sand content 19–21 36º–45º

Loose well graded sandy gravel 18–20 28º–30º

Medium dense clayey sandy gravel 19–21 30º–35º

Dense to very dense clayey sandy gravel 21–22 35º–40º

Loose, coarse to fine sand 17–22 28º–30º

Medium dense, coarse to fine sand 20–21 30º–35º

Dense to very dense, coarse to fine sand 21–22 35º–40º

Loose, fine and silty sand 15–17 20°–22°

Medium dense, fine and silty sand 17–19 25º–30º

Dense to very dense, fine and silty sand 19–21 35º–40º

TABLE L3

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK

Ultimate design values Type/classification

Shear (kPa) Bearing (kPa) Dry density

(kg/m3)

Hard Igneous

Basalt Granite Granodiorites

1200 6000 27

Metamorphic Greywacke Hornfelds Quartzite Limestone Schists

Sedimentary Hard sandstone

1000 2500 24

Medium rock Highly fractured hard rocks Medium sandstones Hard shale Conglomerates Weathered Granite Rhyolites

750 1500 24

Soft rock Soft sandstone Mudstone Medium shale Phyllite

275 450 22

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It should be acknowledge that the engineering properties of rock cannot be predicted with the accuracy typical in a soil investigation. The rock properties are related to rock defects i.e. weathering, joints, faults, shear and bedding zones etc. In addition, during an investigation (or construction works) when the core hole penetrates a fault zone additional breaks in rock may occur. These breaks promoted/produced by these activities should be included in the estimated rock quality.

L3 FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR POLES

L3.1 Foundation types

Common types of pole footings are bored piers in soil, bored and socketed piers into rock, large diameter bored or driven caissons (normally with permanent liners), buried slab or raft footings, anchored footings (in soil or rock), and single pile or pile group foundations (in soils unable to support loads in surface formations)

This section concentrates on the design requirements for lateral loads and moments only. When there are special requirement for compression loading the footings should be checked using established principles.

L3.2 Bored Piers

The Brinch Hansen method presented here is considered to be appropriate to the dimensional range and characteristics of poles in transmission and distribution line structures. Other design methods may be used.

This method is applicable to a wide variety of soil types and provides consistent results. Typically, the correlation between predicted and observed test results has been:

(b) undrained conditions: HL = 1.01 Hcalc with COV = 0.36

(c) drained conditions: HL = 0.60 Hcalc with COV = 0.37

where

HL = nominal failure load

Hcalc = calculated value using recommended method

COV = coefficient of variation

It should be borne in mind that the accuracy of any solution will be limited by the accuracy of the input data. The appropriate component strength factor (Table 6.2) should be applied to HL.

The Brinch Hansen method does not provide an indication of the pole rotation at the HL load. This should be calculated separately using methods recommended in AS 2159 or another suitable source. (As a general indication, ground line rotational displacements of 1–2° may be expected at HL, though the centre of rotation is dependent on the foundation geometry and soil parameters.) If the load displacement plot is assumed to be hyperbolic and the initial slope and Hmax. value are known, then values along the curve may be calculated. The initial slope is dependent on the modulus of elasticity for the soil and the foundation geometry.

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L3.3 Analytical procedure for determination of failure load/moment

The mathematical model of the pole/soil system is shown in Figure L1.

Soi l pressure d istr ibut ion

Centreof rotat ion

Back f i l l

Z

H

M

Rig id bodyrotat ion

Ground sur face

F2

Z2

Z r

D

L

F2

Z1

P2

FIGURE L1 MODEL OF THE POLE/SOIL SYSTEM

The system is subjected to a ground line lateral load, H, and bending moment, M. The ‘effective diameter’, D, can be taken as the average pole diameter below ground for soil backfill situations and the auger diameters for situations where concrete or soil/cement backfill is used.

The pole is assumed to rotate as a rigid body under the applied loads about a point of rotation at an unknown depth, zr, below the surface. At the point of failure, this rotation produces a soil stress distribution as depicted in Figure L2 with the ultimate soil pressure, p, varying with depth below the ground surface, z.

The ultimate lateral soil resistance at any depth, z, below the surface can be expressed as—

Pz = qzKq + cuKc . . .L2

where

qz = vertical overburden pressure at depth z = γz

γ = soil density (see Table L4)

cu = soil cohesion (see Table L1)

Kq, Kc = factors that are a function of z/D and the soil angle of friction, φ (see Table L2)

Values of Kq are given in Table L5, and those of Kc are plotted in Table L6.

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TABLE L4

TYPICAL SOIL DENSITIES

Density (kN/m3) Soil type

Unsaturated Saturated

Cohesive soils 16–18 9–11

Non-cohesive soils:

Gravel 16–20 9.5–12.5

Coarse and medium sands 17–21 9.5–12.5

Fine and silty sands 17.5–21.5 9.5–12.5

Rock/soil mix—Granite and shales 17.5–21 9.5–12.5

Rock/soil mix—Basalts and dolerites 17.5–22.5 11–16

Rock/soil mix—Limestones and sandstones 13–19 6.5–12.5

NOTE: The saturated densities given above result from the presence of ground water and soil porosity for the different soil types.

The limiting combination of H and M to cause failure may be obtained by considering the equilibrium of horizontal forces and moments, and solving the resulting simultaneous equations for the unknown depth of the centre of rotation, zr. In general form the equations are—

(a) Horizontal equilibrium

H = F1 − F2 . . .L3

where

F2 = r

z0

zp Ddz∫

F2 = r

zz

Lp Ddz∫

. . .L4

(b) Moment equilibrium

M = F2z2 − F1z1 . . .L5

where

z1 = distance to resultant load F1

z2 = distance to resultant load F2

It is usually more convenient to solve the resulting equations by trial and error. That is, for a given horizontal load, H, and a trial embedment depth, L, the unknown depth of rotation, zr, and moment, M, can be determined. The process is repeated by varying L until the required M is obtained.

For non-cohesive soils, e.g. dry sand, the depth of rotation is typically 2/3 of the total depth. For cohesive soils, e.g. clayey sands, the depth of rotation is typically slightly more than half depth. As the eccentricity of load increases zr converges to either 2/3 or 1/2 of the total depth.

Where a bed log is used the calculated soil forces F1 and F2 may be based on the Brinch Hansen method. The forces should be based on soil pressure pz and the areas of the bed log and the pole foundation.

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TABLE L5

EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT FOR OVERBURDEN PRESSURE, Kq Angle of friction φ

z/D 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°

1.0 0 0.50 1.10 1.85 2.81 4.12 5.99 8.85 13.50 21.81

1.5 0 0.52 1.16 1.97 3.02 4.46 6.53 9.67 14.75 23.72

2.0 0 0.53 1.21 2.07 3.21 4.76 7.02 10.44 15.96 25.59

2.5 0 0.55 1.26 2.16 3.37 5.04 7.46 11.17 17.12 27.43

3.0 0 0.56 1.30 2.24 3.51 5.28 7.88 11.86 18.24 29.23

3.5 0 0.57 1.33 2.32 3.64 5.50 8.26 12.50 19.32 31.00

4.0 0 0.58 1.36 2.38 3.75 5.70 8.61 13.12 20.37 32.74

4.5 0 0.59 1.39 2.44 3.86 5.88 8.93 13.70 21.38 34.45

5.0 0 0.60 1.42 2.49 3.95 6.05 9.24 14.25 22.36 36.13

6.0 0 0.62 1.46 2.58 4.11 6.35 9.79 15.27 24.23 39.39

7.0 0 0.63 1.50 2.65 4.25 6.60 10.27 16.20 25.98 42.55

8.0 0 0.64 1.53 2.71 4.37 6.82 10.69 17.05 27.63 45.59

9.0 0 0.65 1.56 2.77 4.47 7.02 11.07 17.82 29.18 48.54

10.0 0 0.66 1.58 2.82 4.56 7.19 11.41 18.53 30.64 51.39

12.0 0 0.68 1.62 2.89 4.71 7.47 12.00 19.79 33.34 56.81

14.0 0 0.69 1.65 2.96 4.82 7.70 12.49 20.88 35.77 61.90

16.0 0 0.70 1.68 3.01 4.92 7.89 12.90 21.82 37.96 66.69

18.0 0 0.71 1.70 3.05 5.00 8.05 13.25 22.65 39.95 71.20

20.0 0 0.72 1.72 3.08 5.07 8.19 13.55 23.38 41.77 75.46

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TABLE L6

EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT FOR COHESION, KC

Angle of friction φ

z/D ~0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°

1.0 4.8 5.7 6.8 8.2 10.2 12.9 16.9 22.8 31.9 47.2

1.5 5.3 6.4 7.7 9.5 11.9 15.4 20.6 28.4 40.8 61.3

2.0 5.7 6.9 8.4 10.5 13.3 17.4 23.7 33.5 49.1 75.0

2.5 6.0 7.3 9.0 11.2 14.4 19.1 26.4 38.0 56.8 88.1

3.0 6.2 7.6 9.4 11.8 15.3 20.5 28.7 42.0 63.9 100.7

3.5 6.4 7.9 9.8 12.4 16.1 21.7 30.8 45.7 70.6 112.8

4.0 6.6 8.1 10.1 12.8 16.7 22.7 32.6 49.0 76.9 124.5

4.5 6.7 8.3 10.3 13.1 17.3 23.6 34.2 52.1 82.8 135.8

5.0 6.8 8.4 10.5 13.4 17.7 24.4 35.6 54.8 88.4 146.7

6.0 7.0 8.7 10.9 13.9 18.5 25.8 38.0 59.8 98.6 167.4

7.0 7.1 8.8 11.1 14.3 19.1 26.8 40.1 64.0 107.7 186.7

8.0 7.2 9.0 11.3 14.7 19.7 27.7 41.8 67.6 115.9 204.8

9.0 7.3 9.1 11.5 14.9 20.1 28.5 43.2 70.8 123.3 221.8

10.0 7.4 9.2 11.7 15.1 20.4 29.1 44.5 73.6 130.1 237.8

12.0 7.5 9.4 11.9 15.5 21.0 30.1 46.5 78.3 141.9 267.1

14.0 7.6 9.5 12.0 15.7 21.4 30.9 48.1 82.1 151.9 293.3

16.0 7.6 9.6 12.2 15.9 21.7 31.5 49.4 85.3 160.4 316.8

18.0 7.7 9.6 12.3 16.1 22.0 32.0 50.5 87.9 167.8 338.0

20.0 7.7 9.7 12.4 16.2 22.2 32.4 51.3 90.2 174.3 357.3

The over burden pressure and earth pressure coefficients, , zqK z

cK at depth z as given in the table above can be calculated from the formulae below.

NOTE: For more information on these formulas refer to the original Brinch Hansen paper (see reference at the end of this Appendix).

K0 = 1−sinϕ . . .L6

cd∞ = 1.58 + 4.09tan4ϕ . . .L7

Nc = tan 2 1 1tan 1 cot4 2

eπ ϕ π ϕ ϕ⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞+ −⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦ . . .L8

0qK =

1 1tan tan2 21 1 1 1cos tan cos tan

4 2 4 2e e

π ϕ ϕ π ϕ ϕϕ π ϕ ϕ π ϕ

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞+ − −⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎛ ⎞ ⎛+ − −⎜ ⎟ ⎜

⎝ ⎠ ⎝⎞⎟⎠

. . .L9

qK∞ = c c o tanN d K ϕ∞ . . .L10

αq = 0q

0q q

sin1 1( ) sin4 2

oK KK K

ϕ

π ϕ∞ − ⎛ ⎞+⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠

. . .L11

zqK =

0q q q

q1+

zK KD

zD

α

α

∞+ . . .L12

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0cK =

1 tan2 1 1cos tan 1 cot

4 2e

π ϕ ϕϕ π ϕ

⎛ ⎞+⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠ ⎛ ⎞+ −⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ϕ . . .L13

cK∞ = c cN d∞ . . .L14

αc = 0c

0c c

1 12 sin( ) 4 2

KK K

π ϕ∞

⎛ ⎞+⎜ ⎟− ⎝ ⎠ . . .L15

zcK =

0c c c

c1+

zK KD

zD

α

α

∞+ . . .L16

where

z = depth (metres)

D = pile diameter (metres)

ϕ = soil friction angle (degrees)

L3.3.1.1 Shear design for bored piers

While several theories are available to assist in the analysis of forces developed in bored piers, the following approach is recommended. Soil pressures are assumed to be developed as indicated in Figure L2.

FIGURE L2 THEORETICAL SOIL PRESSURE DIAGRAM

The maximum shear value to be used in design calculations is as indicated in Figure L3.

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Shear design values

d

d

FIGURE L3 EQUIVALENT PILE SHEAR DIAGRAM

L3.3.1.2 Design of shear reinforcement

Basic requirements for calculation shall be based on provisions of AS 3600, and as set out below:

d do

C

Abd

FIGURE L4 CALCULATION OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT

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V* = ≤φVu = φ(Vuc + Vus) . . .L17

Concrete and longitudinal reinforcement contribution—

Vuc = β1β2β3Abd 13

st c

bd

A fA

′⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .L18

where

β1as per AS 3600

β2 as per AS 3600

β3 = 1.0

Ast = half of the longitudinal reinforcement area

Abd = concrete area equivalent to AS3600 ‘bvdo’ to be calculated as follows:

Abd = 22

( ) tan(4 2

d d c )α α⎛ ⎞Π− + −⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .L19

α = arccos 2d cd−⎛ ⎞

⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

do = d − c

bv = Abd/do

Remaining symbols are as per AS 3600

Shear reinforcement contribution—

Vus = sv sv.f o cot4

A f ds

θΠ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

. . .L20

The minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided as per AS 3600 and the shear strength of a column with minimum reinforcement is given by the following:

Vu.min = Vuc + 4Π⎛ ⎞

⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

0.6Abd . . .L21

L4 FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR LATTICE STEEL TOWERS

L4.1 Foundation types

Lattice tower footings typically are designed for vertical forces (uplift or compression) combined with horizontal shear forces. The affect of footing movements due to differential settlement and variation in material types at the same site, should be included in the design.

There are many footing types used for transmission lines. This Standard recommends design principles for the common types only i.e.—

(a) bored straight-sided (and undercut (belled)) piers in clays and sands;

(b) bored piers socketed in soft to medium strength rock;

(c) guy anchors; and

(d) excavated footings.

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Common types of tower footings are bored piers in soil, bored and socketed piers into rock, large diameter bored or driven caissons (normally with permanent liners), buried slab or raft footings, grillage footings (constructed on older lines or where access for plant is difficult), anchored footings (in soil or rock), and single pile or pile group foundations (in soils unable to support loads in surface formations)

Refer to Figure L5 for typical details.

T YPICAL CLEAT ANCHORAGE

Var iab ledepth

to rock

Ground leve l

Columnre inforc ing

Rock leve l

Leg stubanchorage

BORED SOCKETED PIER

RockSocket

ALTERNATIVE COLUMNARRANGEMENT

Shearconnectors

Ground leve l

Columnre inforc ingto transfer

loadShor t stub

BOREDUNDERREAMED PIER

Ground leve l

Columnre inforc ing

Leg stubanchorage

Construct ionex tens ion

BURIED SL AB T YPE

Base s lab

Ground leve l

Compactedback f i l l

Columnre inforc ing

Leg stubanchorage

ROCK ANCHOR T YPE

Rock leve l

Ground leve l


Cement orchemica lgroutedtendons

Leg stubanchorage


Over themater ia ls

FIGURE L5 TYPICAL TOWER FOOTING ARRANGEMENTS

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L4.2 Footing design

L4.2.1 Bored piers

Bored piers are formed by auguring a hole into soil (or soft rock), installing a full-length stub angle or shorter stub angle and a reinforcing cage, and then filling with concrete. Transfer of force from the stub angle to the surrounding concrete is usually by cleats, though stud bolts are occasionally used.

The base of the bored pier may be enlarged to form a ‘bell’ using an under-reaming tool. ‘Belling’ a pier in such soil conditions provides enhanced uplift capacity but only for shallow piers. Belled piers are not suitable for soils which may collapse due to water inflow, or other causes, during construction.

Soil conditions with strong water inflows or weak soil strata may necessitate a permanent liner/steel casing for at least part of the depth of the pier being installed. Installation of permanent liner will reduce the pier’s side resistance that should be accounted for in the analysis.

L4.2.2 Uplift analysis

The general ultimate pier uplift capacity is given as—

QU = GP + GS + QS +QB . . .L22

where

QU = uplift capacity of foundation

GP = pier weight (dead load)

GS = soil weight (dead load)

QS = side resistance of pier or along cylinder of soil

QB = contribution of bearing on top of bell (where applicable)

Tip suction should not be used in the design of footings.

The failure mechanism depends significantly on the ratio of soil strength to soil stiffness. Since reliable data on soil stiffness is seldom available, it is recommended that three simplified failure models be used. The ultimate capacity should be taken for the model giving the lowest value of QU.

The interaction between soil and the footing is complex. The relative stiffness, strength and stress state of the soil, all of which vary with depth and are rarely known (outside the laboratory) with the precision associated with engineered material has lead to the development of simplified foundation failure models. It is recommended that three simplified failure models be examined in the design of piers. The ultimate capacity should be taken for the model giving the lowest value of QU. The pier capacity in uplift is invariably less than that in compression because movement of the pier will create tension in the soil mass and will tend to reduce of the lateral stress state in the soil.

L4.2.2.1 Pier pull-out by shear failure model

A pullout capacity is calculated by assuming failure of shaft friction along the depth of shaft plus the bearing on shoulder of the under-cut if present. (See Figure L6).

The shaft adhesion is a fraction of the soil cohesion. For low cohesion values, the adhesion is nearly equal to the cohesion. As the soil strength increases, the fraction of cohesion that can be relied upon for adhesion reduces.

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Q uGround Level

Q SQ S

Q BQ B

DS

L 1

L

DU

GP

FIGURE L6 SHEAR FAILURE MODEL

QU = GP + QS +QB . . .L23

where

QU = uplift capacity of pier


QS = side resistance of pier

QB = bearing on top of bell (where applicable)

QP = φVCγC . . .L24

where

VC = volume of concrete

γC = concrete density

φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.9 for concrete foundation (weights and aerial conductor vertical loads are known)

Qs = φ gfsπDSL1 + γsKtanδ2

s

2pD L⎛ ⎞

⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .L25

where

fs = shaft adhesion factor (see Figure L7)

L1 = length shaft

Ds = shaft diameter

γs = effective unit weight of soil

K = coefficient of horizontal soil stress

δ = friction angle between shaft material and surrounding soil

φ g = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5

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Undrained Shear Strength cu (kPa)

Re

du

cti

on

Fa

cto

r,

FIGURE L7 SHAFT ADHESION FACTOR

For undrained condition—

QB = 2 2

g u s

B o

( )(4(7 ))

D Dc p

φ π −

+ . . .L26

For drained condition—

QB = 2 2u s

g v(

4D D

cNπφ σ⎛ ⎞−⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .L27

where

CB = bell shear

DU = undercut (bell) diameter

Nc, Nq = bearing capacity factors

vσ = effective vertical stress = γ(L − L1) .5 for uniform soil profile

γ = soil weight


Nq = eπtan φ tan2 (45 + φ/2)

Nc = (Nq − 1)cot φ

Nγ = 2(Nq − 1)tan φ

L4.2.2.2 Pier pull-out by cylinder failure model

This model of failure is based on failure of cohesion on the surface of an equivalent cylinder which diameter equals to the effective diameter of the undercut DE. The effective diameter of the undercut DE = Ds + (Du − Ds)/ ζ should be based on ultimate soil properties and should be not less than shaft diameter. (See Figure L8).

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The method uses soil cohesion i.e. soil-to-soil friction that is equal to cu in clays and φs in sands.

QU = GP + QC+QB . . .L28

where



QC = side resistance of cylinder of effective pier diameter

QC = φ g fcπDEL . . .L29

where

fc = soil cohesion i.e. soil-to-soil friction that is equal to cu in clays and φs in sands

DE = effective pier diameter = s u s( )D D Dζ

+ −

ζ = bell diameter reduction coefficient varies from 1.5 to 3


QP = φ g VCγC . . .L30

where



φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.9 for concrete foundation as weight and aerial conductor vertical loads are known)

Gs = φ g Vsγs . . .L31

where

Gs = soil weight (dead load)

Vs = volume of soil

γCs = effective unit weight of soil

φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.8

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FIGURE L8 CYLINDRICAL FAILURE MODEL

L4.2.2.3 The earth cone pull-out model

The earth cone pullout assumes that the uplift resistance is given only by the weight of soil and foundation within the cone. (See Figure L9). Theoretically, when the cone angle is zero, this method is a lower limit to the uplift capacity because it disregards the soil stresses and strength. Different soils characteristics require different cone angles, and there is no rational basis to establish these angles in a general manner. In addition, reference should be made to IEEE 691 for Kulhawy’s work regarding modification for cone breakout.

This method generally does not govern for deeper footings and tend to underestimate the uplift capacity for shallow footings (depth ≤10 times shaft diameter) with soil of medium to dense consistency and stress states corresponding to normally consolidated or lightly over consolidated. For deeper piers, the computed uplift resistance increases rapidly with depth while the results of model and field tests show only 1/4 to 1/7 the increase expected from computed values. This difference between observed and computed values suggests that the method does not accurately model the influence of embedment depth on uplift capacity.

For that portion of the failure cone or pyramid below the groundwater table, the submerged weight of the footing and soil should be used to determine the uplift capacity.

FIGURE L9 CONE FAILURE MODEL

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QU = GP + GS . . .L32

where



GS = weight of soil

QP = φ VCγC . . .L33

where



φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.8

GS = φ gVSγ . . .L34

where

VS = volume of soil

γ = soil density

θS = varies between 10° to 30°


L4.2.3 Compression analysis

The failure model for compression loading involves a bearing failure in the soil below the toe of the pier and a shear failure between the pier shaft and soil or within the soil close to the soil/pier interface, allowing the pier to move downwards in relation to the surrounding soil. (See Figure L10).

Piers loaded in compression do not reach a clearly defined ultimate capacity. Rather, load tests demonstrate that pile capacity continues to increase indefinitely as pier settlement increases. The side resistance of stiff piers (the usual case for transmission structure foundations) has been shown to be fully developed at displacements of less than 20 mm, whereas the development of bearing resistance under the toe of the pier is scale dependent. For this design standard, ultimate capacity for compression loading of piers is defined as the compression load reached at a settlement of 5% of the pier diameter (or bell diameter for the case of belled piers), by which stage the side resistance is usually fully mobilized together with a significant proportion of the end bearing resistance.

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FIGURE L10 COMPRESSION ANALYSIS MODEL

QC = − GP + QS +QB . . .L35

where

QC = compression capacity of pier


QS = side resistance of pier

QB = bearing under pier tip (bell where applicable)

GP = φ gVCγC . . .L36

where



φ g = geotechnical capacity reduction factor typically 1.2

Qs = φ g fcπDs(L1 − L0) . . .L37

where

fs = shaft adhesion

L1 = length of shaft = L for straight-sided pier

Ds = shaft diameter

L0 = ignore first 0.5 m or 0.5*DS whichever is greater


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2

u

B 0(4(9 ))D

C pφπ

+ . . .L38

where

CB = bell shear

DU = undercut (bell) diameter = DS for straight-sided pier

p0 = overburden pressure = γL for uniform soil profile

γ = soil weight

φg = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5

L4.2.4 Bored piers socketed into rock

In fractured rock, the failure mechanism is complex and is dependent on strength of the rock, bedding and fracture planes, and the depth to rock.

Rock can be treated as hard clay or as rock with substantially more stiffness/rigidity.

If rock is assumed to be sound, i.e. no fractures bedding planes etc, then uplift capacity should be based only on rock – concrete shear strength. Soil friction – adhesion is largely irrelevant as the footing must move (i.e. fail in rock) before adhesion-friction is realised (conservative assumptions).

If there is concern about fractures in rock, may assume a 45° fracture surface with weight only. If heavily, jointed or shattered rock a failure cone of 30° should be assumed. The failure mode in rock is (nearly) the same as for pier in soil.

Two uplift cases (pier and cone pullouts) shall be considered for piers socketed into rock, the critical case shall be that giving the lowest capacity.

L4.2.4.1 Mobilization of rock mass

FIGURE L11 ROCK MOBILIZATION MODEL

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The general ultimate pier pull-out capacity is similar to the straight-sided bored pier and is given as (see Figure L11)—

QU = 0.8GP + 0.8GS + 0.8GR + φg QS +φg QR . . .L39

where

QU = uplift capacity of foundation

GP = concrete density (dead load)

GS = soil density (dead load)

GR = rock density (dead load)

QS = side resistance of pier in soil

QR = side resistance of pier in rock

θR = cone angle in rock

= 35° for rock masses that are closely jointed and/or weathered

45° for other rock masses

θS = cone angle in soil varies between 10° to 30°


L4.2.4.2 Pier pull-out by shear failure model

Refer to Paragraph L4.2.4.1.

L4.2.5 Guyed anchors

L4.2.5.1 Cast in-situ anchor blocks

Anchors for guys can be installed by boring or excavating a vertical shaft into which feeds an inclined hole containing the below ground anchor tendon. (See Figure L12). The base section of the shaft is then partially filled with concrete to form an anchor block.

The analysis of buried concrete guy anchors foundation subjected to uplift is complex and consequently the following simplified approach may be adopted to enable the guy foundation to be checked for uplift and sliding resistance.

QU

QSGS S1

PPS2

GA

S3

QS

S2 PA

B

* L

Ground levelθA

DA

DG

FIGURE L12 CAST IN-SITU ANCHOR BLOCK

The capacity reduction factor should be 0.5 and not less than the factor applicable to the stay tension.

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Anchor concrete blocks are frequently installed without any reliable knowledge of geotechnical soil properties. The appropriate soil properties should be adopted based on the weakest material in contact with the anchor block. In some cases, this may be backfill material.

Uplift resistance is—

QV = 0.8GS + 0.8GA + φgQS + φgS2 . . .L40

where

QU = ultimate anchor tension force

K0 = coefficient of earth pressure at rest

QV = vertical component of QU

= QU*sinθA

GA = concrete density (dead load)

GS = soil density (dead load)

φ = angle of shearing resistance

DG = soil depth above anchor

B = anchor width

L = anchor length

DA = anchor depth

QS = side resistance along soil above anchor

= γK0D2G (B + L)tanφ

S2 = shearing resistance on perimeter of anchor

= 2γK0DA (DG + 0.5DA)(B + L)tanφ


Sliding resistance is—

QH = φg (PP + PA + S1 + 2S3) . . .L41

where

QU = ultimate anchor tension force

QH = horizontal component of QU

= QUcosθA

PA = active back pressure on back of anchor

= γKP(DG+0.5DA)BL

PP = passive earth pressure on front of anchor

= γKA(DG+0.5DA)BL

S1 = shearing resistance at top of anchor

= γDGBLtanφ

S3 = shearing resistance on sides of anchor

= 2γKDA(DG+0.5DA)BLtanφ


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L4.2.5.2 Bored pier anchors

Bored pier anchors or micropiles comprise a single small diameter inclined concrete filled bored pier into which the anchor tendon has been inserted prior to pouring the concrete. The load applied to the anchorage is transferred to the base of the footing by a centrally located tension tendon.

The anchorage is only designed to withstand the applied guy tensile load.

The principles used in the design are similar to that for normal bored piers.

L4.2.5.3 Rock anchors

Where firm drillable rock is encountered within 1000 mm of the ground surface small diameter grouted rock anchors can provide an economical solution .

The diameter of the drilled holes for the rock anchors is dependent on the grout used.

If quick setting epoxy resin grout is used the hole diameter should be no larger than the anchor rod diameter + margin as recommended by manufacturer.

If cement grout is used, the hole diameter should be larger enough to enable the grout column to be injected and compacted.

Adequate corrosion protection should be applied to the zone above the rock to 300 mm above ground. Concrete encasement can provide a suitable means of corrosion protection.

Uplift capacity of the anchorage should be determined in accordance with AS 3600 and AS 4100 using rock’s ultimate bond stress and the capacity reduction factor determined by the geotechnical investigation.

L4.2.5.4 Proprietary ground anchor systems

The analysis of proprietary ground anchors i.e. screw-in anchors and other forms of soil anchor systems should comply with the manufactures recommendations.

Anchors should be designed and installed to eliminate in-service creep, (other than a small amount of initial bedding in), so that guys loads are sustained without the need for subsequent re-tensioning of the guy wire.

Where possible the installed anchors should be proof-tested to their designed load capacity.

L4.2.6 Spread footings

Spread footings consist of concrete shaft and an enlarged base of either of mass concrete or a pad (slab) of reinforced concrete. Where the stub extends to base of the footing the shaft may not be reinforced, particularly in the case of the thick mass concrete types.

Spread footings are formed by excavating square, rectangular or cylindrical holes in soil or rock using machines or hand-operated tools. The base of spread footings may be straight sided, which requires formwork, or cast against ground. When cast against ground an undercut or bell may be formed depending on soil conditions and the construction methods adopted.

Excavated footings are backfilled with the excavated soil, excavated soils improved by cement or lime stabilisation, or imported backfill materials when the natural ground is cannot be compacted to achieve the required uniform strength and/or density.

Grillage footings are also a type of spread footings, which had common use in the past. Their use is now restricted to sites where access is difficult. Typically grillage footings consists of steel members forming the pyramid which are fixed to the tower stub. Backfill requirements are essentially the same as concrete footings.

The design methodology for these types of footings is similar to bored piers, with appropriate modification for their geometry and the failure occurring in disturbed backfill material, except for undercut footings where the failure may be in natural in situ materials.

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The three types of failure mechanism considered in the design of spread footings are—

(a) Shear failure—The backfill moves upward in relation to the natural soil, leaving a vertically sided ‘shear’ surface with plan dimensions equal to the base of the foundation. Where an undercut is formed, the shear surface will be in natural material, which usually has superior strength properties to the backfill, provided that the excavation and backfilling has not significantly affected the in situ materials.

The uplift capacity Qu is—

Qu = φ (W + Qsu + Qtu ) . . .L42

where

W = is foundation weight (Wf) and soil weight (Ws) within foundation volume

Qsu = side resistance = 2(B + L) σ K tanδ

Qtu = tip resistance typically assumed to be zero

If the K tanδ over the foundation depth is greater than 1 and D/B is less than 6 a cone/wedge breakout is possible. The Qsu term is modified as follows:

Qsu modified = 23β

β⎛ +⎜⎝ ⎠

⎞⎟ Qsu original

in which

β is K tanδ

(b) Bearing failure—The backfill experiences a bearing failure just above the top of the grillage or pad, and undercut, if formed. The material above the footing compresses and ‘flows’ around the bearing surface to the surround soil. The deformation required to develop the ultimate bearing capacity is usually well in excess of acceptable movement to ensure the tower’s structural integrity. It is a more likely mode of failure in deep footings (depth: width ratios in the order of 4 or more) where the limit on bearing capacity has reached or where the backfill compaction is inadequate.

Where an undercut is formed in natural ground, the incremental bearing capacity should be based on the plan area of the undercut. The bearing capacity of the undercut may be treated in a similar manner to the design of belled pier and should incorporate the capacity reduction factor determined by the geotechnical investigation.

Grillage foundation foundations are more susceptible to bearing failure because the high bearing stresses generated by relatively small surface area of the steel in contact with the soil.

(c) Cone failure—The grillage or pad uplifts a wedge of soil in the form of a truncated, inverted pyramid; uplift loads are resisted by the weight of the soil and grillage or pad, with soil shear along the failure surface taken as zero. Cone failures are possible because the spread footings are usually shallow and the horizontal soil stresses (such as might be found in over consolidated soils) are relatively high.

The design process should check all three proposed models. The strength of foundation is highly dependent on the method of backfilling, which should be factored into any calculations. The critical case will be that with the lowest ultimate strength and acceptable deformations.

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L4.2.7 Rock or soil anchored footings

This type of footing is based on the applied load being transferred to the soil or foundation material by a number of soil or rock anchors extending below a load transfer cap. The normal design principle is for the transfer cap to transmit compression forces to the foundation material and for the anchors to provide uplift capacity.

The progressive de-bonding of the anchor system employed with increasing load due to elastic extension of the tension tendon should be considered.

Post-tensioned ground anchor systems can also be used to transfer tensile loads to the ground and provide anchor tendons (bars or pre-stressing strands), connections to the pier cap, corrosion protection, spacers, centralisers and grout.

Ground anchors are active anchors i.e. they are post-tensioned after installation, and locked off with an initial load to keep anchor extensions at the design load compatible with pile cap displacements. Footings are restrained against uplift by post-tensioned ground anchors, grouted into soil or rock, and connected to tower stubs by a pier cap.

Anchor tendons should not be designed to resist lateral (shear) loads that are not parallel to the bar lengths. In these cases, pile caps or suitable bearing blocks should be used to provide resistance to lateral loads.

L4.2.8 Deep piled footings

Where weaker foundation strata are encountered deep piled systems can be used. These may take a variety of forms and can be based on cast in-situ systems, precast driven systems, and steel and precast concrete pile systems.

Such systems should be designed to comply with the requirements of AS 2159.

L4.2.9 Raft footings

Where construction is required in difficult soft soil areas or where limited construction access is available for heavy plant to install deep foundation systems, the use of shouldow depth raft slab footings above or partially below ground may provide a design solution. The concrete slab is normally designed to encompass the complete structure site and has strengthening ribs extending above to also provide containment of soil or rock ballast to resit vertical uplift loads.

The stability of the footing and structure is provided by the composite action of the mass of the completed raft.

L4.2.10 Load transfer from tower leg to footings

Connections between tower leg stubs and concrete footings may be means of a base plate and anchor bolt extending into the concrete of the footing, or by extending the stub into the shaft and providing suitable means to transfer the stub forces to the concrete.

L4.2.10.1 Design of base plates

Base plate design should be generally based on ASCE 10-97 recommendations, except when modified by AS 4100 (e.g. shear stress on bolts) and AS 3600 requirements for bolt anchor length. Note friction of base plate is net friction dependent on degree of prestress in anchor bolts. Concrete column shafts should be proportioned to resist axial, moment and shears forces form tower and any localised effects from anchor bolts e.g. bursting.

Bending of base plates should be checked using yield line methods of analysis. If all possible yield lines patterns have been investigated, the lowest computed value for the ultimate moment (assuming plastic section properties) is the ultimate capacity.

If bolt distribution or gusset plate geometry is non-symmetrical, a more conservative capacity reduction factor should be used.

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L4.2.10.2 Design of stubs

The transfer of force from the stub to the surrounding concrete is by a combination of steel-concrete bond and by shear connectors on the stub that transfer force, in a bearing mode to the concrete. In stubs that do not extend to the base of the footings, reinforcement in the shaft transfers the stub forces to the base of the footing.

Bond between the stub and the surrounding concrete is adversely affected by the shape and finish on galvanised steel stubs. It is recommended that only ‘friction’ bond be considered in the transfer of force above the studs or cleats. When the stub is tension assumed friction bond should limited to 0.35 MPa if the stress in the stub is less than 300 MPa, or ignored in the design calculations if the stress is greater than 300MPa. Assumed friction bond in compression should not exceed 0.7 MPa.

Most of the stub axial force is resisted by shear connections. The normal method is to provide bolted or welded cleats or studs attached to the lower end of the leg stub in sufficient number and spacing to transfer the force below the zone of bond development to the surrounding concrete, and shaft reinforcement if applicable.

The design of the shear connectors is based on the bearing capacity of the concrete and load capacity of the connectors as determined by their stiff bearing area and bending capacity of the connector at its yields stress. It cannot be assumed that where multiple levels of connectors are required that the loads will be shared equally between connectors. Strain compatibility between the various elements (stub, connectors, concrete and reinforcement) imperfect concrete construction methods and the tolerances in bolted cleat connector may result in some connectors resisting a higher portion of the load. It is recommended that connectors that are placed in several levels along the stub be designed to resist axial loads not less than 25% greater than the stub design forces.

Minimizing the distance between cleat levels will result in a more equal distribution of load between cleats. However, the spacing should be sufficient not to restrict the flow of concrete around the stub and cleats and to ensure that a punching type shear failure in the concrete between the cleats will not occur. A vertical spacing between the horizontal legs of the cleats of twice the cleat flange size will generally satisfy this requirement. Cropping of the ineffective part of the horizontal cleat leg will assist the flow of concrete when space may be limited, such as in reinforced concrete shafts.

Where the load transfer cleats are positioned at the base of the footing, the footing design should also be checked for punching shear under both maximum compression and uplift loads.

When the stub end is within the shaft, longitudinal reinforcement is required to transmit the axial force to the concrete base. The forces transfer is usually assumed to be in a 45° cone between the shear connectors and reinforcement. The length of the reinforcement above the cone intersection should be sufficient for the development of full bond strength in the reinforcement.

L4.3 Foundation testing

Foundation testing may be used as a means of determining the load capacity of the footing or its components and its foundation materials to meet design requirements.

The method of testing should be appropriate to the types of footing, ground conditions, loads and conditions the foundation will be subjected to while in service.

Tests should be generally in accordance to AS 2159.

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L4.4 Cathodic protection

Consideration should be given in the design process to the inclusion of an appropriate cathodic protection system where aggressive soil conditions may exist that could adversely affect the design life of the footing. Such systems can be of the sacrificial anode or impressed current types.

L5 REFERENCE

1 Bulletin No. 12 issued by the Geoteknisk Institut (The Danish Geotechnical Institute – Copenhagen 1961) Topics: BRINCH HANSEN, J., The ultimate resistance of rigid piles against transversal forces, CHRISTENSEN, N.H., Model tests with transversally loaded rigid piles in sand.

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APPENDIX M

APPLICATION OF STANDARDIZED WORK METHODS FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS

(Informative)

M1 GENERAL OVERVIEW

There have been significant changes in legislation and work practices in the building and construction industries to make work sites safer and this has necessitated changes in work practices.

The following sets out a standardized approach for construction and maintenance work practices on overhead lines, in an effort to reduce further unnecessary hazards for personnel moving between overhead line networks, and to provide uniform work practices around Australia and New Zealand.

M2 REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS

AS/NZS 1891 Industrial fall arrest systems and devices 1891.1 Part 1: Harnesses and ancillary equipment 1891.2 Part 2: Horizontal life line and rail systems 1891.3 Part 3: Fall arrest devices 1891.4 Part 4: Selection, use and maintenance

NENS 05 National fall protection guidelines for the electricity industry

EEA/NZ Use of personal fall arrest systems

EEA/NZ Guide—Operation and maintenance of elevating work platforms

M3 METHODS FOR ACCESSING WORK POSITIONS

M3.1 Use of elevating work platforms (EWP)

All line construction and maintenance work on both pole and steel tower overhead line construction should be assessed on the basis of use of using EWPs as the first option to gain access and work at heights.

If due to access constraints or the need to access poles and towers by climbing then attached climbing is permissible if appropriate fall arrest systems are used.

This is coupled with an increasing need for all overhead line feeders to have greater operational availability and increased use of live line maintenance techniques, work methods should consider the use of EWP’s to the maximum extent.

The use of man boxes attached to cranes may provide an alternative to use of EWPs .

M3.2 Climbing techniques

M3.2.1 Pole structures

Where access for the safe use of an EWP is not available, climbing access may be used only if safe climbing work methods on the structure are possible.

Where structures are placed in difficult terrain and access for EWPs is not possible, the structure should be designed for climbing access, and for safe work from the structure.

This will require the provision of fittings and devices to assist with the safe access and positioning of workers on the structure.

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M3.2.2 Lattice steel tower structures

All lattice steel structures should be fitted with facilities to allow climbing access to any work position to permit both de-energized and energized maintenance work.

Some live line maintenance techniques on high voltage lines require the placement of workers on the structure as well as in the bucket of an EWP. This may require the transfer of personnel from an EWP to a structure superstructure in order to provide the safest means of access.

M4 FALL PREVENTION SYSTEMS

Where any climbing or working at height is likely to be required the structure is to be designed to provide for linepersons to use a portable fall prevention system in accordance with AS/NZS 1891.

For overhead line construction and maintenance activities this requires the provision of the following to minimize risk of potential injury with attachment at all times to provide either ‘restrained fall’ or ‘limited free fall’ restraint.

M4.1 ‘Restrained fall’ fall arrest

M4.1.1 Provision and use of a line workers body belt or work positioning harness

This is a full body harness that also has inbuilt shock absorption characteristics.

A combination of anchorage placement and fixed length restraint line or pole strap length, which will permit only a restrained fall. This requires 6 kN ultimate strength anchorage for restraint devices. Any structural element should be capable of supporting this load as a single point load application, in a deformed state but without failure.

M4.2 ‘Limited free fall’ fall arrest

M4.2.1 Provision and use of a line workers body belt or work positioning harness

This is a full body harness that also has inbuilt shock absorption characteristics.

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A combination of anchorage placement and fixed restraint line or length of pole strap which will permit only a limited free fall to <600 mm

This requires the anchorage point to have a 12 kN ultimate strength anchorage.

M4.3 Use of static lines

Where multiple workers are required to ascend or descend a structure or to be able to move from position to position on a horizontal plane, the use of a static line may be used as a means of restraint.

Where static lines are to be used a maximum of two people may be attached to the line at any one time and a top anchorage capacity of 21 kN is required.

This can be achieved by attachment of a fibre sling around a climbing leg-bracing node point or other structural member node points.

M4.4 Double lanyard restraint

In order to provide for M4.2 and M4.3 above a double lanyard or double pole strap restrain arrangement should be used to provide for the worker to be attached at all times while climbing or while in a work position or moving while in a work area.

In all cases of restrained work, the attachment/detachment of lanyard or pole strap is to be always above the waist position.

Where the above is not possible due to the structural framing arrangement in relation to the required work position then an alternative restraint technique should be used and considered in the design with anchorage above the work position. This may require the provision of anchorage points to support devices such as inertia reels and static lines.

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M5 SPECIFIC STRUCTURE DESIGN PROVISIONS

Where pole steps or step bolts are required they should be in accordance with the provision of AS/NZS 1559.

NOTE: Where a tower or pole rescue is required, each pole step may need to support the weight of two persons. For safety in climbing a step bolt size of 20 mm diameter and a clear shank length of 180 mm may be considered.

Attachment to any bracing node points on a lattice steel tower in general will provide an anchorage capacity of 15 kN.

Once a work position is reached, the worker is required to use a work positioning restraint pole strap, in a ‘restrained fall’ position, and this requires the selection of anchorage points with at least 6 kN capacity. Any structural load carrying or redundant brace member fixed with a single 16-diameter bolt at each end can provide this load restraint capacity in a non-deformed or deformed state.

In general, attachment should be at bracing node points wherever possible in order to provide containment of any potential lanyard movement, and afford more secure anchorage.

The following anchorage capacities are required to be provided by the structure design:

(a) Inertia reel attachment points for work on cross-arm tips—15 kN.

(b) Attachment to bracing node points for work on E/W peak—15 kN.

(c) Attachment to bracing node points—15 kN.

(d) Typical static line attachment point above climbing step bolts—21 KN.

(e) Typical horizontal restraint of any member in a tower—6 kN.

Refer to Figure M1 for typical arrangement of anchorage points on lattice steel structures.

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Inter t ia Ree l at tachmentpoints for work oncross arm t ips – 15 kN

Typica l stat ic l ineat tachment point above

cl imbing step bol ts – 21 kN

At tachment to bracingnode points for workon E / W peak – 15 kN

At tachment to bracingnode points – 15 kN

L imi t of lanyardat tachment anchoragerestra int – Iner t ia ree lmust be used beyondth is point

L imi t of lanyard at tachmentanchorage restra int– at tachment point must beabove waist pos i t ion (exceptfor L ive L ine access incrouched pos i t ionto Cross-arm t ip but wi that tachment a lways above waist )

At tachment to 20 mmstep bol ts, or anchorloops, – 6 kNDO NOT AT TACH TO 16 mm STEP BOLTS

FIGURE M1 TYPICAL STEEL TOWER CLIMBING ATTACHMENT POINTS AND ANCHORAGE CAPACITIES

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APPENDIX N

UPGRADING OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES

(Informative)

N1 SCOPE

This Appendix provides guidelines on the requirements to be fulfilled for the modifications of existing structures and foundations to maintain structural integrity or upgrade structural capacity. Structures should include transmission or distribution towers/poles supporting high voltage electrical aerial conductors or radio communication masts/poles and associated foundations.

Criteria for condition assessment of existing structure, remedial work to repair corrosion and third party damage or disrupted members due to overload conditions are excluded from the scope of this Appendix.

N2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

The following factors should be considered for the up-gradation of transmission structures:

(a) Structure upgrade designs should be prepared and authorised by a qualified structural design engineer with appropriate experience in transmission/distribution structures or radio communication structures.

(b) The structure as a whole and its component parts should comply with stability, strength and serviceability limit states defined elsewhere in this Standard.

(c) The designer should select an appropriate structure model for analysis that provides an accurate representation of the actual structure performance and justify assumptions regarding load transfer between existing components and modified components and to foundations.

(d) The designer should consider changes in OHS legislative requirements, work practices or other directives related to construction safety and personnel access that need to be accommodated in preparation of the scope of modifications.

N3 PURPOSE OF UPGRADE

Structural upgrade is defined as actions taken to improve structural and foundation performance beyond the initial design specifications. This may be undertaken for a variety of purposes including the following:

(a) Improve structure reliability.

(b) Change in structure load criteria or operational duty.

(c) Change in maintenance procedures.

(d) Modify structure geometry to accommodate increased electrical aerial conductor operating temperature or improve electrical/radiation clearances.

(e) Fixture of new components to comply with updated OHS criteria for personnel access.

(f) Adding of new/larger telecommunication equipment.

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N4 STRUCTURAL ASSESMENT

The appropriate stress analysis of transmission tower requires calculation of the total forces in each member of the tower under action of combination of loads externally applied, plus the dead weight of the structure. These loads should have to be evaluated as per requirements specified in this Standard for the changed operational condition.

When performing an analysis of an existing structure, careful attention should be given to the method of analysis employed when the structure originally designed. If the steel material property and member properties are not documented, material testing and careful engineering assessment is required. The designer should have to prepare documents for such material testing and engineering assessment that should form an integral part of the structural up-gradation proposal.

Field inspection is a pre-requisite for the structural assessment of existing structures to ensure that the structures are in good condition and/or to adjust the capacity of individual structural member.

It is possible that the original structure capacity was not utilized fully for various reasons such as unusual terrain conditions, site-specific restrictions, availability of materials or conservative 2-D method of analysis. In such cases, structure upgrade can possibly be achieved with minimum effort. However, all original design assumptions should be re-examined again and the designer should determine and document if there is any major difference in the load distribution of the structure with new analysis. A correlation of past model assumptions with new model assumptions should have to be performed for the entire structure.

N5 WORKING ON LOADED STRUCTURES

The designer should carryout a comprehensive structural analysis of the transmission structures considered for upgrading prior to any fieldwork, personnel access, structure and/or foundation modification. Existing aerial conductor tensions, component dead weight and resulting loads transferred onto structural supports should be carefully examined and taken into account when developing work procedures and selecting required equipment.

N6 LOAD TEST ON STRUCTURES

Load testing can be used to verify that the performance of the structure or component is consistent with the theoretical design or the trialing of options without design.

The number of tests and applied load to suit the required COV should be in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.0 or an equivalent recognized standard. This should reflect the accuracy of the calculations, the degree of difficulty in installation of the reinforcement and the security required. Some subjective judgement may be required on the part of the designer to establish loading and performance criteria.

Consideration should be given by the designer to any influence the test rig may have on the performance of the structure or component.

Testing of components should account for actual stiffness and possible variations of the surrounding structure. This should happen due to the modified stiffness matrix at a joint and/or pre-loading on existing member.

Testing should preferably be continued maximum 150% of ultimate load or to destruction (whichever occurs first) to verify the presence of any brittle failure close to ultimate load.

The tests should be carried out to a test plan, which is prepared to demonstrate or test the performance in sympathy with the design process.

The records of the test should include as a minimum—

(a) test plan and purpose of each test;

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(b) load and deflection;

(c) localized deformation;

(d) any variations of the tested structure or component from the proposed final design and what influence this may have on the test outcome; and

(e) conclusion.

N7 STRUCTURE UPGRADE

N7.1 Lattice steel structure upgrade

The main purpose to upgrade the existing structure is to keep the resistance of the structure (including individual elements of a structure) within the limit of design resistance for the modified loading conditions and/or line design criteria. A list of preferred modification options is given in Paragraph N9.

N7.1.1 Tension member upgrade

Strength of tension member can be achieved by replacing existing member with higher profile or by adding new member to the existing member.

The designer should have to propose the temporary load transfer arrangement as well as sequential working procedure for the replacement of any existing member with new one.

Tensile strength can also be increased with the use of splice angles bolted with the existing leg member and supplementing angle section to cruciform/T-section by an additional angle. However, increase in wind area should have to be taken into consideration for re-assessment of the structure with this arrangement. Strengthening within the nodes and across, the joint is not necessary if the net cross section multiplied by the yield strength of the material is higher than the maximum force. If strengthening within the nodes and across the joint is required, the supplemented angle should have to pass through the joints by providing adequate distance to clear the bolt threads of existing joint by providing splice angles with appropriate thickness. The splice angles should be arranged at least at one-third distance of the total buckling length.

It is preferable to weld (or service level non-slip bolted joint) the splice angle at the circumference with fillet seams to the supplemented sections in the workshop and after galvanizing, the same adjust them to the existing members at site. However, Welding is not desirable in many cases due to the poor fatigue performance of welded connections. Refer to Paragraph N7.1.3 for connection details and Paragraph N7.1.4 for load transfer between old and new members.

N7.1.2 Compression members upgrade

The strength of compression member can be increased by reducing its unsupported length or end restrained condition.

Unsupported length can be reduced by inserting additional redundant members or changing the redundant pattern.

Increasing the number of bolts at end of single bolted members should change the end-restrained condition of compression member, which in turn should increase the compression strength.

Addition of new member should also increase compression strength of members. Refer to Paragraph N7.1.1 for the requirement of such modification. However, the sub-members should have to be bolted in such a way so that the composite member can be treated as a single member (i.e. fully composite section).

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T-section should have the improved slenderness ratio and hence, changing compression member to that profile (especially to increase the diaphragm strength by providing T-shaped horizontal edge member) should increase the compression strength. (See Figure N1).

Y

X

L

0.5 L

NOTE: Critical slenderness ratio should be the maximum of 0.51/rxx and L/ryy.

FIGURE N1 CRITICAL SLENDERNESS RATIO OF T-SECTION

However, improvement in buckling performance is the best way to increase the compression strength of any member unless the modification in angle section yields an efficient load transfer.

See Paragraph N7.1.3 for connection details and Paragraph N7.1.4 for load transfer between old and new members.

N7.1.3 Connection upgrade and consideration in connection design

Connection can be upgraded by the use of high strength bolts confirming to specification AS/NZS 1252. Use of additional bolts at joint should also increase the connection capacity.

Special attention should be given while designing connection between supplemented and existing angle sections. The connection between old member and supplemented member should have to be designed for a shear force equal to 2.5% of the composite member compression force. At least two bolts should be used at each connection. The bolt spacing should not be more than 6 xdb, where db is the diameter of hole. The connection between existing member and the supplementing member may be designed as non-slip joint. However, due care should be given to verify the bolt pretension and the faying surface condition at site to ensure the requirements considered during design are properly implemented. The slip factor should have to be assumed as per recommendation given in AS 4100. The surface should be roughened by means of hand wire brushing (after hot dip galvanization) and the treatment should be controlled to achieve visible roughening or scoring (but not removing the coating). Power wire brushing is not permitted because it may polish rather than roughen the surface, or remove the coating.

N7.1.4 Force distribution in newly formed composite section

Addition of an angle section (as described in Paragraphs N7.1.1 and N7.1.2) moves the centroidal axis of the leg members outwards. However, since the existing member is pre-loaded with external forces, the supplemented member will not carry the load proportionately with respect to the relative stiffness. This initial loading condition causes a higher proportionate axial load to the existing member and a lower one to the supplemented section. Due care should have to be taken during design to account such effect arising from the installation condition. It is essential to confirm minimum relative movement of sub-members of the newly formed compound member to ensure balanced load distribution. In such case, slip in the serviceability limit state is required to be limited and connections should be designed for bolts serviceability limit state (see AS 4100).

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N7.1.5 Guying of structures

Guys can be used in various arrangements to reinforce structures. The design of the guy system and supported structure should as a minimum account for—

(a) possible variations in the effective stiffness of individual guys within the system caused by variations in initial installed tension, foundation movement, variation in structure stiffness compared to actual stiffness. As a minimum it is recommended that combinations of guy stiffness varying to 150% and 50% of the proposed cable be considered. Load testing of the guy anchors is recommended to ensure against excessive slippage. Other considerations such as relaxation of individual guys should be made;

(b) the flexibility of the guy, together with the flexibility of the tower, is needed to compute the foundation reactions and anchor loads. Tower and anchors can be designed for the maximum amount of specified anchor slippage. The initial and final modulus of elasticity of the guys together with the creep should have to be considered; and

(c) differential movement of the structure foundations relative to the guy anchor foundations. This can be assessed by comparing the depth of embedment of the foundation and likely soil heave or settlement. On narrow masts, small movements of the footing may relieve load.

Selection of the guy cable should satisfy strength requirements in accordance with AS 3995. Consideration should be given to the sizing of the cable for suitable stiffness.

The guy cable should be as a minimum earthed for fault currents.

The guy attachments should be designed for the full tensile capacity of the guy cable. The guy anchor foundations may be designed for less than the full capacity of the anchor.

Consideration should be given to the termination fittings of the guy to allow coarse and fine length adjustment, tension measurement of the installed guys (by vibration frequency, mechanical tensiometer, measurement of sag), temporary removal of load to allow adjustment of the length and attachment points on the anchors for temporary replacement of the normal guys.

Because of the large elongation of non-steel ropes, only steel cables should be used for temporary or permanent guys.

Buried components of the guying system should be designed to allow for the extreme level of corrosion for the type of installation.

Guying systems may be considered either as a continuation of the aerial conductors (i) OR as structural components (ii)—

(i) if the guying system is designed as continuation of the aerial conductors using aerial conductor hardware then allowance should be made for broken cables and attachments.

ii) If the guying system is designed as a structural components the guy fittings should have suitable WLL markings and be selected in accordance with the WLL under EDT and WLL*3 under ultimate loads. The designer should check that the selected components have an ultimate capacity of at least 5*WLL.

(iii) (as alternate of (ii)) If the guying system is designed as a structural components, usually the guy fittings will not be able to develop the full rated breaking strength (RBS) of the guy but should have to be designed for 70% of RBS under weather loads and 85% of RBS under failure containment conditions. The mechanical efficiency should be marked on guy fittings, which may be defined as the percent of the guy RBS up to which the guy fitting is able to sustain.

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Pretension of guys should be at least 5% of CBL of the cable and preferably closer to 10% of CBL (with maximum ±10% tolerance).Depending on the procedure, the designer should specify either—

(A) pretension values; or

(B) a tensioning sequence controlled by the pole top displacement.

The minimum pretension should be such that the leeward guys do not go slack under frequently occurring winds (e.g. yearly wind) or other everyday weather related load combination. At the lower range, the sag of the cable may be excessive for visual and stiffness considerations.

Guy fittings should have split pins or double nuts for locking against vibration.

The guy attachment points on the structure should allow for possible variations in the installation of the guy position causing changes in the force components at the attachment.

Pretensioning of the guy cable can be used to pre-load the foundations of the reinforced structure.

Guy systems can be used to carry torsional load at a level in a tower but the effectiveness is dependent on the stiffness of the structure.

N7.2 Structure upgrade

N7.2.1 Wooden pole structure upgrade

N7.2.1.1 Hardwood poles

Timber poles have been found to deteriorate over time in the ground line zone due to termites attack or soft rot mechanisms and at height due to the long term exposure to the natural elements.

Where soft rot is detected in its early stages, poles can be assessed for loss of strength and limits set on the minimum permissible load factor to be provided before further reinforcement of the pole element is required.

Pole nails provide a means of providing reinforcement of poles and extending their service life.

Various strengths and types of pole nails or nail systems that are rigidly attached to the pole are available to either temporarily reinforce or to replace completely the base section of poles.

Where temporary reinforcing type systems are used careful consideration needs to be made of the level of serviceable strength that is provided over time under conditions where the wood pole butt suffers further deterioration.

N7.2.1.2 Softwood poles

In general CCA treated softwood poles should not require upgrading during their design service life.

N7.2.2 Steel pole structure upgrade

N7.2.2.1 Direct embedded poles and socketed base type poles

Tubular form steel poles directly embedded into soil will normally have either a hot dip galvanized finish or a duplex tar epoxy coating applied over the galvanized.

Galvanized steel in direct contact with soils will not have significant life unless in low rainfall or semi arid areas and replacement of the base section is likely during the life of the structure.

Duplex coated poles should not require upgrading during its design service life unless the coating system breaks down.

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Poles socketed into concrete base sockets will perform generally in accordance with the above provisions. It should be assumed that any cast in situ socket will fill with water over time, due to capillary action on the pole/seal interface.

Accelerated loss of zinc coating will most likely occur to some extent, in the immediate above ground zone due to the daily drying/wetting cycle with dew particularly in grassed footpath areas.

N7.2.2.2 Base plate mounted poles

The weakest element in this type of construction is the corrosion protection of the holding down bolts and any projections of bolt threads. Specific maintenance of the region is required in order to extend the service life of the structure.

N7.2.2.3 Slip joints and internal surface protection

All cylindrical galvanized steel poles joined in the field with slip joints can be expected to have some but limited corrosion of the mating surfaces of the joint without any significant loss of strength, but needs to be checked over the life of the line.

Temperature effects can have a major effect on the ingress of moisture into the inner void of steel poles due to the ‘breathing’/expansion of the pole drawing in moist air. Condensation will then occur during low temperature cycles that will cause corrosion of the inner zinc surfaces. To counteract this complete sealing of the inner void will limit available oxygen.

Periodic internal boroscope inspection of the inner base section would be beneficial to extending the service life of poles.

N7.2.3 Concrete pole structure upgrade

Most concrete poles are made from high strength concrete using a high compaction process. Some are also prestressed.

Poles of this type have been in service for over 80 years without any degradation of the pole element.

Limited scope exists to upgrade the design capacity of these structures unless by the use of composite elements attached to the outer or inner surfaces of the pole.

N7.2.4 Composite pole structure upgrade

This type of pole has limited service experience at the time this Standard was prepared but is seen to be similar to concrete poles.

N8 FOUNDATION UPGRADE

Increased reaction from super-structure for the purposes stated in Paragraph N3 should be transferred safely to the existing foundation system. The designer should have to design an appropriate anchoring system to satisfy this requirement.

Additional uplift force can be counter measured by increasing the dead weight of the footing. However, due attention is required for the integrity between the new concrete section to the old concrete section.

Lateral support can be achieved by methods as simple as modifying engineering properties of soil adjacent to the footing member (compaction, soil stabilising). Other methods may include enlarging the footing bearing area or installing tie beams between individual footings.

New foundation can be installed to transfer higher load from super structure and after completion of the new foundation construction, the structure can be re-positioned onto the new foundation. In such case, the old foundation may be abounded or may be used as a part of new foundation.

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The designer should have to prepare the temporary load transfer arrangement as well as sequential working procedure required for safe strengthening of existing foundation system/construction of new foundation or safe re-positioning of structure onto the new foundation.

Appropriate geotechnical investigation is required prior to any foundation modification or installation of new foundation for increased load transfer. The designer should have to carry out appropriate investigation to predict any potential stability hazard that may arise to existing foundation while constructing new foundation or modifying existing foundation causing soil disturbance.

N9 MODIFICATION OF LATTICE STEEL STRUCTURE

Lattice steel structures can be strengthened by means of following measures:

(a) Adding new profile with existing structural element (e.g. adding back-to-back angle with existing angle at horizontal edge members/bracing members/compression chord of X-arm to enhance the buckling resistance).

(b) Introducing additional redundant members/modifying redundant pattern to increase the compression strength of the structure component.

(c) Modifying tower geometry to optimize the load distribution pattern within the structure (e.g. introducing additional diaphragm between panels).

(d) Replacement of angle sections with larger section members.

(e) Addition of guy (stay) wires.

(f) Addition of bolts/splice plates to enhance end restrained condition of compression member or

(g) Up-gradation of bolts to higher grade and/or diameter.

(h) Modification in tower top geometry for thermal or voltage uprating of line.

(i) Install tower on new base and/or use of tower extension above waist to increase height

N10 MODIFICATION OF POLE STRUCTURE

Pole structures can be strengthened by means of following measures:

(a) Adding stays.

(b) Pole nails for wooden poles.

(c) Doubling up concrete poles, some times even a small pole maybe added.

(d) Inserting the steel section on the base of a wooden pole to increase height.

(e) Use of fibre reinforced polymer to increase the flexural capacity of steel monopoles.

N11 SAFETY

N11.1 Construction and maintenance work procedures

The designer should have to confirm the following aspects:

(a) Production of construction and maintenance procedures complying the design assumptions and requirements.

(b) All potential constraints are documented.

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However, review of working procedures for independent engineering assessment to ensure the compliance with design assumptions and specified constraints should be required prior to commencing the fieldwork.

N11.2 Personnel access

Personnel access controls developed to comply with OHS legislative requirements and other directives have seen the specification of significantly increased maintenance and fall-arrest loads and fixing of more sophisticated climbing aids. The designer should consider whether such scope for the upgrade work on structures installed prior to these requirements should be inclusive of these requirements.

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APPENDIX O

WATER ABSORPTION TEST

(Normative)

O1 SCOPE

This Appendix sets out the method for the determination of the water absorptive property of concrete poles, in a batch of poles.

NOTE: The test method is based on AS 4058.

O2 PRINCIPLE

The relative water absorption of the pole concrete is taken as a measure of the resistance of the concrete to atmospheric moisture penetration. The relative water absorption is measured as the difference in mass between an oven-dried specimen and the saturated surface-dry mass of the specimen after a fixed period of immersion in boiling water, expressed as a percentage of the oven-dried mass.

O3 APPARATUS

The apparatus consists of the following items:

(a) A ventilated drying oven of sufficient capacity to hold a test specimen and capable of maintaining a temperature of 105 ±3°C.

(b) A desiccator of sufficient capacity to hold the test specimen from Item (a).

(c) A water bath of sufficient plan area and depth for the test specimen to be completely immersed in water and in which the water can be maintained continuously at boiling point for at least 5 h.

(d) Cutting and grinding equipment for preparing the specimen.

(e) Drying cloths and implements for handling the specimen from oven to desiccator to bath.

(f) A weighing mechanism capable of determining the mass of the test piece, during the various stages, to an accuracy of ±0.5 g.

O4 CONDITION OF SAMPLE POLES

The age of the sample pole(s), from the time of casting to the time of preparation of the test specimens, shall not be less than 14 days nor greater than 28 days. The poles shall not have been subjected to any previous testing, which would affect the absorptive properties of the concrete. The area of the surface from which the test specimens are to be cut shall be free from cracks visible by normal or corrected vision.

O5 PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN

From each sample pole, extract a radial core that extends through the entire thickness of the wall, with end faces corresponding to the internal and external surfaces of the pole of area between 1.0 × 104 mm2 and 1.5 × 104 mm2.

NOTE: A cylindrical specimen, made by cutting radially through the wall with a coring bit of 115 mm diameter, or 125 mm nominal diameter, would satisfy these area requirements.

The cut surfaces of the specimen shall be ground smooth and the specimen kept in a damp condition until tested.

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O6 TEST PROCEDURES

O6.1 General

The test shall be carried out when the age of the concrete in the specimen is not greater than 28 days.

NOTE: The ability of concrete to absorb water diminishes with increasing time after casting and with increasing duration and quality of curing. Absorption tests made on 28-day-old concrete will, therefore, yield lower percentage values than tests on concrete less than 28 days old. Hence, if an early-age value is less than the permissible limiting value, no further test will be required. However, if this is not the case, a further test at 28 days would be required.

O6.2 Procedures

O6.2.1 Determination of dry mass (m1)

The procedure is as follows:

(a) Weigh the damp specimen to the nearest gram and record the mass as m0.

(b) Dry the specimen at 105 ±3°C in the drying oven until consecutive weight measurements of the specimen, when made at intervals of not less than 4 h, show a change in mass of not greater than 0.1% of m0. Record the lowest value, determined at room temperature as the dry mass (m1) to the nearest gram.

Each consecutive weighing required may be carried out either—

(i) by first allowing the specimen to cool from oven temperature to room temperature in the desiccator and then weighing; or

(ii) by weighing the hot specimen within 1 min of its removal from the oven then, if no further drying is required, cooling it to room temperature in the desiccator and reweighing it as soon as possible, The latter reading is recorded as the dry mass (m1).

O6.2.2 Immersion procedure

Immediately following the determination of the dry mass, suspend the specimen in the bath so that no part of the specimen is closer to a direct source of heat than 50 mm. Introduce potable water into the bath at room temperature until all surfaces of the specimen are covered by at least 25 mm of water.

Once the specimen has been covered to the required depth, heat the water rapidly to 100°C and maintain it at that temperature for 5 hours keeping the specimen covered with water throughout. At the end of this period, cool the specimen uniformly over 2 h to 20 ±5°C, by gradually replacing the hot water with colder water.

O6.2.3 Determination of saturated surface-dry mass (m2)

At the end of the immersion procedure, remove the specimen from the bath, allow it to drain for not more than 1 min, and then remove any remaining water from the surface with the absorbent paper or cloth.

Weigh the specimen in this saturated surface-dry condition and record the mass as (m2), to the nearest gram.

If the specimen contains reinforcement, remove it from the concrete and clean off any adhering mortar. Weigh the reinforcement and record its mass as (m3), to the nearest gram.

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O7 CALCULATIONS

The absorption of each test specimen shall be calculated from the following equation:

2 1

1 3

( ) 100( )wj

m mkm m− ×

=−

. . .O1

where

m1 = the dry mass, in grams

m2 = the saturated surface-dry mass, in grams

m3 = the mass of reinforcement, in grams

O8 RECORDS AND REPORTS

O8.1 Records

For each batch of poles for which water absorption tests are taken, the following records shall be kept:

(a) A means of identifying the individual test specimens and the batch from which they were taken.

(b) The date on which the test specimens were taken from the batch, or the age of the concrete at that date.

(c) For each specimen tested from the batch—

(i) the measured values of m1, m2 and m3;

(ii) the calculated value of kwj; and

(iii) the date on which m1 was determined.

O8.2 Reports

For each batch of poles for which water absorption tests have been carried out, a report containing the following information shall be prepared:

(a) Identification of the test specimens and the batch from which they were taken.

(b) The date on which the first test specimen was taken from the batch or the age of the concrete on that date.

(c) The calculated values of kwj for the batch.

(d) A statement as to whether or not these values satisfy the criteria given in Paragraph I5.2.

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APPENDIX P

INSULATION GUIDELINES

(Informative)

P1 INSULATION COORDINATION BASICS

Pollution flashovers can occur under wet or high humidity conditions. An overhead line should be designed to avoid a power frequency flashover. Even if the insulation can withstand the initial flashover without damage, upon reclosure of the line there is every likelihood of a subsequent flashover should the wetting conditions continue.

Switching surges on overhead lines should also be considered and the appropriate amount of insulation installed to avoid these surges. Switching surges can reach up to 3 times the normal operating voltage and in the case when high speed autoreclosing is used, in the presence of trapped charges, the surges can be up to 4 times normal operating voltage

P2 DESIGN FOR POLLUTION

Pollution design recommendations are given in AS 4436. The basic concept is to increase the surface creepage distance so that it is long enough to prevent a pollution flashover across the surface.

TABLE P1

GUIDE FOR SELECTING INSULATORS IN CONTAMINATED ENVIRONMENTS

Contamination severity ESDD range(1) Minimum nominal specific creepage distance(2)

g/m mm/kV

Light 0 to1.2 16

Medium 1.2 to 2.0 20

Heavy 2.0 to 3.0 25

Very heavy Above 3.0 31 (1) ESDD is the equivalent salt deposit density. (2) Ratio of leakage distance measured between phase and earth over the r.m.s phase to phase voltage of the

highest voltage of the equipment. (3) Consideration should be given to increasing the creepage distances is areas where there are long periods

without rainfall or very close to the marine coast

Example:

Select a suitable disc insulator string for a 33 kV line subject to light contamination. Use normal disc profiles where the creepage length is 300 mm.

Voltage of line = 33 kV

Minimum nominal specific creepage distance

= 16 mm/kV for light contamination

Required creepage distance for 33 kV = 528 mm

Number of discs = 528/300 = 1.76 → 2 discs

The pollution performance of insulators can also be improved with the use creepage extenders or hydrophobic coatings such as Room Temperature Silicon Rubber (RTV). These coatings have a finite life and will need to be replaced during the life of the insulator.

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Pole top fires may occur when high leakage currents from polluted insulators track across interfaces between conductive to non-conductive material e.g. insulator to crossarm, and crossarm to pole.

P3 DESIGN FOR SWITCHING SURGE DESIGN AND LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS

A good coverage on the design for switching surge is given in AS 1824.2. When designing for switching surges, one of the parameters which is difficult to obtain is the switching surge impulse voltage. There are two main types of electrical tests conducted on insulators; one being the lightning impulse and the other the power frequency flashover (wet and dry). Switching tests have been conducted in laboratories and the flashover voltages have been inconsistent and found to be dependent on the shape of the surge, the type of electrodes and the presence of earth planes.

In lieu of adequate test data on switching surges a good approximation for the switching surge flashover voltage is 0.8 times the lightning impulse flashover voltage.

The insulator parameter that determines the insulator impulse performance (i.e. switching surge and lightning) is the arc distance across the insulator.

Line insulation is usually selected independent of substation insulation. It is necessary to check substation insulation impulse performance and install surge arresters, especially when the line insulation is longer than the substation insulation.

P4 SELECTION OF INSULATORS

The two main class of insulators are ceramic (glass and porcelain) and composite (EPDM, silicon rubber and cycloaliphatic). Ceramic insulators have traditionally been installed on overhead networks and have provided a reliable service in light to moderately contaminated environments.

P4.1 Standard and fog profile disc insulators

A typical 254 mm × 146 mm standard profile disc generally has a creepage length of approximately 300 mm. The profiles are variable between manufacturers who have to balance the requirements of having an aerodynamic shape to attract fewer pollutants, deeper skirts to increase creepage length and greater distance between skirts to reduce arcing.

A typical 254 mm × 146 mm fog profile disc has a creepage length around 430 mm. This is a 40% improvement in leakage distance over the standard disc. The additional creepage length is gained by having deeper skirts and this comes at a higher cost. It is common practice to install fog profile insulators in heavy to extreme contamination areas. This is acceptable for a marine or industrial environments that are exposed to regular rainfall, but in desert environments, contaminants can be trapped under the skirts and build up to such levels that they bridge the skirts. This then dramatically lowers the creepage length of the insulator. For areas of extremely low rainfall, it is common for the aerodynamically dinner plate shaped insulators to be used.

P4.2 Ceramic pin, shackle and posts

Ceramic pin, shackle and post insulators have been manufactured since the early years of last century. These insulators come in various lengths and profiles to meet the electrical and mechanical loads. The pin insulator is prone to puncture especially from steep fronted lightning strikes because of the small amount of ceramic material between the top of the insulator and the metallic bolt inserted in the bottom of the ceramic. Pin insulators usually have less creepage length compared to the post types but can be designed with larger skirts to handle heavy contaminated conditions.

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Shackle insulators are installed in positions where there are higher conductor loads, such as angle or termination structures. These insulators have a disadvantage to the pin and post types in contaminated environments because the aerial conductor attachment in the centre of the insulator reduces the creepage length of the insulator.

Post insulators have an advantage over pin insulators in withstanding electrical puncture because there is a larger amount of ceramic material between the top of the insulator and the metal base. Post insulators generally have the highest creepage lengths and can be manufactured with wider skirts to handle increasing amounts of pollution. The advantages of the post insulator come at a higher cost.

P4.3 Composite long rod and line post insulators

Composite insulators are made with a fibreglass core and either EPDM or silicon rubber weathersheds. One major advantage of the composite insulators over the ceramic ones is that they do not have intermediate metal parts between the end fittings. Hence, they have a superior creepage to dry arcing distance ratio.

Composites are generally regarded as being superior to ceramic for low to moderately contaminated environments because of their ability to maintain hydrophobicity. One of the polymers, EPDM, does lose hydrophobicity from the effects of UV radiation and arcing on the surface whilst the other, Silicon Rubber, has the ability to maintain hydrophobicity for a long period. This is due to the continuous migration of silicon oils from the bulk of the material to the surface. Ageing performance is commensurate with price. Silicon Rubber is slightly more expensive than EPDM. In heavy to extreme environments, both types of polymers have shown significant evidence of ageing (erosion and cracks along the axis of the polymer).

Polymeric insulators are increasingly being accepted and advantages over ceramic insulators include the following:

(a) Lightweight (long rods are 10% of the weight of an equivalent ceramic string) making it easier to install and maintain.

(b) Less visual impact.

(c) Vandal proof.

(d) Lower cost.

(e) Few couplings.

However, some disadvantages of polymeric insulators are as follows:

(i) Not yet proven to have a life span to match ceramics.

(ii) Low torsional strength.

(iii) Limited diagnostic testing available.

(iv) Risk of damage from bird attack, especially when de-energized.

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APPENDIX Q

MID SPAN SEPARATION CALCULATIONS

(Informative)

Q1 GENERAL

In Section 3 an equation was developed to determine mid span phase to phase separation.

The following example outlines the method of calculation.

MID SPAN SEPARATION

Example 1:

Single circuit 19/3.25 AAC at 33 kV 3-phase on pin insulators in a delta configuration with a span of 200 m. What is the mid span vertical separation required between phases if a crossarm with a separation of 2.1 m between outer phases is used?

Sag at 50°C is 6.07 m and sited in Region A.

Refer Figure 3.6.

Where—

∴X = 1.05

U = 33

k = 0.4

D = 6.07

li = 0

2 2(1.2 )150 iUX Y k+ ≥ + D l+ . . .Q1

2 2 331.05 (1.2 ) 0.4 6.07 0150

Y+ ≥ + + . . .Q2

2 21.05 (1.2 ) 0.22 0.985Y+ ≥ + . . .Q3

2 21.05 (1.2 ) 1.205Y+ ≥ . . .Q4

0.5911.2

Y ≥ . . .Q5

Y ≥ 0.493 . . .Q6

Therefore, required minimum vertical separation for centre phase is 0.493 m.

Example 2:

Upper circuit 19/3.25 AAC at 33 kV 3-phase on pin insulators in a delta configuration with a span of 200 m located directly above the lower circuit. The lower circuit aerial conductor is 19/.064 copper at 11 kV. The lower circuit has a 120°phase differential to the upper circuit.

What is the mid span vertical separation required between circuits if a crossarm with a separation of 2.1 m between outer phases is used?

Sag at 50°C is 6.07 m 19/3.25 AAC and 5.81 m for 19/.064 Copper sited in Region Type A.

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See Figure Q1.

FIGURE Q1 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION AT MID SPAN (TWO CIRCUITS)

Because the circuits are located vertically above each other the horizontal component is taken as zero and—

U = 2 2a b a b2 CosV V V V φ+ − from ‘U’ above

= 2 2

33 11 33 112 Cos1203 3 3 3

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞+ − × ×⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠°

= 22.9 kV

∴X = 0

U = 22.9 (the difference in the vector r.m.s. potential of the circuit voltages)

k = 0.4 (Region A)

D = 6.07 (greater of the two sags)

li = 0 (Pin insulators)

2 2(1.2 )150 iUX Y k+ ≥ + D l+ . . .Q7

2 22.90 (1.2 ) 0.4 6.07 0150

Y+ ≥ + + . . .Q8

2(1.2 ) 0.153 0.985Y ≥ + . . .Q9

1.2 1.138Y ≥ . . .Q10

2 21.2 1.205 1.05Y ≥ − . . .Q11

1.1381.2

Y ≥ . . .Q12

Y ≥ 0.948 . . .Q13

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APPENDIX R

INSULATION SWING ANGLE CALCULATIONS

(Informative)

R1 INSULATOR SWING

The swing angles of suspension insulator strings for wind conditions can be approximated using the following formula.

Angle of insulator swing φ = tan−1

wi

ic

* * 2 sin2 2

2

FWP d Sw H

WW

θ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞+ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .R1

where

WP = reference wind pressure in Pascals

d = aerial conductor diameter in metres

Sw = wind span affecting the insulator string in metres

Fwi = wind load on insulator in Newtons = 1.2 × projected area of insulators × wind pressure

Wc = effective aerial conductor weight in Newtons (weight span × weight per unit length)

Wi = weight of insulator string in Newtons

H = horizontal component of aerial conductor tension in Newtons appropriate to the reference wind

θ = line deviation angle

R2 AERIAL CONDUCTOR BLOWOUT

For aerial conductor blowout calculation, the suspension insulator swing plus the aerial conductor catenary swing should be considered.

The swing angle of a aerial phase conductor catenary in a single span for wind conditions can be approximated using the following formula.

Angle of aerial conductor swing (blowout) φ = tan−1 s

* *WP d SwW

⎛ ⎞⎜⎝ ⎠

⎟ . . .R2

where

WP = reference wind pressure in Pascals

d = aerial conductor diameter in metres

S = span length in metres

Ws = effective aerial conductor weight in Newtons (span length × weight per unit length)

NOTE: It is important to note that the insulator swing formula above may produce different swing angles for suspension insulators at supports on either side of a line catenary where different wind to weight span ratios may exist.

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The horizontal displacement of any point on the aerial conductor in the span can be calculated from the results produced by the two equations above by considering their combined effect and is given by the following (see Figure R1):

horizontal displacement y1 = Sg sinφc + i1 sinφ i1 + 1

1 2

xx x

⎛ ⎞⎜ +⎝ ⎠

⎟ (i2 sinφi2 −i1 sinφi1) . . .R3

where

Sg = sag for point on aerial conductor under consideration in metres

φc = angle of aerial conductor swing (blowout) in degrees

φi1 = angle of first insulator swing in degrees

φi2 = angle of second insulator in degrees

i1 = length of first insulator string in metres

i2 = length of second insulator string in metres

x1 = first span length fraction to point on aerial conductor under consideration in metres

x2 = second span length fraction to point on aerial conductor under consideration in metres

NOTE: At blowout wind speeds the aerial conductor temperature for sag determination can be taken as ambient air temperature.

Blowout rotat ion ax is

TRANSVERSE VIEW LONGITUDINAL VIEW

Sg

y1x2x1

i1

l2

12

11

c

FIGURE R1 HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT

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R3 AERIAL CONDUCTOR TENSION FOR BLOWOUT CALCULATIONS

For the aerial conductor tension H should be based on—

(a) still air or low wind ..............................average temperature over the coldest month;

(b) high wind .......... 500 Pa wind at average temperature over the coldest month +10°C.

R4 DETERMINATION OF REFERENCE WIND PRESSURE FOR BLOWOUT CALCULATIONS

The estimation of swing angles may be made using a simplified deterministic approach or a detailed procedure using meteorological data. The latter method should be used when greater precision is required or where unusual and/or extreme local conditions prevail.

Part A—Detailed procedure

The reference wind velocity Vr should be obtained from local weather records corresponding to a suitable return period and an averaging time, and corrected for terrain and height effects.

The selection of the wind return period should be based on the degree of reliability required, and when directional effects are considered, the swing angle return period is about twice that of the corresponding wind.

Thus for the high wind case, a 50 year return period and an averaging time of 5 min (5 min gust) will provide a satisfactory operational performance for most applications with a probability of exceeding the calculated swing angle of about 1%.

For the low wind condition, a wind return period of one year averaged over 5 min (5 min gust) is recommended for similar reasons.

Table R1gives factors for converting wind velocities from one averaging time to another for each terrain category.

A correction factor k takes into account the distribution of the wind along the span, drag force coefficient and the averaging time for Vr. For the heights of aerial conductors that are normally encountered, k may be considered to be independent of height and terrain effects.

The correction factor k should be multiplied by the derived wind pressure to determine the reference wind pressure for swing out calculations. The values for k should ideally be selected on the basis of studies and local experience. However, for most applications a value selected from Figure R2 produces satisfactory results.

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FA

CT

OR

k

WIND SPAN Sw (m)

FIGURE R2 CORRECTION FACTOR K

TABLE R1

FACTORS FOR CONVERTING A 3 S GUST WIND SPEED

Gust period Terrain Category 1

Terrain Category 2

Terrain Category 3

Terrain Category 4

3 s 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

1 min 0.735 0.797 0.844 0.878

2 min 0.680 0.749 0.807 0.847

5 min 0.614 0.658 0.764 0.808

10 min 0.553 0.646 0.727 0.784

Part B—Simplified procedure

For condition (a)—Still air or low wind

Wind pressure .....................................60 to 100 Pa depending on local weather conditions

(replace the term 0.6 Vr2 in Equation B1 by the selected wind pressure)

Value for k .................................................................................................................... 1.0

For condition (b)—High wind or maximum swing

Wind pressure (0.6 Vr2) ........................................................................................... 500 Pa

Value for k .................................................................................................................... 1.0

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APPENDIX S

AERIAL CONDUCTOR SAG AND TENSION

(Informative)

The method employed to determine aerial conductor tension due to a change of state of temperature, wind loading and or ice loading depends on whether the design operating tension is within the linear stress strain regime or whether design tension excursions are in the non linear stress strain regime. The linear stress strain model may be employed using the modulus of elasticity determined in accordance with Appendix W. For non linear stress strain design, two methods are commonly used and are the ‘graphical’ and ‘strain summation’. Both methods have been analysis, compared and described in some detail. [1] To employ the non linear stress strain detailed knowledge of the particular aerial conductor stress strain loading and unloading characteristic as detailed in Appendix W is required.

In addition to whether the non linear or linear methods are used two methods are employed for each method to determine the aerial conductor tensions and are either the equivalent span theory [2] or the complex finite element analysis. [3] The equivalent span theory explained in Paragraph S4 may be used for the majority of overhead line designs.

This informative discusses inclined span, aerial conductor sag, ruling span, aerial conductor loading conditions, tension constraints, tension changes and presents a number of catenary and parabolic equations. In addition resultant aerial conductor structure loads are also presented.

The geometry of an inclined span is given in Figure S1.

L

S1

S 2

X

Y

V2

V1

T2

T1

H

H (x1, y1)

(0,0)(x3, y3)

(x2, y2)

I

D

h

FIGURE S1 INCLINED SPAN GEOMETRY

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S1 TERMINOLOGY

Deadend span A span where both aerial conductors are terminated

Inclined span A span where the aerial conductor supports are at different levels.

Level span A span where the aerial conductor supports are at the same level

Ruling span A hypothetical level deadend span used to model the tension behaviour of a section.

Sag The maximum vertical departure of the catenary from a chord joining the support points (approximately mid span).

Section That portion of an overhead line between strain structures consisting solely of intermediate suspension structures for which the ruling span concept is valid.

Suspension span A span where either or both aerial conductor supports are free to swing longitudinally along the line

Tension constraint The maximum allowable horizontal component of aerial conductor tension for a given loading condition. The tension constraint may vary with the ruling span.

Transition Span The ruling span where two tension constraints produce identical unstressed aerial conductor lengths. Aerial conductor tension for ruling spans above and below the transition span will be controlled by different tension constraints

S2 VARIABLES

∝ = coefficient of linear expansion (°C−1)

Δ = aerial conductor slack (m)

ε = plastic strain from strand settling and metallurgical (mm/km or με)

π = 3.14159

ρ = ice density (kg.m-3)

σ = stress (MPa)

A = total aerial conductor cross-sectional area (mm2)

Aa = cross-sectional area of the aluminium component of an aerial conductor

(mm2)

As = cross-sectional area of the steel component of an aerial conductor

(mm2)

C = resultant catenary constant (m)

Ch = horizontal component of the catenary constant using Wh (m)

Cv = vertical component of the catenary constant using Wv (m)

d = overall aerial conductor diameter exposed to transverse wind (m)

D = aerial conductor sag (m)

E = modulus of elasticity of the load bearing material (MPa)

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h = height difference between aerial conductor supports ( = y2 – y1) (m)

H = horizontal component of aerial conductor tension T (N)

I = chord length between aerial conductor supports ( = 2 2L h+ ) (m)

L = span length (x2 − x1) (m)

Lh = wind span for a structure (m)

Lr = ruling span of a section (m)

Lv = weight span for a structure (m)

m = aerial conductor unit mass including covering or insulation (kg.m-1)

P = transverse component of wind pressure (Pa)

r = radial ice thickness (m)

S = stressed aerial conductor length (m)

S0 = unstressed aerial conductor length at 0°C (m)

t = average aerial conductor temperature (°C)

T = tangential or axial tension (N)

Ta = average axial tension (N)

V = vertical component of tension T (N)

W = resultant distributed aerial conductor inclined load (N.m-1)

Wh = transverse component of distributed aerial conductor load (N.m-1)

Wv = vertical component of distributed aerial conductor load (N.m-1)

S3 INTRODUCTION

A flexible, inelastic aerial conductor with constant load (W per unit of arc length) suspended between supports assumes the shape of a catenary—

y = cosh 1xCC

⎛ ⎛ ⎞−⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

⎞⎟ where the catenary constant C = H

W . . .S1

An approximation of the catenary is the parabola which uses a constant load (W per horizontal unit length)—

y = 2

2xC

. . .S2

For span lengths less than 0.7 C, or sags less than 9% of the span length, the difference in sag between the catenary and the parabola is less than 1%.

These mathematical models are adequate for describing inelastic aerial conductors at any given tension. To determine the tension at different loading conditions the equations should be modified for temperature, elasticity, wind pressure, ice weight and age (creep).

S4 RULING SPAN

The ruling span, also known as the equivalent span or the mean effective span (MES), is defined as that level dead-end span whose tension behaves identically to the tension in every span of a series of suspension spans under the same loading conditions. The ruling span concept can only model a uniformly loaded section, that is where identical wind and or ice on one span exists on all spans in the section.

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It is assumed that the insulator is free to swing along the line and the insulators are long enough to equalize the tension in adjacent spans without transferring any longitudinal load onto the structure. In general, spans shorter than the ruling span tend to sag more than predicted whilst spans longer than the ruling span sag less than predicted at temperatures above the stringing temperature (assuming that the tensions were equal at the time of stringing aerial conductor).

The ruling span concept may not apply to fixed pin and post insulators because the structures may not be flexible enough to equalize tensions. However, if the stringing tension is low, or the spans are short, or the spans are approximately equal, then there is little difference in tension across the fixed attachment point under identical loading conditions in each span.

For cases where the ruling span method does not accurately predict sags and tensions, the exact solution will be between the aerial conductor tension results produced by—

(a) using the ruling span method where insulators are assumed to move longitudinally to equalise tensions; and

(b) assuming every structure in the section as a strain structure with a fixed attachment point.

The actual ruling span can only be calculated after the structure locations are determined Therefore an assumed value for the ruling span is made before spotting the structures. In most cases, the actual ruling span should be greater than or equal to the assumed ruling span to ensure that design clearances are met. However, the situation sometimes arises for large ruling spans when the controlling constraint is associated with a heavy loading condition and the tension decreases with increasing ruling spans at the maximum operating temperature. Under these circumstances the actual ruling span should be less than or equal to the assumed ruling span.

The ruling span is calculated using—

Lr =

3

1

1

n

iin

ii

L

L

=

=

∑

∑ for level spans . . .S3

Lr =

4i

i

i

1

1

r

n

LI

iL n

Ii

==

=

∑

∑

for inclined spans . . .S4

where

Ii = 2i iL h+ 2 = the chord length between the supports of span i

Li = the horizontal span length of span i

hi = the support height difference of span i

n = the number of spans between strain structures

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For a single level, dead-end span the ruling span is Lr = L. However, for a single inclined dead-end span, Lr = L2/I

To overcome the limitations of the ruling span method, a finite element model of the aerial conductor and structure system is required. Usually the structures are modelled using stiffness matrices, however the ideal model is one that includes the structural elements.

S5 LOADING CONDITIONS

Once the aerial conductor is strung, its tension can be influenced by the following factors considered by this Appendix:

(a) Aerial conductor temperature (t).

(b) Wind pressure transverse to the aerial conductor (P).

(c) Radial ice on the aerial conductor (r).

(d) Age of aerial conductor as measured by the creep strain (ε).

Wind and ice loading affect the horizontal and vertical component of load per unit length.

Wh = P(d + 2r) . . .S5

Wv = g.(m + ρπr(d + r)) . . .S6

where ρ ranges from about 300 kg/m3 for rime to 916 kg/m3 for ice.

The resultant distributed load is the vector sum of Wh and Wv

W = 2 2h vW W+ . . .S7

The catenary constants C, Ch and Cv are functions of W, Wh and Wv respectively. Ch is used for aerial conductor swing-out calculations, Cv is used to calculate vertical clearances and C is used for calculating tension changes.

Longitudinal and yawed wind loading and point loads such as cable chairs, droppers, strain insulator strings and aircraft warning spheres require analytical tools not covered by this Standard.

S6 TENSION CONSTRAINTS

Tension constraints are used to limit the horizontal tensions for one or more of the following reasons—

(a) to restrict fatigue damage caused by Aeolian vibration. This constraint is frequently referred to as the everyday tension (EDT) constraint. The tension limit is influenced by the climate, terrain, extent of vibration protection, aerial conductor material, aerial conductor self-damping characteristics and type of aerial conductor support. For an informative on everyday tension refer to Appendix Z;

(b) to give a margin of structural safety under extreme weather conditions of wind and ice;

(c) to limit the tension for short ruling spans under cold conditions. For short spans there are large variations of tension with temperature changes; and

(d) to give a margin of safety for personnel performing maintenance and stringing operations which may be carried out under light wind conditions.

The age of the aerial conductor at which a particular tension constraint applies should be stipulated if the creep is significant. The tension reduces as the aerial conductor creeps. An age of 10 years is usually applied since strand settling and metallurgical creep are virtually completed in that period.

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The controlling constraint is the most restrictive tension constraint, producing the largest sags and the least tensions for any given loading condition. For a given ruling span usually only one tension constraint controls (or limits) the tensions for all other loading conditions. At the transition ruling span, two tension constraints produce identical values of unstressed lengths, that is there are two controlling constraints.

A tension constraint can alternatively be expressed as a catenary constant, aluminium stress, support tension, sag or an amount of slack. Each of these alternatives can be converted to a horizontal tension as follows:

(i) Catenary constant (C)

H = WC . . .S8

(ii) Aerial conductor stress (σ)

For an ACSR aerial conductor with a steel to aluminium modulus ratio of three and with the aluminium and steel in tension the aluminium stress can be converted to tension using—

H ≈ σ(Aa + 3As) . . .S9

For a homogeneous aerial conductor

H = σA . . .S10

(iii) Tangential tension (T) at a support (based on the parabola and a level span)

8)(

22

2r

2 WLTTH −⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛+= . . .S11

(iv) Sag (D) (based on the parabola) 2

v r

8W LH

D= . . .S12

(v) Slack Δ

3r

24LH W=Δ

. . .S13

The advantages of constraining the tension based on slack are—

(A) the specified amount of slack is available when required to uncouple the hardware fittings when changing strain insulator strings. This is important for short spans;

(B) The tension reduces with the ruling span length and this makes aesthetic short span geometry; and

(C) Light duty strain structures may be used for short spans with only a small penalty in terms of increased structure height.

For a given ruling span the tension constraint producing the shortest unstressed aerial conductor length as given by equation S14 is the controlling constraint. The aerial conductor length at 0°C, under no tension and at an age when the creep strain is zero is

S0 = ε+α++ t

EAT

Sa1

. . .S14

where the stressed aerial conductor length is

S = 2Csinh ⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛

CL2

r . . .S15

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and for the parabola is

S = Lr + 2

3r

24CL . . .S16

It is common practice to assume that Ta ≈ H; however, Ta is evaluated more accurately in Paragraph S10 for the catenary and Paragraph S11 for the parabola.

S7 TENSION CHANGES

The tension change or change of state equation equates the unstressed aerial conductor length for two different loading conditions. The relationship between the stressed and unstressed length is based on Hooke’s law for linear elastic materials. Any thermal strain or plastic strain (creep and strand settling) is modelled by a strain translation of the linear stress/strain curve. Therefore the tension change equation only applies for aerial conductors behaving elastically as shown in Figure S2.

ST

RE

SS

STRAIN (% elongat ion)

Initial moduluscurve

Final modulus s lope

Linear model accurate lyest imates tensions

Linear model underest imates tensions

Linear modelunderest imatestensions

FIGURE S2 LINEAR ELASTIC NON HOMOGENOUS AERIAL CONDUCTOR MODEL

For one loading condition such as the controlling tension constraint Hi is defined. For the other loading condition the tension Hf is desired and is determined by the tension change equation. The tension change equation is:

S = ff

f

f

iii

i

11 ε+α++=

ε+α++ tEAH

S

tEAH

S . . .S17

The value of S0 is known because by definition the controlling constraint is the tension constraint producing the smallest value of S0. Note that Sf is a function of Hf and can be evaluated using either the catenary Equation S15 or the parabolic Equation S16.

When the parabola is used and the average tension and the average tension is assumed to be the horizontal component of tension, the tension change equation becomes,

023 =−+ baHH ff . . .S18

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where

( ) ( ) iifif2i

2r

2i

24Htt

HLWEAa −⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛−+−+= εεα

24

22rf LEAW

b =

In practice, there is negligible difference between the results from tension change equations derived from the catenary and that derived from parabola.

When the plastic strains are ignored, equation S18 is called the time independent tension change equation.

S8 SAGGING TENSIONS

For the purpose of determining sagging tensions, the variables with subscript ‘f’ shall refer to the controlling constraint whilst variables with subscript ‘i’ shall refer to loading conditions at the time of sagging. Therefore εf is the creep strain that has occurred up until the age of the aerial conductor when the controlling constraint applies which is usually 10 years. The creep strain εi occurs prior to sagging.

The plastic strain is the sum of metallurgical creep and strand settling. Guidance on metallurgical creep strain can be obtained from references provided in Appendix V. The strand settling strain can be approximated from the stress strain curve by subtracting the elastic strain from the initial composite strain. A plastic strain allowance may be made for the aerial conductor to reach its maximum stress level during its lifetime. Therefore the strand settling associated with this level of stress would apply to final sags and tensions but rarely to initial stringing sags and tensions. The total creep strain is the sum of metallurgical creep and strand settling.

It is common practice to convert the difference in creep strain (εf – εi) to an equivalent thermal strain (αtc) and overtension the aerial conductor by using a temperature lower than that which actually applies at the time of sagging. Therefore if the controlling constraint applies at say 10 years, then the final sags and tensions are calculated using equation S17 with εf = εi = 0 and the initial sags and tensions are determined by applying a negative temperature correction of ( )t to the final sags and tensions.

ifc εεα −= 1

The following methods may be used to compensate for plastic strain:

(a) A clearance buffer is added to the statutory ground clearance and new aerial conductor is sagged to the final (10 year) values. The disadvantage of this method is that the magnitude of the buffer depends upon the span lengths. Normally a buffer is also used for errors that arise from surveying, design and construction. This method is not recommended for long spans unless additional clearance is provided.

(b) Add a temperature buffer to the maximum operating temperature and provide final (10 year) sags for stringing new aerial conductor. This method may provide excess ground clearance when a non-linear ACSR model is used. That is because the design temperature is not the maximum operating temperature and high temperature sags are larger when aluminium goes into compression. This method results in the final actual tension being below the final design tension, thus producing a suboptimum solution for long spans.

(c) Prestress the aerial conductor prior to sagging with the final (10 year) values. The high prestress tension is used to quickly remove future metallurgical creep and strand settling. Its disadvantage is that it reduces the structural safety margin during the stringing operation.

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(d) Over tension the aerial conductor by providing initial (1 hour) sag values or by using

a negative temperature compensation value along with the final sags (as described above). The disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to sag the entire section quickly enough to avoid difficulties resulting from the high initial rate of creep. It also exposes the aerial conductor to a higher risk of aeolian vibration damage during the early life of the line.

A combination of methods (c) and (d) provides an acceptable solution however the method requires information regarding the tension and temperature experienced by the aerial conductor during the pre-sag period.

S9 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The ruling span concept assumes that the tension in each span of the ruling span section is the same. Once the aerial conductor tension has been determined for a particular load case and aerial conductor age using the ruling span for the section, the physical characteristics of each span in the section may be determined using either inelastic catenary or inelastic parabolic equations.

S10 CATENARY EQUATIONS

x1 = C tanh−1 1sinh2 2 sinh

2

h L hC LS CC

−

⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟⎛ ⎞ − = −⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

2L . . .S19

x2 = C tanh−1 1sinh2 2 sinh

2

h L hC LS CC

−

⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟⎛ ⎞ + = +⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

2L . . .S20

S = S1 + S2 = 2

22 sinh2LC hC

⎛ ⎞ +⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .S21

S1 = −Csinh 1xC

= weight span contribution to structure 1 . . .S22

S2 = −Csinh 2xC

= weight span contribution to structure 2 . . .S23

2S = wind span contribution to structure 1 and structure 2 . . .S24

IS −=Δ . . .S25

11 vsinh xV H W

C= − = 1S . . .S26

22 vsinh xV H W

C= − = 2S . . .S27

11 cosh 1xy C

C⎛ ⎞= −⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .S28

y2 = C ⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛ − 1cosh 2

Cx . . .S29

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11 1cosh xT H H W

C= = + y . . .S30

22 2cosh xT H H W

C= = + y . . .S31

T2 − T1 = hW × . . .S32

T2 − T1 = tanh

2

WSLC

. . .S33

1 11tan sinh x S

C Cθ = − = . . .S34

2 22tan sinh x S

C Cθ = − = . . .S35

x3 = Csinh−1 hL

(mid span) . . .S36

cosh 1 cosh 12 22 sinh

2

S L IC LD CL C L CCC

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞≈ − =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

− . . .S37

cosh 12LD CC

⎛= ⎜⎝ ⎠

⎞− ⎟ (for a level span) . . .S38

Ta = 2 2

2 2 sinh2CH S h L L

S S h C C⎛ ⎞+

+⎜ ⎟−⎝ ⎠ . . .S39

Ta = ⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛ +

SHLT

21 (for a level span where T1 = T2 = T) . . .S40

S11 PARABOLIC EQUATIONS

x1 = 2

Ch LL

− = weight span contribution to structure 1 . . .S41

x2 = 2

Ch LL

+ = negative weight span contribution to structure 2 . . .S42

2L = wind span contribution to structure 1 and structure 2 . . .S43

The equation for calculating the arc length of a parabola is more complex than that of the catenary, therefore a Maclaurin’s series approximation of the catenary equation is used.

S = l + 4

224LC I

. . .S44

Δ = S − L = 4 2

2

824 3

L DC I I

= . . .S45

V1 = −Wvx1 = 2vW L Hh

L− . . .S46

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V2 = −Wvx2 = 2vW L Hh

L+ . . .S47

y1 = D + 2

16 2h h

D− . . .S48

y2 = D + 2

16 2h h

D+ . . .S49

T1 = 2 21

H x CC

+ . . .S50

T2 = 2 22

H x CC

+ . . .S51

tan θ1 = 1 4x h DC L

−= . . .S52

tan θ2 = 2 4x h DC L

+= . . .S53

x3 = ChL

(mid span) . . .S54

D = 2

8LC

(independent of h) . . .S55

Ta = 2 3

212H I LS L C⎛ ⎞

+⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .S56

Ta = 2

32

12SCHL

SHL

+ (for h=0)

= ⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛ −

SLH 2

. . .S57

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S12 MULTIPLE SPAN CALCULATIONS

S12.1 Structure loads

Conductor suppor tBlo

wn o

ut conducto

r

To next suppor t

Dire

ct io

n o

f t ran

sverse

co

mp

on

en

t of w

ind

PL AN VIEW

H 2H1N 2 N1

FIGURE S3 AERIAL CONDUCTOR LOADS

At a strain structure where the loads from both sections are combined at a single point e.g. pointed crossarms, the orthogonal components of aerial conductor load (relative to the structure geometry) are—

( ) ( )( ) (

21

22221111

22221111

cossincossinsincossincos

VVFNHNHFNHNHF

v

T

L

+=+++= )−−−=

θθθθθθθθ

. . .S58

At a structure with square crossarms, the load contribution from each span shall be assessed independently so that torsional loading on the crossarm can be considered.

At the aerial conductor attachment point of a suspension insulator H1 = H2 = H (assuming tension equalisation in the ruling span section). This assumption is valid if the transverse wind pressure is the same in both adjacent spans. If the aerial conductor deviation angle is 2θ and the structure is constructed with its transverse axis on the bisect of the deviation angle then, θ1 = θ2 = θ. Thus for a flying angle or suspension angle—

( )( )

21

21

12

cossin2

sin

VVF

NNHF

NNF

v

T

L

+=

++=

−=

θθ

θ

. . .S59

If the deviation angle is 0°, which is typical for most suspension structures, then—

21

21

0

VVFNNF

F

v

T

L

+=+=

=

. . .S60

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The transverse and vertical components of tension are calculated using—

222

111

222

111

vv

vv

hh

hh

WLVWLV

WLNWLN

====

. . .S61

where

FL, FT, FV = longitudinal, transverse and vertical (to the structure) component of aerial conductor load at the aerial conductor support

H1, H2 = left and right longitudinal (to the span) component of aerial conductor tension

N1, N2 = left and right transverse (to the span) component of aerial conductor tension

V1, V2 = left and right vertical component of aerial conductor tension

Lh1, Lh2 = left and right partial wind spans such that Lh = Lh1 + Lh2

Lv1, Lv2 = left and right partial weight spans such that Lv = Lv1 + Lv2

Wh1, Wh2 = left and right transverse (to the span) component of distributed aerial conductor load

Wv1, Wv2 = left and right vertical component of distributed aerial conductor load

S12.2 Weight span to wind span ratio (based on parabolic simplification)

For spotting suspension structures, a lower limit of weight span to wind span ratio is derived from the maximum allowable transverse insulator swing angle β measured from vertical, which satisfies the electrical clearance requirements under the maximum wind condition.

FIGURE S4 WIND AND WEIGHT SPANS

Neglecting insulator weight and wind on insulator, the allowable weight span to wind span ratio for the suspension structure and aerial conductor combination is—

v h

h v tanL WL W β

≥ . . .S62

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The spotted weight span to wind span ratio based on the parabola is—

21

2bCLLL

L v

h

v = where the wind span 1 2h 2

L LL += . . .S63

Note that b is negative when the support is below the chord joining adjacent supports which is indicated by the dashed line of Figure S4.

Therefore by combining Equations S62 and S63, a value for ‘ei’ that includes the allowable insulator swing and spotted weight span to wind span ratio is obtained as

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛−≥ 1

tan221

βv

h

v WW

CLLb . . .S64

Thus it is possible to visually inspect a plan and profile drawing to determine whether there will be any insulator swing violations by checking the b’ values. This check can be done without ever calculating the weight span or weight to wind span ratio at the wind pressure used to determine the insulator swing that violates some electrical clearance criterion. Although computer programs perform these checks automatically, it is prudent to review the design to detect any input data errors or omissions.

A detailed procedure of calculating insulator swing is provided in Appendix R.

S12.3 Variation of weight span with aerial conductor tension (based on parabolic simplification)

If the weight span Lv1 is known for a given tension H1 then the weight span Lv2 at any other tension H2 is—

2v2 h v1 h

1

( )CL L L LC

= + − . . .S65

where

1 21 2

v1 v2

andH HC CW W

= = . . .S66

Longitudinal profile drawings can be used to measure the weight spans for the plotted catenaries (e.g. the maximum operating temperature or sometimes the maximum working wind or ice load). The above formula can be used to calculate the aerial conductor weight spans at other conditions of temperature, ice, wind or creep.

S13 REFERENCES

1 CIGRE SCB2.12.3 Sag Tension Calculation Methods for Overhead Lines. CIGRE Technical Brochure No.324, June 2007.

2 BOYSE, C.O. & SIMPSON, N.G. The Problem of Conductor Sagging on Overhead Transmission Lines. Journal of the Inst. of Elec. Eng. Vol 91, Pt II, Dec 1944, pp 219 – 231.

3 BARRIEN, J Precise Sags and Tensions in Multiple Span Transmission Lines. Electrical Engineering Transactions IEAust, Vol II, No.1, 1975, pp 6-11.

4 OVERHEAD CONDUCTOR DESIGN BICC WIRE MILL DIVISION PRESCOT, Lancashire, England, 1967, pp 21-28. For details regarding the non-linear modelling of conductors, refer to Sag-Tension.

5 NIGOL, O., BARRETT, J.S. Characteristics of ACSR Conductors at High Temperatures and Stresses, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Volume PAS-100, Issue 2, Feb. 1981, pages 485 – 493.

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6 MOTLIS, Y., BARRETT, J.S., DAVIDSON, G.A., DOUGLASS, D.A., HALL, P.A.,

REDING, J.L., SEPPA, T.O., THRASH JR. F.R., WHITE, H.B. Limitations of the ruling span method for overhead line conductors at high operating temperatures, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume 14, Issue 2, Apr 1999, pages: 549 – 560

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APPENDIX T

AERIAL CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND SAG MEASUREMENT

(Informative)

T1 AERIAL CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Various measuring techniques have been used to establish the temperature for stringing new aerial conductors. The actual temperature of the aerial conductor should be measured during sagging of the aerial conductor to avoid aerial conductor over-tensioning or loss of ground clearance.

The actual aerial conductor temperature can be determined reasonably accurately by using a stainless steel dial type thermometer with the stem inserted into the core of the aerial conductor of similar material. For smaller bare aerial conductor the stainless steel dial type thermometer alone is usually sufficient. The thermometer should be hung in an exposed location parallel to the aerial conductor and at a height similar to the aerial conductor. A sufficient period should be allowed for the temperature to stabilize before it is read immediately prior to sagging of the aerial conductor.

NOTE: Temperature correction may be required to allow for aerial conductor inelastic stretch.

T2 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SAG MEASUREMENT

Aerial conductor sag may be measured by direct methods, such as sight boards mounted on the structures or by theodolite measurement, or by measuring the aerial conductor tension by dynamometer.

T3 SIGHT BOARD METHOD

To produce a required sag a sight board is fitted at the required distance below the point of attachment at each end of the span and the aerial conductor is tensioned until the tangent of the catenary is in line with the two boards. To measure an unknown sag the tangent of the catenary is sighted from a known distance (A) below the first point of attachment to a point below the second aerial conductor attachment (distance B).

D = 2

2A B⎛ ⎞+

⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .T1

where

D = aerial conductor sag

A = distance below the first aerial conductor support

B = distance below the second aerial conductor support

(See Figure T1).

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FIGURE T1 QUANTITIES ASSOCIATED WITH SIGHT BOUND METHOD

T4 THEODOLITE METHOD

This method is more accurate and is recommended for long spans where the sag is greater than the height of either aerial conductor attachment points above the ground. A theodolite is set up below the aerial conductor attachment and the angle of tangency to the catenary is measured. The sag can be calculated by solving the following equation:

tan θ = 4 4AD H D

L+ −

. . .T2

where

θ = angle of tangency to the catenary

D = aerial conductor sag

A = vertical distance from the centre of the theodolite to the aerial conductor support

H = difference in height of the aerial conductor supports (positive when the support furthest from the theodolite is the higher)

L = span length

(See Figure T2).

FIGURE T2 QUANTITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THEODOLITE METHOD

This method should not be used where the point of tangency is greater than 80% of the span length because of the magnification of sighting errors.

P = 50 AD

. . .T3

where

P = point of tangency expressed as a percentage of the span length (%)

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T5 WAVE SAG METHOD

One indirect method, known as wave sagging, relies on the relationship between aerial conductor tension and the speed at which a mechanical pulse travels along the aerial conductor. The aerial conductor is struck at one end of a span with a suitable striker and at the same time, a stopwatch is started. The pulse will be reflected at the other end of the span back to the striker. To reduce errors in measurement the time for three cycles is usually recorded.

D = 29.81

32tN

⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .T4

where


t = time (seconds) for N return waves

N = number of return waves (usually three)

g = gravitational acceleration—normally taken as 9.8067 (m/s2)

This relationship is based on the parabolic simplification of the catenary equation and should only be used for the relatively shorter distribution spans (e.g. up to 500 m) and for relatively level spans.

T6 SWING SAG METHOD

Another indirect method, known as swing sagging, is based on a pendulum. The aerial conductor is pulled to one side and released. The time for the aerial conductor to swing from one side to the opposite and back is recorded.

D = 2

1.7961t

N⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .T5

where


t = time for aerial conductor to swing N times from one side to the opposite side and back (seconds)

N = number of swings timed

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APPENDIX U

RISK BASED APPROACH TO EARTHING

(Normative)

U1 RISK ANALYSIS

A probabilistic risk analysis is a calculation of the probability and consequences of various known and postulated accidents. Probabilistic risk analyses are therefore an applied extension of statistics and are affected by the same limitations and assumptions from which the methods are derived. In this guide, the probabilistic risk analyses are used to determine the probability of causing fatality to one or multiple individuals.

The calculation of the probability of fatality is limited by the accuracy of the available data and the conditions under which the hazard may occur. The calculation of the probability of fatality may be simplified significantly if the following conditions are met:

(a) The occurrence of a hazard is random.

(b) The occurrence of a hazard is independent of the presence of an individual.

(c) The occurrence of a hazard will be independent of the occurrence of past hazards.

(d) The hazard occurs at a constant rate per unit of time, one at a time*.

The development of a probabilistic risk approach on the basis of these assumptions restricts the application of the calculation to individuals who will not contribute to or cause the hazard to occur, and situations for which a fault which causes the hazard will not cause the generation of additional faults. If the probability of a fault occurring satisfies the above conditions the occurrence of faults may be classified as a ‘Poisson Process’ and the probability of an individual being in a hazard zone during a fault can be described by Pc:

Pc = λH × λE × (LE + LH) 1365 24 60 60× × ×

. . .U1

where

λH = hazard rate factor (average number of faults per year)

λE = exposure rate factor (average number of exposures per year)

LH = average hazard duration (in seconds)

LE = average exposure duration (in seconds)

* In certain situations, hazards separated by short intervals derived from a single cause may be approximated

as a single fault.

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Pc is the probability that an individual is in a hazard zone during the fault. Hence, it can be thought of as the probability that the exposure of an individual and the presence of a fault coincide. To convert this probability to a probability of a fatality there are many variables to consider. Following a coincidence, a fatality depends on factors such as the footwear, clothing, age and health of the person in the hazard zone, as well as other environmental factors and the exact position of the individual. Hence, although Pc is a useful measure of the probability of coincidence, it is a conservative estimate of the probability of death and it is extremely difficult to know whether it is a good approximation or highly conservative. This lack of precision is due to the multitude of unknown factors that control whether a coincidence becomes a fatality. In summary, Pc is an effective metric for the probability of fatality and can be used to rank hazard situations. However, it is difficult to estimate directly the probability of a fatality. The coincidence probability is therefore be considered equivalent to the probability of fatality.

In some cases it may be more useful to set the coincidence probability, Pc, to the high and low limits, Phigh (=10−4), Plow (=10−6) and back calculate the limits for the total time spent inside the hazard zone each year.

6E E

low-intH E H H E

31,536,000 1 10 31.5L LL L L L

μλ λ

−× ×= × =

+ + H

× . . .U2

4E E

int-highH E H H E

31,536,000 1 10 3153.6L LL L L L

μλ λ

−× ×= × =

+ + H

× . . .U3

The method of defining the exposure limits according to the fault rate, and comparing the calculated risk according to limits of 10−4 and 10−6 are mathematically equivalent. These limits provide a simple method that may be used by on-site personnel to estimate whether the exposure is likely to exceed the tolerable limits set. The cumulative exposure of an individual may be expressed as:

μ = λELE . . .U4

where

λE = exposure rate factor (average number of exposures per year)

LE = average exposure duration (in seconds)

μ = cumulative exposure per year (in seconds)

In complex cases for which the rate at which hazards occur has large seasonal variations, the risk should be determined by using the coincidence probability.

U2 FAULTS ON TOWERS AND CABLES

To assist with calculations, where data that is more accurate is not available, some typical data on overhead line fault rates and protection fault clearing times can be found in Table U1 and Table U2, respectively. For considering faults on overhead lines, if the line length of interest is known, then the average number of faults per unit time on overhead lines in Table U1 can be used to estimate the rate at which hazardous voltages will occur on a tower λH.

The fault rates for underground cables are much lower than for overhead lines. Typical underground cable fault rates are 2 to 3 per 100 km for 11 to 33 kV and less than 1 for higher voltages. The average fault duration, LH, can be estimated from values given in Table U2. Note that for close in faults, earth fault current is high and the protection operates quickly. However, for faults further out along the feeder, line impedance causes lower fault current that takes longer to be seen by the protection. Consequently, different fault locations need to be considered to determine the worst case EPR and clearing time combination.

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TABLE U1

TYPICAL OVERHEAD LINE FAULT RATES

System voltage (phase to phase)

Overhead line fault rate (faults/100 km year)

LV 20–150

11 kV–33kV 5–10 shielded, 10–40 unshielded

66 kV 2–5

100 kV–132 kV 1–4

220 kV–275 kV <1.0

330 kV <0.5

400 kV <0.5

500 kV <0.5

NOTES: 1 The rate at which faults occur on a tower is different to the rate at which

hazards occur. The hazard zones around towers connected by OHEWs are reduced by the flow of current transferred through adjacent towers, however this transferred current can also create hazards at those towers. The rate at which hazards occur can therefore be significantly larger than the tower fault rate.

2 The higher outage rates occur in northern Australia where there is more frequent high wind and lightning storms.

3 The lower outage rates occur in southern Australia and New Zealand where there is less frequent high wind and lower lightning activity.

TABLE U2

TYPICAL PRIMARY PROTECTION CLEARING TIMES

System voltage (phase to phase)

Primary protection clearing time

LV 2 s

11 kV–33 kV 1 s

66 kV 0.5 s

100 kV–250 kV 220 ms

251 kV–275 kV 120 ms

330 kV 120 ms

400 kV 120 ms

500 kV 100 ms

NOTE: The primary protection clearing times for >100kV are based on National Electricity Code fault clearing time requirements for remote end.

U3 SIMPLIFIED CALCULATION OF PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS

The above calculation may be simplified if certain additional conditions are met—

(a) the length of time for which a person is within a hazard region is significantly greater (more than 100 times greater) than the average length of a fault;

(b) the rate at which faults occur over time is constant (i.e. faults are equally likely to occur at any time of the day or season); and

(c) there is only one source of hazards within the hazard region.

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The above conditions are usually too strict for most situations as slight variations in fault rate and exposure length can occur. Further analysis is required for such situations however the analysis does not usually alter the calculated probability significantly. If conditions (a), (b), and (c) are met, the limits for cumulative exposure per year can be calculated as—

high lowH H

3153.6 31.5,μ μλ λ

= = . . .U5

The coincidence probability may be calculated using the simplified equation—

H E E1

365 24 60 60cP Lλ λ= × ×× × ×

. . .U6

Example 1

Problem

A jogger goes for a run every day of the week. At the end of each run, the jogger leans against a 11 kV concrete pole to do stretching exercises for two minutes. Hazards occur at the pole once every 150 years and create a hazard on and around the pole. The length of an exposure is significantly longer than the fault clearing time.

Solution 1

The average length of time that the jogger is exposed in the hazard region LE is 120 s, and the average number of exposures per year, λE, is 365. Faults occur once every 150 years on average. The fault rate factor is therefore—

3H

1 hazard 6.67 10 hazards per year150 years

λ −= = × . . .U7

The equivalent probability is therefore— 3

6H E E

1 6.67 10 365 120 9.3 10365 24 60 60 365 24 60 60cP Lλ λ

−−× ×

≈ × × = ×× × × × × ×

. . .U8

This risk level is above the tolerable level of 10−6 and falls in the Intermediate risk category defined in section Consequently, risk treatment measures should be investigated to reduce the risk to as low as reasonably practical.

Solution 2×

The hazard rate λH is equal to—

3H


λ −= = × . . .U9

The limits for the cumulative exposure per year are—

high 3H

3153.6 3153.6 472,803 s per year 9092 s per week6.67 10

μλ −= = = =

× . . .U10

μlow = 0.01 × μlhigh = 4728 s per year = 91 s per week . . .U11

The jogger’s exposure is above the lower limit of 91 s per week and falls in the ‘Intermediate’ risk category defined in Section 10. As expected, the methods used in Solution 1 and Solution 2 produce the same result.

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U4 ADVANCED CALCULATION OF THE PROBABILITY OF FATALITY

If a situation does not meet one or all of conditions (a)–(c), a more rigorous analysis may be required to calculate the probability of fatality. The appropriate method of calculating the coincidence probability will be outlined for situations that do not meet the specified conditions in the following paragraphs.

U5 CALCULATION OF THE PROBABILITY OF FATALITY FOR COMPARABLE EXPOSURE AND FAULT LENGTHS

The simplified calculation approximates the coincidence probability as the probability that a fault will occur while an individual is within the hazard region. For situations in which the length of exposure is comparable to the length of the fault however, a significant proportion of the coincidence probability is derived from the arrival of an individual into a faulted hazard area. This is taken into account by the original calculation for the coincidence probability that takes into the case that a hazard is occurring when an individual enters a hazard region and the case that a hazard will occur while an individual is in the hazard region.

Example 2:

Problem:

A jogger goes for a run every day of the week. At the halfway point of each run the jogger touches a metal gate next to a 275 kV tower for 1 s. Faults occur at the pole once every 120 years and create a touch voltage hazard on the gate for 1 s.

Solution 1:

The risk associated with this scenario may be calculated directly using equation B1 as shown. The average length of an exposure LE is approximately 1 s, the average length of a fault LF is 1 s, and the number of exposures per year that occur λE is 365. The rate at which hazards occur is—

3H


λ −= = × . . .U12

The coincidence probability per year is therefore—

H E E1( )

365 24 60 60c HP L Lλ λ= +× × ×

3 1(8.33 10 )(365)(1 1)365 24 60 60

−= × +× × ×

3 88.33 10 365 6.34 10− −= × × × ×

71.93 10−= ×

. . .U13

The difference between the risk for cases in which the fault length is similar to the exposure length is therefore significant and in this case doubles the calculated risk. This risk level is below the tolerable level of 10−6 defined in Paragraph U6. Consequently, no risk treatment action is necessary.

Solution 2:

The fault rate factor is therefore—

3H


λ −= = × . . .U14

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The limits for the cumulative exposure per year are—

high 3H

3153.6 3153.6 1s 189,291sper year8.33 10 1s 1s

E

H E

LL L

μλ −

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞= = =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟+ × +⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

3640s per week=

. . .U15

μlow = 0.01 × μlhigh = 1893 s per year = 36 s per week . . .U16

The exposure of an individual in the hazard zone can be calculated by using—

μ = λE LE = (120) (365) = 43,800 s per year = 840 s per week . . .U17

U6 TOLERABLE RISK LIMITS

Any injuries or fatalities to workers or members of the public are unacceptable, however the inherent danger of electricity and disproportionate cost of protecting every individual from every conceivable hazard require that some level of risk be tolerated. Tolerable limits vary according to the classification of the risk.

Individual Limits

The unacceptable and acceptable individual fatality probability limits in the context of this document are shown in Table U3.

TABLE U3

RISK MANAGEMENT MATRIX—FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE VERSUS SEVERITY OF CONSEQUENCE

Probability of single fatality

(per year)

Risk classification for public death

Resulting implication for risk treatment

≥10−4 High Intolerable Must prevent occurrence regardless of costs.

10−4–10−6 Intermediate As low as reasonably practical for intermediate risk

Must minimize occurrence unless risk reduction is impractical and costs are grossly disproportionate to safety gained.

≤10−4 Low As low as reasonably practical for low risk Minimize occurrence if reasonably practical

and cost of reduction is reasonable given project costs.

U7 RISK TREATMENT MEASURES

U7.1 General

When designing earthing systems, the following risk treatment methods should be considered to manage the risk associated with step, touch and transferred voltage hazards:

(a) Reduction of the impedance of the earthing system.

(b) Reduction of earth fault current using neutral earthing impedances or resonant earthing.

(c) Reduction of the fault clearing times.

(d) Surface insulating layer.

(e) Installation of gradient control conductors.

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(f) Separation of HV and LV earth electrodes.

(g) Isolation.

Often a combination of risk treatments will be required to control EPR hazards.

The above methods are detailed below.

U7.2 Reducing earth grid impedance

Reduction in the impedance of an earthing system can be effective in reducing the EPR hazards. However, since the fault current usually increases as the earth grid impedance decreases, the effectiveness of the reduction depends on the impedance of the earth grid relative to the total earth fault circuit impedance. For the reduction to be effective, the reduced impedance needs to be low compared to the other impedances in the faulted circuit. Typically, the earth grid impedance must approach the power system source impedance before the EPR starts decreasing significantly.

If the earthing system earth impedance is reduced by enlarging the earthing system, then even though the EPR on the earthing system will reduce, the resultant EPR contours may be pushed out further. In some circumstances, the increase in the size of the EPR contours may be significant for a small reduction in the EPR of the system. As a result, the size of any transferred EPR hazard zones will increase. Whether this is a desirable end result will depend on the specifics of a particular situation.

If the earthing system earth impedance is reduced by bonding remote earths to it, then the resultant reduced EPR is also spread to the remote earths. This also introduces new transferred EPRs onto the earthing system when there are earth faults at any of these remote earths. Examples of this include bonding pylons to substations via overhead earth wires, and bonding the earthing system to extensive LV network systems. This risk treatment measure can be very effective in significant urban areas where an extensive earthing system can be obtained by bonding together protective earth and neutral (PEN) conductors from adjacent LV networks.

The following methods may be considered when attempting to reduce the impedance of earth electrodes.

U7.3 Overhead shield wires

Shield wires are typically used on transmission lines at or above 66 kV usually at least over a short section of line out from the substation. Shield wires are also sometimes used on distribution lines (11 kV and above) for the first kilometre out from the substation but this is not common.

While the primary purpose of the shield wires is to provide lightning shielding for the substation, bonding of the shield wires to the substation earth grid can significantly reduce earth fault currents through the earth grid for faults at the station or at conductive poles or towers bonded to the shield wires.

Inductive coupling between the shield wire(s) and the faulted aerial phase conductor can significantly reduce the earth return current during fault conditions at conductive poles or towers bonded to the shield wire(s). This, in turn, reduces the EPR levels at both the substation and at the conductive pole or tower. However, the incidence of (transferred) EPR events at the conductive poles or towers will become more frequent since each station EPR will be transferred to the nearby towers/poles.

For a bus earth fault at a substation, the shield wires can divert significant current away from the substation earth grid. The net effect of the shield wires is to reduce the impedance of the overall earthing system (earth grid and tower/pole footing electrodes in parallel) thereby reducing the EPR.

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Consideration shall be given to the shield wire size (fault rating), particularly for the first few spans from the substation.

U7.4 Cable screen

Bonded cable screens provide galvanic and inductive return paths for fault current for both cable faults and destination substation faults.

Bonding of cable screens to the earthing systems at both ends is advantageous in most situations. However, the transfer of EPR hazards through the cable screens to remote sites should be considered as part of the design.

The bonding of single core cables at both ends may affect the rating of the cables, depending on the cable configuration (due to induced currents in the screens and sheaths). Care should be taken to ensure the rating of the cable is adequate for the application.

The rating of the cable screen should be adequate for the expected fault current and for the current induced in the screen during normal operation.

U7.5 Earth electrode enhancement

If the soil resistivity is high and the available area for the grounding system is restricted, methods of enhancing the earth electrode may be required. Such methods include the encasement of the electrode in conducting compounds, chemical treatment of the soil surrounding the electrode and the use of buried metal strips, wires or cables.

These methods may be considered in certain circumstances as a possible solution to the problem of high electrode resistance to earth. They may also be applied in areas where considerable variation of electrode resistance is experienced due to seasonal climatic changes.

Chemical treatment of the soil surrounding an electrode should only be considered in exceptional circumstances where no other practical solution exists, as the treatment requires regular maintenance. Since there is a tendency for the applied salts to be washed away by rain, it is necessary to reapply the treatment at regular intervals.

U7.6 Reduction of earth fault current

Earth fault currents flowing through earthing systems may be reduced by the installations of neutral earthing impedances such as neutral earthing resistors (NER). Alternatively, resonant earthing such as Petersen Coils, Arc Suppression Coils, Earth Fault Neutraliser Earthing, may be very effective.

NERs are typically employed in distribution networks to limit the current that would flow through the neutral star point of a transformer or generator in the event of an earth fault.

NERs may be an effective way of reducing the EPR at faulted sites and thereby controlling step, touch and transferred voltages especially in urban areas where distribution system earth electrodes are bonded to a significant MEN system. However, the reduction in EPR may not always be significant if the impedance of the earthing system is relatively high.

The use of NERs for the control of EPR hazards should be investigated on a case-by-case basis.

NERs can be very effective in reducing induction into parallel services such as telecommunication circuits or pipelines.

Resonant earthing (Petersen coils) are very effective is controlling step, touch and transferred voltages.

A Petersen coil is an inductance that is connected between the neutral point of the system and earth. The inductance of the coil is adjusted so that on the occurrence of a single phase to earth fault, the capacitive current in the unfaulted phases is compensated by the inductive current passed by the Petersen coil.

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Upon the occurrence of an earth fault, the system capacitance discharges into the fault and the faulted phase voltage collapses to a very low value leaving a very small residual current flowing in the fault. This current is so small that any arc between the faulted phase and earth will not be maintained and the fault will extinguish. Transient faults do not result in supply interruptions and in some jurisdictions permanent earth faults can be left on the system without the supply being interrupted while the fault is located and repaired.

Modern systems provide automatic tuning of the inductance to accommodate changes in network topology.

To increase safety and to eliminate restriking faults on underground cables, some systems also provide electronic compensation to reduce the remaining residual current and voltage on the faulted phase to zero.

Resonant earthing can reduce MEN EPR to a safe level even in systems with high MEN resistance.

U7.7 Reduction of fault clearing times

EPR hazards can be mitigated by the reduction of the fault clearing time. This may be easy to implement in certain situations and may be very effective.

Reduction of the fault clearing time may require significant protection review and upgrade, and may prove impracticable. The need for adequate protection grading may also limit the effectiveness of this measure.

U7.8 Surface insulating layer

To limit the current flowing through a person contacting a temporary livened earthed structure, a thin layer of high resistivity material, such as crushed rock and asphalt, is often used on top of the ground surface. This thin layer of surface material helps in limiting the body current by adding resistance to touch and step voltage circuits.

Crushed rock is used mainly, but not exclusively, in zone substations and transmission substations for the following reasons:

(a) To increase tolerable levels of touch and step voltages during a power system earth fault.

(b) To provide a weed-free, self-draining surface.

Asphalt may also be used in zone substations and transmission substations but is likely to be more expensive than crushed rock. Asphalt has the advantage of providing easy vehicle access. Vehicle access over crushed rock may sometime be problematic especially if the basecourse is not prepared correctly.

Asphalt and crushed rock can also be used to control touch and step voltages around towers and poles.

Limited data is available on the flashover withstand of asphalt which may be as low as 4 kV for a 50 mm thick sample. Therefore, where asphalt is used for mitigation, touch voltage should typically not exceed 4 kV and step voltage should not exceed 8 kV. For applications where these limits are exceeded, the withstand voltage should be determined based on the type of asphalt that is being considered.

For design purposes the following criteria applies:

(i) A resistivity of 3,000 Ω-m and a minimum thickness of 100 mm should be used for crushed rock.

(ii) resistivity of 10,000 Ω-m and a minimum thickness of 50 mm should be used for asphalt.

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The insulating property of crushed rock can be easily compromised by pollution (e.g. with soil). Therefore, regular inspection and maintenance of a crushed rock layer is required to ensure that the layer stays clean and maintains its minimum required thickness.

The insulating property of asphalt can be compromised by cracks and excessive water penetration. The integrity of the asphalt layer used for surface treatment shall be maintained.

Close attention is required to the preparation of the ground prior to the application of crushed rock or asphalt. Suitable basecourse shall be prepared before laying the crushed rock or asphalt.

Chip seal should not be used since the resistivity of the chip seal surface is not typically very high and its breakdown voltage is usually low.

Concrete should not be used to control touch and step potentials due to its low resistivity unless the reinforcing in the concrete is used to provide an equipotential zone.

U7.9 Gradient control conductors

Touch voltages on a structure can be mitigated to some extent by using gradient control conductors buried at various distances from the structure. Typically, gradient control conductors are buried at a distance of one metre from the structure. Additional gradient control conductors are also buried further out from structures as required.

In zone and transmission substations, gradient control conductors are typically used for the control of touch voltages outside the station security fence. These conductors are very effective when used in conjunction with a metre wide strip of crushed rock or asphalt installed around the outside of the fence. When designing zone and transmission substations, provision should be made to allow such a strip to be installed, if required.

Gradient control conductors can also be used to control touch voltages on distribution substations and equipment.

Step voltages cannot be controlled with the use of gradient control conductors.

U7.10 Separation of HV and LV earth electrodes

When an earth fault takes place at the HV side of a distribution centre, the EPR on the HV earth electrode is transferred to the LV system via the PEN conductor. By separating the HV and LV electrodes, the transfer of EPR from the HV system to the LV system can be controlled.

The minimum separation distance required between the HV and LV earthing systems is dependent on—

(a) the size of the HV earthing system;

(b) the maximum EPR on the HV earthing system; and

(c) the distances to the earths bonded to the LV system.

A minimum separation distance of 4 m is suggested between the HV and LV earthing systems. In some instances, the required separation may be much larger (i.e. low/high resistivity layering with a LV network of limited extent).

The integrity of the separated HV and LV earthing systems may be difficult to maintain into the future since other earthed structures may be installed at later stages within the physical separation distance.

Separated HV and LV earthing systems may not be effective in controlling hazardous step and touch voltages in the event of a HV line to LV line contact at the distribution transformer, or on a conjoint HV/LV line section. The following options may be considered for protecting against HV to LV contacts:

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(i) Ensuring the configuration of LV lines at the distribution transformer poles is such

that a HV line to LV line contact is unlikely.

(ii) Replace the LV lines over conjoint HV/LV spans with—

(A) LV buried cable;

(B) LV lines on a separate poles; or

(C) LV aerial bundled conductor cable that is insulated to withstand the full HV conductor voltage.

The transformer shall be rated to withstand the maximum EPR on the HV earthing system, without breaking down to the LV side of the transformer (e.g. via HV/LV winding breakdown, or transformer tank to LV winding breakdown).

When the LV earthing system is segregated from the HV earthing system at a distribution substation, the total earth impedance of the LV earthing system plus associated MEN earths, shall be sufficiently low to ensure the HV feeder protection will operate in the event of a HV winding to LV winding fault. A safety factor should be considered when calculating this maximum earth impedance value.

U7.11 Isolation

Access to structures where hazardous touch voltages may be present can be restricted by the installation of safety barriers or fences. These barriers or fences would typically be non-conductive such as wood, plastic or rubber. For example, a tower could be surrounded by a wooden fence to restrict access to the tower base, or a sheet of rubber could be wrapped around the base of a steel or concrete pole. The installation of isolation barriers usually requires ongoing maintenance but can be very effective in reducing the risk.

Third party fences should be isolated from the substation security fence using non-conductive section of fences. Non-conductive sections may also be required at additional locations along third party fences.

Mitigation of step and touch voltages of metallic pipelines e.g. water pipes connected to a HV or LV network earthing system can be effectively achieved by the installation of plastic pipes.

Example 3:

To illustrate the principles of risk based earthing design following the simplified method presented in this guide, a simple case study is detailed below. The case study follows the steps detailed in Section 10

The case study involves an existing 33 kV concrete pole located close to a bus stop. This pole was identified as potentially carrying an EPR risk for people using the bus stop. People travelling to work typically use the bus stop and it can therefore be assumed that footwear is worn around the pole.

Step 1—Basic data:

(a) The prospective earth fault current at the source substation is 7 kA.

(b) The resistance to earth of the 3 kV pole was measured as 20 Ω.

(c) The resistivity of the top soil layer was measured as 50 Ω-m.

(d) The earth fault clearing time is 0.5 s.

(e) The earth fault frequency for the line is 5 per year.

(f) The line consists of 200 poles.

Step 2—Functional requirement

The pole already meets the functional requirements.

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Step 3—Connection to other earthing systems

In this case, bonding the 33 kV pole to nearby earthing systems is not practical.

Step 4—Pole EPR

Using parameters associated with the earth fault current path for an earth fault at the pole, the EPR on the pole was calculated as 6 kV.

Step 5—Prospective tolerable step and touch voltage limits

The touch voltage limit was determined from Figure 10.2 for a fault clearing time of 0.5 s and for a soil resistivity of 50 Ω-m (footwear included).

The step voltage limit was determined from Figure 10.1 for a fault clearing time of 0.5 s and for a soil resistivity of 50 Ω-m (footwear excluded).

VT (limit) = 600

VS (limit) = 5000

Step 6—Is EPR ≤VT (limit) and VS (limit)?

The EPR on the pole is greater than the touch and step voltage limits.

Step 7—Calculate actual step and touch voltages

The actual touch voltage on the pole was calculated as approximately 3000 V

The actual maximum step voltage was calculated as approximately 2000 V

Step 8—Are actual touch and step voltages ≤VT (limit) and VS (limit)?

Actual touch voltage exceeds the touch voltage limit but the actual step voltage is less than the step voltage limit. Therefore, only touch voltage hazards exist.

Step 9—Risk analysis

The only hazardous components at the pole are the touch voltages onto the concrete pole. The risk can be assessed by calculating the coincidence probability.

Applying equation U6

H E E1

365 24 60 60cP Lλ λ= × ×× × ×

The frequency of earth faults for the line with 200 poles is 5 faults per year. Therefore—

H5 0.025

200λ = =

If for the purpose of this case study, we assume that the pole is being touched once a day for 5 min (i.e. someone leans against the pole) for five days of the week (i.e. for 260 days per year), λE = 260.

LE = 5 min × 60 s = 300 s

5H E E

1 (0.025)(260)(300) 6 10365 24 60 60 (365 24 60 60)cP Lλ λ −= × × = = ×

× × × × × ×

Since only one person is typically affected, N2 = 1 and the equivalent probability is—

Pe = N2Pc = Pc = 6 × 10−5

The risk is therefore ‘Intermediate’ and should be minimised unless the risk reduction is impractical and the costs are grossly disproportionate to safety gained. A cost benefit analysis should be carried out to determine whether the costs of risk treatment options are disproportionate to safety gained.

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Calculate the present value (PV) of the liability—

Value of a statistical life (VOSL) = $10,000,000

Liability per year = 10,000,000 × 6 × 10−5 = $600

PV = $13,000 (assuming an asset lifespan of 50 years and a discount rate of 4%)

Step 10—Risk treatment options

A number of risk treatment options can be considered. Examples of risk treatment options are—

(a) Installing an underslung earth wire on the line.

(b) Installing a gradient control conductor and an asphalt layer around the pole.

(c) Installing an insulating barrier around the pole to prevent people from touching the pole.

(d) Moving the pole.

(e) Moving the bus stop.

A few of the above risk treatment options are detailed below to illustrate the principles.

(i) Installing an underslung earth wire on the line

A study has shown that an underslung earth wire would reduce the EPR on the pole to 600 V. The resulting touch voltage on the pole would then reduce to 300 V which is below the tolerable touch voltage limit. The cost of this risk treatment option has been determined to be approximately $200k. Comparing the cost of risk treatment to the prevent value of the liability indicates that the cost of this risk treatment option is grossly disproportionate to the safety gained.

(ii) Installing a gradient control conductor and an asphalt layer around the pole

With a gradient control conductor installed at a distance of one metre around the pole, the touch voltage reduces to 900 V. This touch voltage exceeds the touch voltage limit. However, if asphalt is also installed around the pole, the touch voltage limit increases to 2000 V with the result that the touch voltage is lower than the limit. The cost of this risk treatment option is $10k and is below the present value of the liability. There may be some additional ongoing costs associated with maintenance of the asphalt.

(iii) Installing an insulating barrier around the pole to prevent people from touching the pole

An insulating barrier could be installed around the pole to prevent people from being able to touch the pole. Such an insulating barrier could take the form of a wooden enclosure or a fibreglass jacket. The cost of this risk treatment option is $5k and is significantly below the present value of the liability. There may be some additional ongoing costs associated with maintenance of the insulating barrier.

(iv) Additional risk treatment options may be considered as required

Clearly, economically viable risk treatment options exist for this case and one of the options should be implemented. The cheapest risk treatment option may not be the best option. Other considerations may dictate which risk treatment option is selected. For example, an underslung earth wire may be the best option if a number of other EPR issues exist along the line.

For other cases, the costs and practicality of the selected mitigation option may be such that there is some residual risk in the intermediate category after mitigation is applied.

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The remaining steps detailed in Section 10 should then be considered as required.

The exposure corresponding to the transition from low to intermediate and from intermediate to high may also be calculated as a sensitivity/sanity check. The calculations below show that the exposure would have to be in excess of 41 minutes per week for the risk to be come high. In this case, it is unlikely that someone would be exposed for so long every week.

highh

3153.6μλ

= = 126,144 s per year = 2426 s per week

For the risk to fall within the low risk category, the exposure for a person would need to be less than 24 s per week as shown below. In this case, it appears that the exposure is likely to exceed 24 s per week.

lowh

31.5μλ

= = 1260 s per year = 24 s per week

The above sensitivity check confirms that an intermediate risk level should be adopted for this case.

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APPENDIX V

AERIAL CONDUCTOR PERMANENT ELONGATION

(Informative)

V1 GENERAL

Aerial conductor permanent elongation expressed as a function of time, temperature, aerial conductor stress and aerial conductor constants is given as—

ε = ktc1σc2ec3(θ−20) . . .V1

where

ε = unit strain in mm/km

t = time in years

σ = aerial conductor average stress in MPa

θ = aerial conductor average temperature in °C

k, c1, c2 and c3 are constants

In many cases, the aerial conductor exposure period at elevated temperatures is very small relative to an everyday exposure temperature assessed to be 20°C hence the above equation may be reduced to—

t = ktc1σc2 . . .V2

Aerial conductor constants are determined by aerial conductor creep tests as described in AS 3822. Typical creep test results are illustrated in Figure V1 and yield the creep constants k, c1, c2 and c3.

LO

G (

EL

ON

GA

TIO

IN)

LOG ( T IME)

T20C = 20% CBL

In i t ia l creep

T20C = 30% CBL

T20C = 40% CBL

T85C = 20% CBL

FIGURE V1 TYPICAL AERIAL CONDUCTOR CREEP TEST RESULTS

The cumulative aerial conductor permanent elongation is dependent on the aggregation of permanent elongation intervals characterized by differing aerial conductor stresses and temperatures. Graphically, an aerial conductor may be subjected to a number of differing stress levels and temperatures each with a given time interval as illustrated in Figure V2. In this example, the initial exposure is at 20% CBL and 20°C with a duration, t1 to t2 which will result in creep accumulation of ε2 − ε1 as the aerial conductor behaviour moves from a to b.

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T85C = 20% CBL

T20C = 20% CBL

t3

1

t1 t4 t2 t5

LO

G (

EL

ON

GA

TIO

N)

LOG ( T IME)

cbd e

a

2

3

FIGURE V2 TYPICAL AERIAL CONDUCTOR PERMANENT ELONGATION ACCUMULATION

At c, the aerial conductor experiences an elevated temperature at say 16% CBL and 85°C with duration, t3 to t4, which will result in creep accumulation of ε3 − ε2 as the aerial conductor behaviour moves from c to d. At d, the aerial conductor may return to the original condition and hence the original creep curve and transition to point e.

Thus, aerial conductor permanent elongation may be determined for the predicted operating duty of the transmission line. Whilst this has been illustrated as a graphical representation of the creep accumulation, the application of the elongation equation knowing the aerial conductor stress history, exposure duration and aerial conductor temperature allows a mathematical determination of the creep accumulation.

Also illustrated in this example is that—

(a) the creep at a low temperature is much less than that at an elevated temperature; and

(b) the creep from one creep curve may be translated to another creep curve (i.e. from point b to point c and also from point d to point e).

Aerial conductor creep is cumulative for a given set of operating conditions of time, temperature and stress.

Teq(i) = ( 1)

12(i 1)

1

t i

ccσ

σ−−⎡ ⎤

⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦

. . .V3

where

Teq(i) = the equivalent time in years for unit strain at stress level σ(i)

σ(i-1) = the stress level in MPa associated with time interval t(i −1)

σ(i) = the stress level in MPa associated with time interval teq(i)

t(i-1) = time interval in years associated with stress level σ(i−1)

One of the most important aspects of understanding aerial conductor permanent elongation is determining design allowances for the long-term aerial conductor behaviour. The design allowance for aerial conductor elongation is necessary to account for the changes in aerial conductor sag and hence ground clearance over time. To compensate for aerial conductor inelastic stretch it is necessary to carry out one or a combination of the following:

(i) add a margin on the statutory ground clearance requirements;

(ii) subtract an allowance on the maximum design temperature;

(iii) prestress aerial conductors prior to final sagging; and or

(iv) over-tension aerial conductors.

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Reference: CIGRE WG 22.05 ‘Permanent Elongation of Conductors Predictor Equations and Evaluation Methods,’ CIGRE Electra No 75 1981.

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APPENDIX W

AERIAL CONDUCTOR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

(Normative)

W1 GENERAL

Typical homogeneous aerial conductor modulus of elasticity is given as:

Eal = 64 GPa (aluminium) . . .W1

Est = 193 GPa (SC/GZ) . . .W2

Figure W1 illustrates a stress strain curve for a homogenous aerial conductor. Essentially the figure shows the loading and unloading as a function of stress and strain where strain is expressed as a percentage of elongation. As the applied load exceeds the elastic limit of the aerial conductor, some permanent elongation will result as shown in Figure W1.

ST

RE

SS

STRAIN (% ELONGATION )

Homogenous conductor

LeadingUnloading

Permanent e longat ion

FIGURE W1 STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR A HOMOGENOUS AERIAL CONDUCTOR

Figure W2 illustrates a stress strain curve for a non-homogenous aerial conductor such as an ACSR construction.

ST

RE

SS

STRAIN (% ELONGATION )

Composi te conductor

Trans i t ion point

Outer wires (al )

core (gz)

FIGURE W2 STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR NON HOMOGENOUS AERIAL CONDUCTOR

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The initial characteristics of the aerial conductor stress strain may be described by a polynomial equation as follows:

με = A0 + A1S + A2S2 + A3S3 + AnSn . . .W3

where

με = aerial conductor strain

An = coefficients derived from aerial conductor test

S = aerial conductor stress

‘A0’ is general very small and can be ignored. Usually a 3rd order polynomial describes the data adequately, however in some cases higher orders may be more appropriate. Similar polynomials are derived for the initial curves of the steel core and the aluminium outer layer. Linear regression may be applied to the unloading curves and is used to determine the line of best fit. The slope of the line is termed the final modulus of elasticity.

For a non homogenous aerial conductor, consisting of dissimilar materials, the composite modulus above the transition point may be theoretically determined knowing the weighted ratios of the aluminium and steel components to the composite aerial conductor and the material modulus of aluminium and steel and is given as—

Ecomp = 1 1 2 2

1 2

A E A EA A++

. . .W4

where

A = cross sectional area

E = aerial conductor modulus of elasticity

1 = subscript denoting material 1


Below the transition point the modulus will be that of the core material and in the case of an ACSR/GZ, the modulus will be that of the GZ wires.

Equation W4 does not account for the wire geometry of a helical stranded aerial conductor and this equation will always over-estimate the modulus by about 1%. A 1% error in modulus will generally result in aerial conductor sag error of about 2%.

In more recent times, Nigol and Barrett (see reference at end of this Appendix) discovered that the stress and strains in helically stranded aluminium wires of an aerial conductor were not the same as those of the individual straight wires. By examining the wire geometry of a helically stranded wire, Nigol and Barrett derived an equation for the aerial conductor strain related to the wire strain, and to the change of layer radius R. From this work, a more accurate modulus may be determined and for a non-homogenous aerial conductor with multiple layers the composite modulus is given by—

c core core i,j i,j i,j1 1c

1 iN n

j iE E A n A E

A = =

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤= +⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥

⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦∑ ∑ . . .W5

where

A = cross sectional area

E = conductor final modulus of elasticity

Ni = number of wires in the aerial conductor

Nij = number of wires in i layer of material j

c = subscript denoting composite

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The modulus for AAC, AAAC and ACSR/GZ aerial conductors are published in relevant Australian Standards.

The final stress strain curve of a non-homogeneous construction includes a transition tension/stress load point defined as the point on the final modulus composite aerial conductor curve where the slope of the curve changes from the composite modulus to that of core modulus. This is an unloading point where the aluminium because of permanent elongation does not support any stress and the total aerial conductor stress is supported by the core. The aerial conductor modulus below the transition point is that of the steel core material.

Of particular interest is the change in transition tension/stress with a change in temperature. A phenomenon reported by Nigol Barrett known as the birdcaging temperature, when above this temperature the aerial conductor expands at the rate of the steel core. With increasing tensions the birdcaging temperature will increase because additional thermal expansion is required in the aluminium before the load is transferred wholly to the steel core.

Aerial conductor tension changes shall be determined in accordance with Table W1.

TABLE W1

AERIAL CONDUCTOR TENSION DETERMINATION MODELS

Model Modulus of Elasticity

Non-linear stress strain Aerial conductor stress strain described by a polynomial equation and determine aerial conductor permanent elongation for tension excursions

Linear stress strain Use final modulus for either homogeneous of non homogeneous aerial conductors

Reference

NIGOL, O. and BARRETT, J.S., Development of an Accurate Model of ACSR Conductors for Calculating Sags at High Temperatures—Part III. Report prepared for the Canadian Electrical Association, March 1980.

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APPENDIX X

AERIAL CONDUCTOR COEFFICENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

(Informative)

X1 GENERAL

Homogeneous aerial conductor coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is given as—

αal = 23 × 10−6 (aluminium)

αst = 11.5 × 10−6 (sc/gz)

Non-homogenous aerial conductor, consisting of dissimilar materials, the composite CTE above the transition point is given as—

1 1 1 2 2 2comp

1 1 2 2

A E A EA E A Eα αα +

=+

. . .X1

where A = cross sectional area α = coefficient of thermal expansion E = aerial conductor modulus of elasticity



Below the transition point, the CTE will be that of the core material and in the case of an ACSR/GZ, the CTE will be that of the GZ wires.

Equation X1 does not account for the wire geometry of a helical stranded aerial conductor and this equation will always over-estimate the CTE by up to 5%. A 5% error in CTE will generally result in aerial conductor sag error of about 2%.

A more accurate CTE may be determined by examining the wire geometry and an increase in temperature that will cause an increase in wire length resulting in an increase in lay length. Hence, for a non homogenous aerial conductor with multiple layers the composite CTE is given by—

c core core core i,j i,j i,j1 1c c

1 iN n

j i

E A n AE A

α α= =

⎡ ⎤α

⎡ ⎤= +⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥

⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦∑ ∑ . . .X2

where A = cross sectional area α = coefficient of thermal expansion E = aerial conductor final modulus of elasticity Ni = number of wires in the aerial conductor Nij = number of wires in i layer of material j

c = subscript denoting composite



CTE for AAC, AAAC and ACSR/GZ aerial conductors are published in the relevant Australian Standards.

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APPENDIX Y

AERIAL CONDUCTOR DEGRADATION and SELECTION FOR DIFFERING ENVIRONMENTS

(Informative)

Y1 GENERAL

To one degree or another, most materials experience some form of interaction with a range of diverse environments. Often these interactions result in degradation of material ductility, strength and in the case of aerial conductors, effective cross sectional area and hence conductivity. Aerial conductor corrosion susceptibility depends on the material, the construction and the protective mechanisms employed in the design. The severity of the corrosive environment and the presence of chlorides, sulphur dioxide and other pollutants will accelerate corrosion. Atmospheric corrosion takes place in aqueous environments and the exposure duration of wetness is a principal factor.

Y1.1 Pit corrosion

Pitting is the loss of parent material at a localised site on a surface exposed to the environment. Pitting may be caused by corona corrosion in UHV lines or more commonly by localised electrolytic reaction in which water and oxygen must be present. Pit growth rate is generally very small.

Surface pitting is generally associated with an exposure to industrial and coastal environments. With time, pit corrosion will continue to be initiated and existing shallow pits may widen. Catastrophic localised corrosion is not likely to occur and the overall effect would be the gradual loss of cross sectional area.

Y1.2 Crevice corrosion

When an electrolyte such as water is present in the interstitial spaces between wires, localised etching or crevice corrosion may occur. This may be associated with aerial conductor suspension fittings coupled with environments of particularly high rainfall, frequented by fogs and or perhaps in close proximity to chloride and or sulphate atmospheric depositions. Corrosion may take place and voluminous grey to white slightly moist deposits between the penultimate and ultimate aluminium layers will be found. Chemical investigations generally reveal levels of aluminium oxide, sulphates and chlorides of about 60%, 5% and 1% respectively.

Y1.3 Homogenous Al and Al alloy aerial conductors

The corrosion mechanism is generally limited to pit corrosion and is influence by atmospheric chloride and sulphate levels. The performance is generally excellent due to firstly, the formation of a resistive coating of aluminium oxide and secondly that the PH levels of aluminium ranges from 4 to 8.5 which results in passive behaviour. Nevertheless all aluminium aerial conductors show some pit corrosion and the level of pit corrosion is dependent on the level of impurities held in the substrate. One example is aluminium alloy 6201 that employs compound Mg2Si, is anodic in aluminium and reactive to acidic solutions and tends to dissolve away leaving an inactive pit.

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Y1.4 Homogenous copper aerial conductor corrosion

The corrosion mechanism is generally limited to pit corrosion and is influenced by the presence of ammonia in the atmosphere. The performance is generally excellent due to the formation of a protective coating of copper oxide however, severe corrosion will result when copper aerial conductors are used near abattoirs and or fertiliser factories. When in contact with aluminium, special jointing techniques are critical to avoid severe and rapid galvanic corrosion of the aluminium from copper oxides in the presence of an electrolyte such as water.

Y1.5 Homogenous galvanized steel wire aerial conductors

The corrosion mechanism is limited to initially the gradual loss of zinc followed by localized galvanic action of the steel substrate. The rate of corrosion is approximately linear and is generally determined by the classification of the environment. Hence, the most critical element in determining the life of the zinc coating is coating thickness and this provides a reliable correlation in determining the expected life of zinc coated wires.

Application of the known corrosion rates to zinc coated steel wires, the associated age and the location of the line enables the deterioration of the wires to be determined. The corrosion rates for zinc and steel are given in Table Y1.

TABLE Y1

CORROSION RATES FOR ZINC AND STEEL

Corrosion rate μm/yr−1 Corrosivity

classification zinc steel

Zinc/steel corrosion ratio (approx)

Mild < 1 <10 1:10

Moderate <2 10 – 20 1:20

Tropical <2 20 – 50 1:50

Industrial 2 – 4 20 – 50 1:15

Marine (>1 km) 2 – 4 20 – 80 1:20

Severe marine (<1 km) 4 >10 80 -200 1:20

Y1.6 Non homogenous Al aerial conductors steel reinforced

Initially a galvanic cell is set up with the zinc coating of the steel wires as the anode and the aluminium wires as the cathode with the zinc corroding in the presence of sulphur oxides. After some time the zinc will expose the steel substrate. At this stage, the aluminium will then act as an anode and the steel as a cathode resulting in the aluminium being sacrificial to the steel. At this stage, the aluminium corrosion rate accelerates rapidly.

The most effective method of reducing corrosion is to prevent moisture, sulphur oxides and other corrosive substances from coming into contact with the zinc aluminium interface. This may be achieved by applying a protective material such as grease, bitumen, paint or a plastic film over the zinc wires.

Y1.7 Protective greases

Protective greases provide a layer or barrier to corrosion products and aerial conductors may be partly greased which provides better performance than ungreased aerial conductors do. Fully greased aerial conductors provide superior performance in the most aggressive environments.

The performance of the grease is influenced by consideration of the drop point, which should be much greater than the maximum operating temperature of the line.

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If the drop point of the grease is less than the maximum operating temperature of line, then grease will liquefy, run to centre of span, form droplets and for lines greater than 66 kV cause radio interference.

A cautionary note, that bituminous compounds used in 50’s and 60’s in ACSR/GZ have a drop point of about 70°C and there are many examples where lines may now be operating at or near maximum operating temperatures and the compound may have liquefied, run to the centre of the span and fallen as droplets.

Y1.8 Application recommendations

Carter (see reference 2 at the end of the Appendix) reviewed the types of aerial conductor constructions in common use and surveyed service experience and resistance to corrosion under varying conditions. Also published were results of corrosion tests in severe saline environments, commenced in 1964 in collaboration with Illawarra County Council (predecessor of Integral Energy). The results were consistent with those reported by other international and national authors at the time and indicate the following general conclusions—

(a) for aluminium, slight external pitting generally less than 250 μm will occur after about 3 years;

(b) there is no difference in an aerial extent of external pitting between 1350 aluminium and 6201 aluminium alloy;

(c) there is good internal and external corrosion resistance provided by homogenous aerial conductor constructions;

(d) for ACSR/GZ protection of the aluminium wires will occur up to the point that degradation of the zinc coating has occurred;

(e) severe attack on bare galvanized wires up to 3 years and complete removal of the zinc coating will occur in 3 years with salt deposition > 160 g.m−2; and

(f) a delay in the onset of internal corrosion results will occur from the use of protective grease.

When selecting conductor for a hostile environment the following factors should be considered:

(i) Full or partial greasing of the aerial conductor significantly improves corrosion resistance.

(ii) Ensure that all fittings are compatible so that electrolytic corrosion does not occur.

(iii) Insulated/covered aerial conductor systems may provide protection against corrosion provided the aerial conductors are completely sealed by the insulation/covering and do not provide traps for corrosive solutions nor allow ingress of moisture.

(iv) The aluminium coating on SC/AC is very soft and should be treated carefully if it is to provide adequate corrosion protection. The corrosion resistance of SC/AC is very dependent on the thickness of the coating.

Table Y2 gives the aerial conductor selections for differing environmental conditions.

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TABLE Y2

AERIAL CONDUCTOR SELECTION FOR DIFFERING ENVIRONMENTS

Salt spray pollution Industrial pollution Aerial conductor

type Open ocean Bay, inlets and salt lakes Acidic Alkaline

AAC Good Good Good Poor

AAAC/6201 Good Good Average Poor

AAAC/1120 Good Good Good Poor

ACSR/GZ Poor Poor Average Poor

ACSR/AZ Average Good Average Poor

ACSR/AC Good Good Average Poor

SC/GZ Poor Poor Poor Average

SC/ZC Good Good Good Poor

OPGW Good Good Average Poor

HDCu Good Good Average Good

References

1. ROBINSON, J., Development of A Durability Branding System for Steel Construction Products, Corrosion Management, Vol 10, No. 2, pp 3 – 10, November 2001

2. CARTER, R.D., Corrosion Resistance of Aluminium Conductors in Overhead Service. MM Metals Report released to the Aluminium Development Council.

3. BRENNAN, G.F., Methodology for Assessment of Serviceability of Aged Transmission Line Conductors Postgraduate Thesis, Wollongong University, 1989.

4. Guidelines for design and maintenance of overhead distribution and transmission lines, Electricity Supply Association of Australia Publication C(b)1, 1991.

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APPENDIX Z

AERIAL CONDUCTOR STRESS AND FATIGUE

(Informative)

Z1 GENERAL

Fatigue failures of overhead line aerial conductors occur almost exclusively at points where the aerial conductor is secured to fittings. The cause of such failures is dynamic stresses induced by vibration combined with high static stresses. It is necessary therefore to limit both the static and dynamic stresses if the aerial conductor is to have acceptable fatigue endurance.

Z2 STATIC STRESSES

Z2.1 Static tensile stress

The line aerial conductor tension produces static tensile stresses in the individual aerial conductor wires. For homogeneous aerial conductors, the outer layer stress can be calculated by dividing the tangential tension in the aerial conductor by the cross-sectional area. For non-homogeneous aerial conductors, the static tensile stress in the aluminium wires can be estimated by—

A1A1 St

TA nA

σ =+

. . .Z1

where

σAl = stress in aluminium wires

AAl area of aluminium

ASt = area of steel

T = aerial conductor tension

n = Efe/Eal

Eal = 68 GPa (aluminium)

Est = 193 GPa (sc/gz)

The ratio of the density of steel to aluminium is similar to the ratio of their moduli of elasticity and Equation Z1 may be rewritten as—

A1Tm

σ ∝ . . .Z2

In the case of ACSR aerial conductors, the stress in the aluminium wires decreases with time as the metallurgical creep in the aluminium is much greater than in the steel and results in a load transfer from the aluminium to the steel. This effect becomes more predominant as the percentage of steel in the aerial conductor decreases.

Z2.2 Static bending stress

Static bending stress results from the bending of the aerial conductor at the support point and is a function of the span length, tension, self-weight and flexural stiffness of the aerial conductor and the radius of curvature of the support clamp.

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Z2.3 Static compressive stress

Static compressive stresses arise because of tensile and bending forces in the individual wires of the aerial conductor and the aerial conductor’s self-weight on the support and from external clamping pressures.

While the stresses are primarily bearing or radial stresses with very small associated longitudinal stress, they are a source of aggravated fretting which can significantly reduce the fatigue endurance of the aerial conductor.

Z3 DYNAMIC STRESSES

Dynamic stresses are alternating bending stresses caused by wind-induced vibration in the aerial conductor and the stresses can vary widely in magnitude, frequency and duration. The fatigue fracture of an individual wire within an aerial conductor is the result of a large number of stress cycles, which cumulatively exhaust the fatigue strength or endurance limit of the material.

The wind induced vibration or commonly known as Aeolian vibration occurs when laminar wind flows across an aerial conductor causing vortices to be shed alternatively from top and bottom of the aerial conductor. This continuous shedding of vortices causes an alternating force to be applied to the aerial conductor, thus causing vibration predominantly in the vertical plane.

The severity of the vibration problem is determined by the nature of the wind flow, its direction with respect to the line, the line tension and the frequency of occurrence of the laminar winds. It is therefore necessary when considering dynamic stresses to take into account the topographical and climatic conditions of the line route.

Laminar flow winds are generally most prevalent in early morning in winter. The vibration induced by wind velocities between 0.5 m/s and 7 m/s is characterized by short wave lengths, relatively high frequencies and low amplitudes. Wind velocities less than 0.5 m/s do not have sufficient energy to induce vibration and velocities greater than 7 m/s are turbulent in nature and do not produce the vortex shedding necessary to induce vibration. The temperature under which the horizontal tensions are applied should therefore be based on this condition. The average temperature over the coldest month is generally used for this purpose.

Practically all fatigue failures of aerial conductors originate at wire crossover points or at support contact points where fretting occurs. Fretting is the form of damage that arises when two surfaces in contact are exposed to slight periodic relative motion. The fretting produces abraded particles and in the case of aluminium, the product consists of black aluminium oxide. Fretting initiates fatigue cracks and the overall fatigue strength of the aerial conductor is significantly reduced.

Aerial conductor fatigue endurance is related to bending and compressive static stresses and is relatively insensitive to static tensile stresses. However as static stress levels increase, the aerial conductor self-damping characteristics are reduced. This reduction in aerial conductor self-damping, coupled with the dynamic stress induced by laminar winds, which are terrain dependent, and length of time exposure to transverse laminar winds are considered to be the most significant factor in aerial conductor fatigue endurance.

Z4 LIMITING OUTER LAYER STRESSES

Z4.1 Limiting static stresses

The outer layer stresses (OLS) used for the derivation of Table Z1 are generally based on work carried out by CIGRE and the Swedish State Power Board, and represent the allowable static tensile stress in the outer layer of an aerial conductor under certain specified conditions.

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An aerial conductor, which is most likely to experience damage due to vibration, will be supported in a short bolted clamp or on a pin insulator with no armour rods or dampers in a terrain conducive to laminar wind flow. This combination of factors defines the base case outer layer stress.

A conductor which is least likely to experience damage due to vibration will be fully supported, fully damped and erected in a terrain not conducive to laminar wind flow. This combination of factors defines the recommended maximum outer layer stress levels.

In Table Z1, the base case outer layer stresses have been converted to a base case horizontal tension expressed as a percentage of the calculated breaking load (CBL). The values listed in Table Z1 are expressed as horizontal tension, rather than tangential tension. This approximation is satisfactory, except for very long spans or for spans in very steep terrain. Some adjustments have been made in the light of operational experience, in particular with regard to small diameter ACSR aerial conductor with high steel content where experience has shown that, with effective damping, these aerial conductors can be strung to higher allowable tensions.

The static bending and static compressive stresses resulting from the support arrangement used for the base case can be reduced by using long radius shaped clamps, armour rods, preformed ties or helical support/suspension units. Because of appropriately designed supports, a higher static tensile stress may be tolerated.

Shaped long radius clamps and armour rods, or pin insulators with armour rods, allow an increase in the static tensile stress of 5% to 7%, while helical support/suspension units, or preformed ties with elastomer inserts, used in conjunction with armour rods on pin insulators allow an increase of 10% to 15% on the base case. These allowable increases have been converted to a percentage of CBL and included in Table Z1 under ‘clamp category’.

The performance of AAAC irrespective of alloy is considered to related to fretting fatigue and Table Z1 reflects this consideration.

Z4.2 Limiting dynamic stresses

Control of dynamic stresses is the most significant factor in the fatigue endurance of overhead aerial conductors. Dynamic stresses can be limited by—

(a) terrain not conducive to laminar wind flow. Factors such as mountainous terrain, tree cover and urban development will minimize conductor vibration;

(b) the use of effective vibration dampers;

(c) the use of spacer dampers with bundled aerial conductor; and

(d) the presence of some or all of the above factors will allow the static tensile stress (design horizontal tension) to be increased in accordance with Table Z1.

Combinations of open or rolling terrain without dampers are in general not recommended because the level of dynamic stresses that result can cause the fatigue life of the aerial conductor to be reached at a very early stage. In this case the fatigue life may be relatively insensitive to everyday tension. This is particularly important for steel and small diameter high steel content ACSR aerial conductors which have little inherent self damping.

Z5 VIBRATION DAMPERS

Use of effective dampers is critical if use is to be made of this factor in the selection of the higher horizontal tensions from Table Z1. Selection of dampers should be based on the recommendations of the manufacturer and compliance with the relevant Australian or New Zealand or equivalent International Standards. Vibration damping requirements may be calculated, for example for Stockbridge type dampers using energy balance considerations, which may allow higher tensions to be used. The following considerations are relevant:

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(d) Number of dampers per span For fully damped aerial conductors the number of dampers in a span should be sufficient to dissipate wind-induced energy in the aerial conductor. It should also be noted that dampers to be used in Category 1 Terrain should provide substantially more energy dissipation than those used for higher terrain categories to damp fully the aerial conductor. Consideration should be given to damper life when selecting the number of dampers in a span. There could be situations when effective energy dissipation can be achieved with fewer dampers, but this may be at the expense of the damper life.

(a) Damper type Spiral dampers are generally considered more effective for aerial conductor diameters up to 12 mm, and Stockbridge type dampers for aerial conductor diameters above 15 mm. In the range 12 to 15 mm either type may provide an effective solution, alternatively an optimum solution may involve a combination of the two types

(e) Damper location The ideal location is the anti-node of the vibrating loop, however, as vibration frequency and loop length is a function of wind velocity, the Manufacturer’s recommendation for a location to suit the full range of frequent wind velocities should be obtained.

(c) Damping characteristics (Stockbridge dampers only)—

(b) Damper construction Robustness of design to achieve a useful life compatible with that of other line components; avoidance of aerial conductor damage at the point of attachment consideration of working live line working; and corona discharge and radio frequency interference limited to acceptable levels

(iv) Damper stress The dampers should not create significant stresses on the aerial conductor due to clamping or damping forces exerted by the bending stresses at the damper clamp.

(iii) Endurance The fatigue life of the damper itself should be sufficient to endure the rigorous service life of the aerial conductor. The performance of the damper should not deteriorate due to fatigue and ageing. With hardware using elastomer inserts, degradation due to exposure to ozone and ultra violet light should be taken into consideration; and

(ii) Impedance The reactive and resistive mechanical impedance of the damper should match the aerial conductor as closely as possible;

(i) Frequency response and energy dissipation Should be capable of limiting bending stress and strain anywhere along the aerial conductor to permissible levels for all frequencies of vibration encountered in Aeolian vibration; as the frequency is dependent on aerial conductor diameter, dampers with different responses will be required for different aerial conductors. It is important that the dampers have adequate energy dissipation over a wide frequency range and cover the highest level of expected frequency; and dampers which meet the performance criteria of AS 1154.1 will generally provide acceptable energy dissipation and frequency range;

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266 D

RA

FT O

NL

Y

DR

AFT

ON

LY

TABLE Z1

AERIAL CONDUCTOR EVERYDAY LOAD HORIZONTAL TENSION (H)

Recommended incremental increase in horizontal tension (% CBL)

Static stress considerations Dynamic stress considerations Damping/terrain category

No dampers Clamp category*

Terrain category†

Fully damped all

terrain categories

Recommended maximum horizontal

tension (% CBL0

Aerial conductor or overhead earthwire type

Base case horizontal

tension (% CBL)

A B C 1 2 3 COPPER 25 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 34 SC/GZ, SC/AC 10 0 2.5 5.0 0 5 10 16.0 31 AAC 18 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 27 AAAC/1120 15 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 24 AAAC/6201 13 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 5.5 21 ACSR 3/4, 4/3 10 0 2.0 4.0 0 4 8 13.0 27 ACSR 6/1, 6/7 17 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 7.5 27 ACSR 30/7 16 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 25 ACSR 54/7, 54/19 18 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 27 AACSR/1120 6/1, 6/7 14 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 23 AACSR/1120 18/1 16 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 7.5 26 AACSR/1120 30/7 13 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 22 AACSR/1120 54/7, 54/19 14 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 23 AACSR/6201 6/1, 6/7 13 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 22 AACSR/6201 18/1 14 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 23 AACSR/6201 30/7 12 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 21 Optical conductor 14 NA NA 2.0 NA NA NA 4.0 20

Type A Short trunnion clamp, post or pin insulator with ties (without armour rods) Type B Post or pin insulator (clamped or tied) with armour rods or shaped trunnion clamps with armour rods

* Clamp category:

Type C Helically formed armour grip with elastomer insert or helically formed ties with armour rods Type 1 Flat, no obstacles (See Note 12) Type 2 Rolling terrain with scattered trees (See Note 12)

† Terrain Category:

Type 3 Mountain, forest or urban


NOTES: to Table Z1:

1 Generally, the temperature under which the horizontal tensions from Table Z1 are applied is based on the average temperature over the coldest month, which in the absence of detailed data may be calculated as the average of daily mean maximum temperature and daily mean minimum temperature.

2 Limits for covered aerial conductors are subject to further research.

3 Limits for LVABC are given in Clause 4.4.1.5.

4 Limits for HVABC should be based on the limits for the support aerial conductor (subject to further research).

5 The tension values given in Table Z1 are a guide only and need not apply to situations where proven line performance indicates that a higher or lower tension would be appropriate. This could apply for example to a new line built adjacent to an existing line where the aerial conductor and support (the same as the type to be used) have shown adequate performance.

6 When using the tension limits in Table Z1, additional considerations may need to be given to— (a) The aerial conductor diameter, as this is the governing factor with respect to vibration frequency.

Smaller diameter conductors will vibrate at higher frequencies and reach their fatigue life in a shorter time, however, smaller aerial conductors are easier to damp effectively. For all aerial conductors particular care should be taken to ensure that the damper efficiency range is effective over the range of frequencies likely to occur.

(b) The span length, because of the requirement to increase vibration protection with increased span length.

(c) The aerial conductor design, including self-damping characteristics, compactness, bundled cables, number of aluminium layers, steel/aluminium ratio, etc.

(d) The extent to which supports, insulators and fittings can withstand vibration transmitted to them by the aerial conductor.

7 Consideration should be given to the exposure created by structure height, particularly with regard to steel overhead earthwire on steel tower transmission lines where tensions significantly lower than those listed in Table Z1 are normally used.

8 Any terminations, suspensions or joints should be designed so as not to cause damage to aerial conductors or to be damaged by aerial conductors when the aerial conductor is subject to vibration. Vibration dampers are designed to reduce the amplitude of vibration whereas armour rods and other protective fittings are primarily designed to protect against the damage to aerial conductors resulting from mechanical vibration.

9 An accurate measurement of aerial conductor temperature during stringing is essential to ensure the initial aerial conductor tensions are achieved.

10 An accurate prediction of aerial conductor creep is necessary to ensure that design final aerial conductor tensions are achieved.

11 Tensions for optical aerial conductors are based on an aerial conductor composed of aluminium clad or galvanized steel plus aluminium or aluminium alloy wires. The optical fibres are carried in a metallic tube located in the centre or an inner layer of the aerial conductor. Optical aerial conductor should always be installed with helical type armour grips and be fully damped. The manufacturer of the optical aerial conductor should be consulted regarding the recommended maximum tension.

12 Where aerial conductors are strung in Terrain Categories 1 and 2, it is recommended that vibration dampers be applied. If dampers are not applied, care should be taken to ensure that supporting structures and insulators are not subject to vibration damage, especially when use is made of the tension increase for Type C suspension clamps.

13 Use of spacers on bundled aerial conductors may contribute some damping but it is good practice to also fit vibration dampers to bundled aerial conductors.

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APPENDIX AA

AERIAL CONDUCTOR SHORT TIME AND SHORT-CIRCUIT RATING

(Informative)

AA1 FAULT RATINGS

AA1.1 General

The main factors to consider when determining the fault rating of a line are—

(a) the annealing of the aerial conductor resulting from overheating due to the magnitude and duration of the fault current;

(b) the sagging of the aerial conductor into another aerial conductor below it; and

(c) movement of aerial conductors due to electromagnetic forces leading to aerial conductor clashing, arcing, aerial conductor damage, secondary faults, etc.

AA1.2 Annealing

The short circuit or transient thermal state condition for a homogenous aerial conductor, assuming—

(a) uniform current distribution within the aerial conductor and the wires;

(b) the resistance temperature characteristic of the aerial conductor is linear;

(c) the specific heat of the aerial conductor is constant and the heating is adiabatic; that is due to the transient nature of the current flow the heat gains and losses at the surface of the aerial conductor are ignored; and

(d) the fault duration is small such that no heat will be dissipated from the aerial conductor

then the following equation is a reasonable approximation of the aerial conductor temperature rise—

T2 = 2

1r r

1 120 20r rA RJDCT e

A A

⎡ ⎤⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦⎡ ⎤

− + − +⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦

. . .AA1

where

T2 = final temperature in °C

T1 = initial temperature in °C

Ar = temperature coefficient of resistance in °C–1

R = resistivity in ohm mm at 20°C

D = density in g/mm3

J = current density in A/mm2

t = duration in seconds (includes reclosure times)

C = specific heat = 1 220 1 2

2cT TC A

⎧0⎡ ⎤+⎛ ⎞+ −⎨ ⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦⎩

C20 = specific heat at 20°C in Jg−1 °C−1

Ac = temperature coefficient of specific heat

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Rearranging Equation AA1—

J2t =

1 220 c 2

r

r1

r

11 20 202

1n 120

T TDC A TA

A R TA

⎡ ⎤+⎛ ⎞ ⎡ ⎤+ − − +⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥− +⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦

. . .AA2

TABLE AA1

AERIAL CONDUCTOR CONSTANTS

Constants Units AAC AAAC/ 1120

AAAC/ 6201A

HD copper SC/GZ SC/AC

Ar (at 20°C) * °C−1 0.00403 0.00390 0.00360 0.00381 0.00440 0.00360

R (at 20°C) * Ωmm 28.3 × 10−6 29.3 × 10−6 32.8 × 10−6 17.77 × 10−6 190 × 10−6 85 × 10−6

D * g/mm3 2.70 × 10−3 2.70 × 10−3 2.70 × 10−3 8.89 × 10−3 7.8 × 10−3 6.59 × 10−3

C20 ** Jg−1°C−1 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.5

Ac** °C−1 4.5 × 10−4 4.5 × 10−4 4.5 × 10−4 2.9 × 10−4 1.0 × 10−4 1.0 × 10−4

* Value taken from the appropriate Australian Standard, i.e. AS 1531, AS 1746, AS 1222.1, AS 1222.2. ** Values are median values of data sourced from several references including— — V T Morgan, ‘Rating of Bare Overhead Conductors for Intermittent and Cyclic Currents’, Proc

IEE, 1361-1376, 116(8), 1969. — V T Morgan, ‘Rating of Conductors for Short-Duration Currents’, Proc IEE, 555-570, 118(3/4),

1971. — Draft IEEE Standard, ‘Calculating the Current-Temperature relationship of Bare Overhead

Conductors’, 1993.

From Equation AA2 the fault rating can be determined based on maximum allowable temperature. Constants for specific aerial conductor types are contained in the relevant Australian Standards and as shown in Table AA1.

Aluminium loses approximately 10% of its tensile strength at a temperature of 210°C with a significant proportion of the annealing taking place during the cooling period following a fault. This annealing is cumulative over the life of the aerial conductor. It anneals rapidly at temperatures exceeding 340°C and commences melting at approximately 645°C. The mechanical properties of the steel core of ACSR are affected very little at these temperatures. Zinc melts at approximately 420°C. Copper loses 10% of its tensile strength at a temperature of 220°C.

To provide for a loss of aerial conductor tensile strength of less than 5% due to fault conditions over its life, the temperatures indicated in Table AA2 should not be exceeded. The rate of cooling is dependent on the thermal mass of the aerial conductor, therefore lower maximum temperatures are applicable to aerial conductors of large cross-section.

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TABLE AA2

GUIDELINES FOR 5% LOSS OF TENSILE STRENGTH FOR TOTAL FAULT CLEARING TIME (INCLUDING RECLOSES)

Aerial conductor type Approximate size (mm²)

Maximum temperature

HDCu 60 200°C

AAC, AAAC/1120, ACSR/GZ, 100 160°C

ACSR/AZ,

ACSR/AC 300 to 500 150°C

AAAC/6201A 100 220°C

SC/GZ, SC/AC 400°C

OPGW ***

***Dependent on construction.

Reference: ROEHMANN, L.F. and HAZAN, E., Short time annealing characteristics of electrical conductors, AIEE Trans 82/3 p1061, Dec 1963.

AA1.3 Sag under fault

Overhead lines have been known to sag into subsidiary lines or undercrossings under fault. If this is to be avoided it may be advisable for the line to be designed to have a positive clearance to the lower aerial conductor. It is recommended that the appropriate non-flashover distance from AS 2067 for the system voltage be used for this clearance.

AA1.4 Movement of aerial conductors under fault

The movement of aerial conductors due to the electromagnetic forces generated by large short time current is a complex matter for which a simple satisfactory solution is not available. The Transmission Line Reference Book—115-138 kV Compact Line Design (EPRI EL-100-V3, Research Project 260, 1978) Section A3, Simulation and Tests of Motion Due to Fault Currents—gives equations which may be used to determine aerial conductor swing and the mechanical forces due to fault currents.

By taking these criteria and the degree of reliability required into account, a suitable compromise on structure design, aerial conductor configuration and economics can be achieved.

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APPENDIX BB

AERIAL CONDUCTOR ANNEALING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURES

(Informative)

BB1 GENERAL

Aluminium alloys are designated by the numbering system in Table BB1. The first digit specifies the principle alloying elements, and the remaining digits refer to the specific composition of the alloy. The alloys are subdivided into two subgroups—heat treatable and non heat treatable alloys. Heat treatable alloys are age hardened (precipitation hardened), whereas non-heat treatable alloys are hardened by solid solution strengthening (not used for aerial conductors because of the reduction in electrical conductivity), strain hardening, or dispersion strengthening.

TABLE BB1

DESIGNATION SYSTEM FOR WROUGHT ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

1xxx Commercially pure Al (>99%) Non heat treatable

2xxx Al-Cu Heat treatable

3xxx Al-Mn Non heat treatable

4xxx Al-Si and Al-Mg-Si Heat treatable if Mg is present

5xxx Al-Mg Non heat treatable

6xxx Al-Mg-Si Heat treatable

7xxx Al-Mg-Zn Heat treatable

The degree of strengthening is given by the temper designation in Table BB2

TABLE BB2

TEMPER DESIGNATIONS FOR ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

F As fabricated (hot rolled, forged, cast, etc)

O Annealed (most ductile condition)

H1x Cold worked only (x refers to the amount of cold working or strengthening)

H2x cold worked and partly annealed

H3x cold worked and stabilised at a low temperature to prevent age hardening

W Solution treated

Tx Age hardened (x refers to the amount of strain hardening)

Resistance to room temperature creep and annealing varies with composition or fabrication variations. EC alloy 1350 has about 0.20% (by weight) Fe and 0.08% Si. Addition of iron decreases resistances to creep and annealing. Addition of Mg to a high iron alloy increased the resistances to creep and annealing. Production of rod by the continuous cast process also causes higher resistances to creep and annealing than the conventional hot-rolled process.

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BB2 WIRE FABRICATION

Aluminium strands are drawn from 9.5 mm rod, which can be produced either by the continuous cast (known as Properzi) process or by the hot-rolled process. Continuous cast rod is the result of the tandem manufacturing steps of casting, rolling and solution heat-treating, if applicable. This allows the continuous production of coils limited in size only by the capability of the materials handling equipment. By contrast, hot-rolled rod is produced from cast billets that are rolled and solution heat-treated, if applicable. Large coils of hot-rolled rod are made by welding together smaller coils.

Aerial conductors derive their strength from the metallurgical properties of the alloy and from strain hardening (cold working) during the wire drawing process. In the case of heat treatable aluminium alloys such as 6201, the strengthening of the wire that occurs during the aging treatment is added to that achieved during the drawing process. For example, the process of tempering produces approximately 41% of the overall strength for HDC; 56% of the overall strength for 1350-H19 and 60% of the overall strength for 6201-T81.

Smaller diameter wire experiences more strain hardening and achieves about 3% higher tensile strength. The greater the gain in tensile strength from cold working, the greater the loss of strength from annealing for a given temperature and time duration.

BB3 ANNEALING FROM ELEVATED TEMPERATURE OPERATION

Morgan (see reference 6 to this Appendix) proposed the formulae below for determining the loss of tensile strength of strands due to annealing. Morgan related the loss of strength of the wires to the percentage reduction in cross sectional area during wire drawing, since this determines the degree of strain hardening.

1n( ) 1n* * 80

a 1B C RA t DT TeW W e′ ′⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞′ ′+ + +⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠−⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟= −⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

. . .BB1

2w

o100 1 DR

D

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟= −⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ . . .BB2

where

W = loss of tensile strength in the partially annealed state (% of ultimate tensile strength in the tempered state)

Wa = loss of tensile strength in the fully annealed state (% of ultimate tensile strength in the tempered state)

A′, B′, C′ and D′ = experimentally derived constants for the alloy

T* = wire absolute temperature (K)

t = time duration at temperature T* (hours)

R = reduction in cross-sectional area during wire drawing (%)

Do = diameter of prior to drawing (mm) – usually 9.5 mm for aluminium

Dw = diameter of the drawn wire i.e. strand diameter (mm) –usually 2.5 to 4.75 mm for aluminium

Table BB3 is an excerpt from Table 2 of [reference 6 to this Appendix] using average values of –C’/A’.

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TABLE BB3

ANNEALING EQUATION CONSTANTS

Alloy Wa (%)

A′ B′ (K)

C′ (K)

D′

1350-H19 56 7.8 150 −4700 7.5

6201A-T81 60 16.2 270 −9000 4

HDC (110A-H) 41 14 175 −6700 3

In general, Aluminium loses approximately 10% of its tensile strength at a temperature of 210°C with a significant proportion of the annealing taking place during the cooling period following a fault. This annealing is cumulative over the life of the aerial conductor. It anneals rapidly at temperatures exceeding 340°C and commences melting at approximately 645°C. For ACSR, the mechanical properties of the steel core are affected very little at these temperatures. Zinc melts at approximately 420°C. Copper loses 10% of its tensile strength at a temperature of 220°C.

BB4 ANNEALING FROM FAULT CURRENTS

Excessive heating of aerial conductors and in particular overhead earthwire during a short circuit can cause a reduction in tensile strength and permanent elongation. The permanent reduction in electrical clearance can reduce the reliability of the line. Failure of the aerial conductor and or earthwire either during the fault or subsequently during adverse weather can cause an outage as well as damage to the support structures. In the case of steel stands, any loss of protective zinc coating can lead to corrosion

In particular, the earthwire size is determined by the assuming a maximum acceptable temperature that causes minimum permanent damage. The effect of cumulative heating of the earthwire when the line is reclosed under short circuit conditions should be considered. Permanent damage includes—

(a) loss of protective coating i.e. zinc, grease;

(b) reduction in tensile strength (annealing);

(c) permanent elongation; and

(d) permanent attenuation losses for OPGW.

For AAC and AAAC earthwires, accelerated creep will accompany the reduction in tensile strength. For ACSR earthwires there will be a transfer of load from the aluminium to the steel, resulting in larger sags than perhaps anticipated.

Consideration should be given the instantaneous sag of the earthwire at elevated temperatures to ensure that the sag does not result in a consequential fault during an auto reclose operation.

BB5 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TEMPERATURES

Typical aerial conductor types, csa and maximum allowable temperature [See reference 8 to this Appendix] are given in Table BB4 for loss of strength of 10%. Notwithstanding this it is stressed that this is a guide only and annealing cumulative damage should be determined by summing the loss of tensile strength as a percentage of original strength for the range operating temperatures and operating durations.

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TABLE BB4

TYPICAL AERIAL CONDUCTOR MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SHORT TERM TEMPERATURES

Aerial conductor type csa (mm²)

Maximum temperature

HDCu 60 200°C

AAC, AAAC/1120, ACSR/GZ, 100 160°C

ACSR/AZ, ACSR/AC 300 to 500 150°C

AAAC/6201A 100 220°C

SC/GZ, SC/AC 400°C

OPGW Dependent on construction

BB6 MAXIMUM DESIGN OPERATING TEMPERATURES

The design maximum operating temperature is a function of the acceptable level of permanent loss of tensile strength (annealing) of the conductor.

Isothermal annealing curves are illustrated in Figures BB1, BB2 and BB3 for AAC 1350, AAAC/1120 and AAAC/6201 respectively. These curves demonstrate the permanent loss of tensile strength when an aerial conductor operates at an elevated temperature. The loss of tensile strength results in increased sag. It is appropriate to establish the maximum design temperature at which an aerial conductor can operate while maintaining acceptable levels of degradation of tensile properties.

Research that is more recent indicates that the annealing characteristics of an aerial conductor depend not only on temperature and time of exposure but also on the diameter of the wires in the aerial conductor. Typically, the loss of strength curves shown in Figures BB1, BB2 and BB3 will comprise a range of values for a given period with the smallest wire size suffering the greatest loss in strength and the largest size the least. The magnitude of this wire size dependence is considered, at this stage, to be of a lower order than the effect of temperature.

The following comments are applicable for aluminium aerial conductors. Copper has similar annealing properties, which are not as well documented as those for aluminium, but it has less loss of strength for the same temperature.

The recommended maximum temperature limit for normal operation of AAC, AAAC, and ACSR is 100°C. This permits an approximate loss of strength of 3% of the original tensile strength after 1000 hours operation at this temperature. Figures BB1, BB2 and BB3 show that the heating period is not a major factor until this temperature is exceeded.

For ratings for emergency conditions, (e.g. when one circuit has to carry more than normal current for a short time), both the maximum temperature and the duration of the emergency load should be taken into account in determining the annealing of the aluminium wires. The annealing effect is cumulative. For example, if an aerial conductor is heated to 150°C under emergency conditions for 24 hours a year for 30 years it is much the same as heating the n aerial conductor continuously at that temperature for 720 hours. For this example, the loss of ultimate strength in AAC would be approximately 15%. For 30/7, ACSR the ultimate tensile strength would be reduced approximately 7%. The effect is less significant for ACSR where an increase in temperature results in a load transfer from the aluminium to the steel. The steel provides most of the strength of the aerial conductor and is essentially unaffected by the temperature.

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If ratings for emergency conditions are to be applied then the combined effects of elevated temperature and sustained high aerial conductor tension on the sag of the line should be taken into account. Practically, the tension in a line reduces with increasing temperature so the effect is less severe.

For main grid transmission lines, where it is possible to control the loads in the lines to a great extent, the emergency condition rating concept may be applied. For radial transmission lines and sub-transmission lines, the maximum temperature limit of 100°C should be applied.

For distribution lines where a lower standard of load control and monitoring usually applies it is recommended that an additional margin be applied. Maximum Design Temperatures of 75°C to 100°C are commonly used.

FIGURE BB1 PERCENTAGE OF ORIGINAL TENSILE STRENGTH FOR ALLOY 1350 vs AGEING TIME

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REFERENCES

1. KIESSLING, F. et al, Overhead Power Lines – Planning and Design , Springer, pp 250– 251

2. IEEE Std 1283-2004, IEEE Guide for Determining the Effects of High-Temperature Operation on Conductors, Connectors, and Accessories

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3. BARBER, K.W.; CALLAGHAN, K.J., Improved overhead line conductors using

aluminium alloy 1120, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume 10, Issue 1, Date: Jan 1995, pp 403 - 409

4. WESTERLUND, R.W., Effects of composition and fabrication practice on resistance to annealing and creep of aluminium conductor alloys, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Volume 5, Number 3/March, 1974, pp 667-672, Springer Boston

5. CIGRE WG22.12, Loss in Strength of Overhead Electrical Conductors Caused by Elevated Temperature Operation, ELECTRA No. 162, October 1995, pp 115–118

6. Vincent Morgan, Effect of Elevated Temperature Operation on the Tensile Strength of Overhead Conductors, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 1, January 1996, pp 345-352

7. FRANC JAKL and ANDREJ JAKL, Effect of Elevated Temperatures on Mechanical Properties of Overhead Conductors under Steady State and Short-Circuit Conditions, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, No. 1, January 2000, pp 242 – 246

8. ROEHMANN, L.F. and HAZAN, E., Short time annealing characteristics of electrical conductors, AIEE Trans 82/3 p1061, Dec 1963.

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APPENDIX CC

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF INSULATOR - LIMIT STATES

(Normative)

CC1 INSULATOR LIMIT STATES

There are 3 states for the mechanical design of insulators, these being—

(a) everyday load;

(b) serviceable wind load; and

(c) failure containment load.

CC2 MECHANICAL DESIGN— SIMPLIFIED APPROACH

Table CC1 shows the load and wind conditions for a range of insulator types.

These define the minimum requirements for an overhead line of relative reliability of 1 or less.

TABLE CC1

INSULATOR LOADING CONDITIONS

State Tension insulator condition

Suspension and vee string insulator

condition

Post and pin insulator condition

Everyday Everyday tension (EDT), 0 Pa wind

Vertical weight span, 0 Pa wind

Vertical weight span, 0 Pa wind

Serviceable Serviceable wind or 500 Pa wind

Resultant load at serviceable wind or

500 Pa transverse load

Resultant load with serviceable wind or 500 Pa transverse +

longitudinal unbalance load

Failure containment Aerial conductor calculated breaking load

(CBL)

Resultant load for ultimate aerial conductor

wind transverse load

Resultant load with ultimate transverse wind + longitudinal unbalance

load

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APPENDIX DD

EASEMENT WIDTH

(Informative)

DD1 EASEMENT WIDTHS

Table DD1 provides typical easement widths for a range of voltages.

For distribution voltages, approval for an overhead line on private property is generally negotiated with the property owner and may not require a formal easement agreement.

It is generally not required to obtain easements for overhead powerlines located on road reserves because of building set back conditions contained in local authority planning schemes. However if an easement is required Table DD1 gives the nominal widths.

TABLE DD1

TYPICAL EASEMENT WIDTHS FOR A RANGE OF VOLTAGES (FOR TYPICAL SPANS)

Nominal voltage

Easement building restriction widths generally used

(measured from the centre line of the overhead line)

Typical width of easement

Up to 33 kV 5 to 10 m 10 to 20 m

66 kV 10 to 15 m 20 to 30m

110/132 kV 15 to 20 m 30 to 40 m

220 kV 15 to 25 m 30 to 50 m

275 kV conventional 25 to 30 m 50 to 60 m

275 kV guyed 30 m 70 m

330 kV 30 m 60 m

400 kV 30 m 65 m

500 KV 35 m 70 m

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APPENDIX EE

SNOW AND ICE LOADS

(Normative)

EE1 GENERAL

The accumulation of snow and ice on aerial conductors and supports varies greatly with altitude, latitude and local conditions such as terrain. In general, lines located in areas higher than 800 m above sea level in Australia and in some areas of New Zealand may be subject to occasional snow/ice loadings. However, there is insufficient consistently re-occurring data for most regions on which to base return periods for snow and ice loads. Hence, details provided are considered to provide a reasonable guide to designers.

Only combined wind and ice loads on aerial conductors are considered in this standard. Wind loads on ice covered supports and insulators may be treated similarly when appropriate drag factors are used.

The effect of wind on an ice-covered aerial conductor is determined by three variables:

(a) The wind speed during the period of time that the aerial conductor is ice covered; and

(b) The mass of the ice layer;

(c) The shape of the ice layer, i.e. the diameter and the relevant drag factor.

Reference should also be made to the provisions contained in AS/NZS 1170.3 and CIGRE Technical Brochure 291, Guidelines for meteorological icing models, statistical methods and topographical effects, April 2006.

In particular, the following specific provisions should be made:

EE1.2 Australia

In areas with ice and snow loadings, the minimum design loads should be based on a radial ice thickness of 12 mm with a density of 900 kg/m3 (SG = 0.9) and coincident with a wind pressure of 100 Pa at an aerial conductor temperature of –5°C. These loads may be taken as corresponding to a return period of 50 years though the appropriateness is uncertain.

Provision should also be made for the unbalanced longitudinal loads produced by ice forming on certain spans but not others, due to local topographic effects. In this regard, line sections with large adjacent span ratios should also be investigated.

In regions within Tasmania, icing can occur at low altitudes but with reduced thickness of accretion. In this area the requirements provided in Table EE1 shall be included in design loadings.

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TABLE EE1

TASMANIA REGION ICE LOADING CONDITIONS

Wind pressure (Pa) Wire type Elevation

(m) Ice condition—

900 kg/m3

Ambient temperature

(°C) Spans >150 m Spans <150 m

Earthwire 0–499

Aerial conductor 0–599

Non-ice Coexisting temperature

Inclement (design) weather conditions prevail

Eathwire 500–799 Ice–6 mm −10°C 190 380

Aerial conductor 600–799

Both 800–999 Ice–9 mm −10°C 190 380

Both >1000 Ice–12 mm −10°C 190 380

NOTES: 1 Icing should be assumed to occur in all areas of Tasmania and is dependent on altitude and locations

where ice loading has been known to occur.

2 Snow offset cross arms should be used on all vertical configuration circuits to minimise clashing of aerial conductors. Earthwires are not to be positioned above aerial phase conductors in horizontal/flat construction configuration

3 Ice build up is assumed to occur only on aerial conductors. Lattice structures with congested bracing arrangements that may trap snow accumulations shall have increased windage areas provided in designs.

4 Where in-cloud icing may occur on elevated location expert guidance should be sought from local meteorology sources.

5 Where the line is subject to moist air rising from the coast (West Coast and around the South East Coasts of Tasmania), the susceptibility to ice accretion is higher. In those areas, the elevation shall be 100 metres lower at which ice conditions apply.

These effects may then be used to evaluate wire tensions and the calculation of wire loads on structures.

EE1.3 New Zealand

Ice (or wet snow) is to be considered on wires only. For ice cases, which include wind, the reduced return period wind should be applied to un-iced pole or tower, taking into account the structure’s overall drag coefficient. On towers heavily congested by members, all gaps of less than 75 mm should be considered as being filled with ice.

For exposed sites on ridges, non-uniform ice build may result and the ice build up shall be taken as the full ice accretion thickness on one side of the structure and 40% of ice build up on the other side.

All large deviation (greater than 30°) and section poles shall be designed for the full ice accretion thickness on one side of the structure and no ice build up on the other side.

The drag coefficient to be used for wind co-incident with ice conditions shall be taken as 1.1 times the relevant drag coefficient (Cd) for wind conditions only, but in no case be less than 1.2.

EE1.3.1 Temperature effects

Unless specific data is available, the following design temperatures shall be used.

(a) Snow—0ºC

(b) Ice—

(i) Coastal areas: temperature = –0.0085 × altitude −3ºC

(ii) Inland areas >5 km from coast: temperature = −0.0085 × altitude −5ºC

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The temperature shall be based on the highest altitude of the line. If there is significant variation in altitude along the line, then the line shall be broken into several temperature zones.

EE1.3.2 Aerial conductor tensions (FT)

The aerial conductor tensions shall be based on a span equal to the ruling span.

Consideration shall be made for the overall effect of differences in tension of adjacent spans on the structure.

Where significant span differences arise, the structure shall be checked for full loading on one side of the structure and 40% of loading on the other side.

Allowance shall be made for some flexibility of post and pin insulators when calculating tensions.

EE1.3.3 Snow and ice zones

The snow and ice zones are based on AS/NZS 1170.3 (snow zones). These are based on the 1988 Council Boundaries. (See Figure FF1).

Specific historical knowledge and records of other lines in the same locality may be utilized in generating ice and snow loading requirements.

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FIGURE EE1 NEW ZEALAND SNOW AND ICE ZONES

EE1.3.4 Radial snow and ice build up on conductors

Table EE2 below specifies radial snow/ice thicknesses corresponding to a 50-year event.

Relatively low density Wet Snow occurs at low elevations below 600 m. At higher elevations, ice is expected to form. Two snow/Ice cases shall be checked

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TABLE EE2

ICE AND SNOW PARAMETERS FOR NEW ZEALAND

Radia snow or ice thickness (Rice) on aerial conductors

Zone Altitude Wet snow

thickness at 400 kg/m3

Ice thickness at 7000 kg/m3

Co-incident wind return

period for ice (years)

450–600 25 — 1 600–900 30 5 1

900–1200 35 8 1

N0 Upper North Island

>1200 40 10 5 150–450 25 — 1 450–600 30 10 1 600–900 35 15 1

900–1200 40 20 5

N1 Lower North Island

>1200 45 25 5 0—150 30 10 1

150–300 35 15 1 300–450 40 20 1 450–600 45 25 1 600–750 — 30 5 750–900 — 35 5

900–1200 — 40 5

N2, N3, N5 South Island

>1200 — 45 5 0—150 45 (30 15 (10) 1

150–300 50 (35) 20 (15) 1 300–450 55 (40) 25 (20) 1 450–600 60 (45) 30 1 600–750 65 (50) 35 5 750–900 — 40 5

N4 Canterbury

900–1200 — 45 5 NOTES: 1 The figures in brackets are the existing standard thicknesses. Ice density has been assumed as 900 kg/m³.

[Based on current knowledge, this appears too high]. The snow values are based on AS/NZS 4676 and equivalent Transpower radial thicknesses (these were converted to uniform density values).

2 For wind associated with ice, it is recommended that at low altitudes that a 1 year return period be used; for higher altitudes a higher value has been adopted on the basis that wind is more likely to occur and that ice formation may remain for many days.

3 AS/NZS 4676 requires 30 mm radial snow (0.4 SG) be considered at all below 600m altitudes for Canterbury (N4).

4 AS/NZS 1170.3 suggests that 30 mm radial ice (0.9 SG) at 0ºC combined with a 10 year return period wind be used for building structures in sub alpine regions. This may be appropriate for rigid structures only; it is very conservative for overhead lines (which are very flexible).

5 ISO 12494 suggests that combined actions be considered involving maximum wind (50 year RP) and reduced icing (factor = 0.7) also maximum icing (50 year RP) and reduced wind cases (50 year RP); wet snow is usually taken in still air conditions. This is similar to IEC 60826 requirements.

6 For wind associated with ice, the overall effect is similar to current overhead line standards. Although the ice density has been reduced from 915 to 700 kg/m³ and the wind speed reduced, the iced diameter has been increased slightly to compensate. Most lines companies do not want to see a reduction in transverse loading on the poles hence results should be comparable.

7 The proposed wet snow values are based on limited data on 2006 June storm in Orion’s area (this was up to a 50 year event in some locations). Reported snow build up was 20 mm to 50 mm radial thickness at an equivalent of 400 kg/m³ snow density. This indicates that current standards are probably too low at particularly at lower altitudes.

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EE1.3.5 Co-incident wind and ice conditions

No wind shall be applied to wet snow.

Wind loads shall be calculated as per AS/NZS 1170.2.

Only winds from the SW, S or SE directions shall be considered coincident with ice.

EE1.3.6 Ice densities

For all radial ice thicknesses, a base density of 700 kg/m³ shall be used. This is consistent with a medium rime ice, which is believed to be the predominant icing mechanism in New Zealand.

For aerial conductors less than 11mm, the radial ice thickness shall be increased by 10%.

EE1.3.7 Snow densities

For all radial snow thicknesses, a density of 400 kg/m³ shall be used.

EE1.3.8 Differential ice loading

In addition to the uniform extreme ice/snow loading case, every structure within ice/snow zones shall also be checked for torsional and longitudinal loading resulting from Differential Icing as described in the Table EE3. No coincident wind shall apply with differential icing. (See Figure EE2).

FIGURE EE2 DIFFERENTIAL ICE LOADING

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TABLE EE3

DIFFERENTIAL ICE AND SNOW LOADING CONDITIONS

Differential ice and snow loading conditions Longitudinal condition Torsional condition

Support type Left span Right span Left span Right span xyabc XYABC XYABC XYABC Single circuit

abc ABC ABC ABC xabcdef XABCDEF XABCDEF XABCDEF Double circuit abcdef ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF

A,B,C,D,E,F represent aerial phase conductors and x,y are earthwires. A,B,C,D,E,F,X,Y represent spans loaded with 70% of maximum ice/snow weight. The letters a,b,c,d,e,f,x,y represent spans loaded with 30% maximum ice/snow weight.

EE1.3.9 Snow loading on pole structures

Poles in areas subject to snow shall have a minimum down-line strength of at least—

(a) 50% of their transverse strength. This allows some equalisation of out-of-balance loads before significant damage occurs; and

(b) 50% of the initial stringing tension of the aerial conductors being supported on the pole under everyday conditions (still air). This ensures that multiple circuit poles have sufficient robustness.

Consideration should be given to the effects of redistribution of forces between stays and rigid poles under snow loads.

NOTE: In soft soils, up to 200 mm of movement may occur before the soil passive anchor capacity is reached].

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APPENDIX FF

DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY

(Informative)

Figure FF1 shows how the working distances and wind speeds are used to establish a 132 kV structure geometry for a round pole. The wind pressures assumed for the electrical clearance states are —

(a) low wind of 100 Pa for maintenance approach and live line working

(b) moderate wind of 300 Pa for switching and lightning impulse flashover (lightning impulse assumed coincident with moderate wind)

(c) high wind of 500 Pa for power frequency flashover

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Hand reach clearance for power frequency flashover from the centre of the climbing aid—for a typical tower where the climbing corridor is 700 mm from the face the recommended hand reach clearance is 1700 mm from the tower face, under a wind pressure of 100 Pa. For a pole, the hand reach clearance is 1700 mm from the pole centre line.

The shielding angle was determined by lightning simulation studies to achieve the desired lightning performance.

*** END OF DRAFT ***

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PREPARATION OF JOINT AUSTRALIAN/NEW ZEALAND STANDARDS

Joint Australian/New Zealand Standards are prepared by a consensus process involving representatives nominated by organizations in both countries drawn from all major interests associated with the subject. Australian/New Zealand Standards may be derived from existing industry Standards, from established international Standards and practices or may be developed within a Standards Australia, Standards New Zealand or joint technical committee.

During the development process, Australian/New Zealand Standards are made available in draft form at all sales offices and through affiliated overseas bodies in order that all interests concerned with the application of a proposed Standard are given the opportunity to submit views on the requirements to be included.

The following interests are represented on the committee responsible for this draft Australian/ New Zealand Standard:

CIGRE

Electrical Engineers Association of NZ Inc

Electrical Regulatory Authorities Council

Electricity Engineers Association (New Zealand)

Energy networks Association

Engineers Australia

National Electrical and Communications Association

Transpower New Zealand Limited

Vector Ltd

Additional interests participating in preparation of Standard:

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Standards Australia

Standards Australia is an independent company, limited by guarantee, which prepares and publishes

most of the voluntary technical and commercial standards used in Australia. These standards are

developed through an open process of consultation and consensus, in which all interested parties are

invited to participate. Through a Memorandum of Understanding with the Commonwealth

government, Standards Australia is recognized as Australia’s peak national standards body.

Standards New Zealand

The first national Standards organization was created in New Zealand in 1932. The Standards

Council of New Zealand is the national authority responsible for the production of Standards.

Standards New Zealand is the trading arm of the Standards Council established under the Standards

Act 1988.

Australian/New Zealand Standards

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Australian/New Zealand Standards are prepared by committees of experts from industry,

governments, consumers and other sectors. The requirements or recommendations contained

in published Standards are a consensus of the views of representative interests and also take

account of comments received from other sources. They reflect the latest scientific and industry

experience. Australian/New Zealand Standards are kept under continuous review after publication

and are updated regularly to take account of changing technology.

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Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand are responsible for ensuring that the Australian

and New Zealand viewpoints are considered in the formulation of international Standards and that

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