Dr Stephen Deakin

8/8/2019 Dr Stephen Deakin

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British Military Ethos and Christianity1

Stephen Deakin Ph.D. MBA. Cert. Ed.Department of Defence and International Affairs,

The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst,Camberley, Surrey, United Kingdom.GU15 4PQMilitary: (9) 4261 2186Civilian: +44 (0) 1276 412186Fax: +44 (0) 1276 412129E mail:[email protected]

Published as: British Military Ethos and Christianity, British Army Review

No 138. Winter 2005. pp. 97-105.

1 - Introduction

the English Army is essentially a Protestant one.we may fairly assumefurther that it is a Church Army. (Anonymous, 1845: 406)

Provided a ship has a good Commander and a good Chaplain you will neverfind anything much wrong with her. Admiral Sir John de Robeck, C in CAtlantic Fleet 1922-4. (Taylor, 1977: xix)

Ethos is a concept that came into common usage in the British military

in the 1990s. The word ethos began to appear frequently, in military

publications and on the lips of military personnel. An important Army policy

document in 1993, the Discipline and Standards Paper, which was

concerned with the behaviour of Army personnel was subtitled The Military

Ethos (The Maintenance of Standards) brought the concept to particular

prominence. Field Marshall Sir Peter Inge, Chief of the Defence Staff, argued

in 1995 that, ...ethos is very important. It is, I find, a very difficult subject to

talk about....but is something that is fundamentally important for Armed

Forces to believe in.... (Inge1998: 4) Similarly, the Defence Secretary in

1 The views expressed here are those of the author and they are not

necessarily those of the Ministry of Defence. I am grateful for the helpful

comments of Charles Garraway and Nigel de Lee.
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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1998, said, Nor will I be asking the Services to abandon the ethos and

traditions on which their success has been built. (Robertson: 1998) Those

using this term recognise something particularly distinctive in the British

military ethos, that they wish to preserve.

Ethos and ethics are closely related. Ethics is about moral principles

and philosophy and how people should live. Ethos is concerned with the way

in which people actually live and it presupposes community. Ethos is the

characteristic spirit of a community. The current frequent usage of the word

ethos in the area of British defence presents a challenge to give it substance.

Ethos can be a difficult term, but in the case of the British military ethos the

most important elements of it stand out as a trinity. British military ethos for

hundreds of years has consisted of three principal interwoven strands which

cannot easily be separated and which infuse each other. These three are

martial virtues, military allegiance to the state and Christianity.

The importance of Christianity to the British military ethos is not well

recognised: yet its importance as a contributor to the characteristic spirit of the

British military is great. What follows is not an attempt to detail the religious

history of the British military; rather it seeks to discern this Christian ethos in

the military.

2 - Christianity and the British Military

For long periods from the Sixteenth Century, a common understanding

amongst the civilian population was that soldiers and sailors were members of

a particularly godless, vulgar community. More recently, academic studies

have argued the case that religion was used by the authorities as a control


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mechanism to inculcate obedience amongst military personnel. (Spiers, 1980,

Ramsay Skelley, 1977) Or, that Christianity was used as part of a policy in the

Nineteenth Century to integrate the Army and civilian society. (Hendrikson,

1998)

This paper argues that from the 1600s the British military was created

to be a church, similar to a diocese of the Church of England, and that this

policy was continued because Britons believed Christianity to be true

however low the level of national spiritual life was for long periods. Military law

and procedures used to organise the modern military in the 1600s and

onwards provided a Christian framework for the military. At times of Christian

revival this framework was brought to life and clothed with further Christian

developments. This was particularly the case with the Christian revivals in the

mid - Nineteenth Century that were part of a movement that saw the military

further Christianised and the good soldier, by the end of the Century, was now

a Christian soldier. (Anderson: 1971) The Christian Generals, Havelock and

Gordon, became Christian soldier heroes of the nation. (Hendrikson 1998: 94-

142)

Christian principles, for example the Bibles Ten Commandments,

became the ethos of the British military. The Ten Commandments are; first,

worship and acknowledge God; do not have false gods; do not blaspheme;

keep the Sabbath day as a day or rest; honour your father and mother; do not

murder; do not commit adultery; do not steal; do not lie; do not be jealous.

(The Bible: Exodus 20: 1-17) Add the Biblical prohibition against sodomy,

(The Bible: Romans 1: 24-27) which a Christian military would require, and


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these principles form a vital part of the British military ethos from the Sixteenth

Century.

Following the Reformation, and the religious and political turmoil that

surrounded it, Protestant Christianity provided a foundation for the modern

British State. In the Coronation Oath Act 1689 Kings and Queens have since

then been asked by the Archbishop or Bishop to make an oath whilst placing

their hand on the Bible:

Will you to the utmost of your power maintain the laws of God, the true

profession of the gospel and the Protestant reformed religion established

by law, and will you preserve unto the bishops and clergy of this Realm,

and to the churches committed to their charge, all such rights and

privileges as by law or shall appertain unto them, or any of them? (1689,

Section 3)

Parliament pledges to support the Sovereign in doing this. The state religion

was Protestant Christianity expressed through the state church, the Church of

England. This state church was organised around an assumption that all

Britons were Christians and it provided through the clergy and the parish and

diocese system spiritual guidance and leadership for all. Protestantism,

together with a fear of war with Catholic neighbours provided the British self-

identity and the glue that united the British nation. (Colley, 1996) Slowly,

Catholics, Methodists and others gained official recognition in the military.

(See, Edghill, 2002: 36-57)

From the beginning of the modern military in the 1600s, the Navy and

Army were required to defend this Christian British state. The British Navy, the

Army and later the Royal Air Force were created by the state to be Christian


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churches. Accordingly, the martial and social fabric of the British military was

imbued with Christian spirituality and ethics. This was perhaps most explicit in

Scotland where the Church of Scotland established its spiritual authority in

each Regiment. The first part of the Articles of Militaire Discipline 1639

established Chaplains, Deacons, Regimental Kirk sessions and Elders in

each Regiment. It sought to provide uniformity of church discipline and

worship in the whole Scottish army. (Dow 1962: 84-89)

The martial virtue and allegiance to the state strands of the British

military ethos were closely interwoven with the Christian one and they were

often inseparable. For example, the execution for desertion of British soldiers

in World War One sprang from the martial virtue and obedience to the state

ethos. Yet the Christian ethos was also apparent. Christian chaplains were on

hand at the execution, and earlier, to pray with and support the condemned

man. A Divisional directive in 1915, at a double execution, reveals clearly, for

example, that the spiritual welfare of the prisoners was prominent: A Chaplain

of the prisoners denomination should be present and have access to the

prisoners until the time of their execution. The Chaplain must be near at hand

so that the prisoners can see him just before their execution, if desired.

(Babington 1983: 46) The military ethos operating here, whilst punishing the

soldiers, was mindful of their Christian needs and desired to support them at

this difficult time. The aim was to provide comfort to them and to help them

prepare themselves spiritually to meet God.

Christianity was the spiritual and ethical public language of the military.

Each Service followed a similar way of ordering its affairs and these rested on

Christian principles. This public language meant that military personnel


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routinely participated in many Christian celebrations, rituals and symbols and

that they were disciplined by military law and governed by organisational

procedures that brought Christianity into their daily lives.

3 - Military Lawand the Worship of God

Military law exists because it is recognised that military life is different

from civilian life. Military law in Britain, in the modern period, dates from the

Articles of War 1639 for the Army and from the Naval Discipline Act 1661 for

the Navy. (See, The Manual of Military Law Part 11 1989. Clode 1874) The

Royal Air Force, formed in 1917 by the Army and Airforce (Annual Act) 1917,

drew largely on the legislation governing the Army. There is considerable

continuity in language over the Centuries in these pieces of legislation with

legal draughtsmen often simply modernising older formulations. (Dicey 1959:

299) This legislation allowed for substantial delegated legislation and detailed

administrative instructions. In addition, some matters remained governed by

the Royal Prerogative, the best example of which is perhaps Queens

Regulations. Together, this legal framework provided the basis of every day

discipline and organisational practice in the British military. Military law and

the practice that derived from it communicated the three strands of the military

ethos; Christianity; martial virtue, and allegiance to the state.

With the States authorised worship, detailed in the Church of

Englands Book of Common Prayer 1662, that was required to be used under

military regulations, these legal initiatives provided a Christian legal

foundation for the British military. Other legislation also contributed to this

ethos. For example, the Act of Union 1801 authorised that Christian

Presbyterian Chaplains should always be maintained at the military castles of


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another part of the military code. (Clode 1874: 76) Worship of God was at the

heart of naval military law. Article 1 of the Naval Discipline Act 1661 stated:

That all Comanders Captaines and other Officers at Sea shall cause

the publique Worshipp of Almighty God according to the Liturgy of the

Church of England established by Lawto be performed in theire

respective Ships And that prayers and preachings by the respective

Chaplaines in holy Orders be performed diligently and that the Lords

Day be observed according to Law.

A powerful original Article that was included in the revision of the Naval

Discipline Act 1886 punished sailors who were: guilty of any profane oath,

cursing, execration, drunkenness, uncleanness or other scandalous action in

derogation of Gods honour and corruption of good manners. The Church of

Englands Book of Common Prayer 1662 contained a special chapter

entitled Forms of Prayer to be used at Sea. Morning and evening Service

was to be said daily at sea accompanied by special daily naval prayers. This

Christian ethos continued over the years, for example Royal Navy

administrative regulations in 1957 stated:

the British way of life is founded on the Christian faith and in the Royal

Navy life is conducted according to Christian principles. Religious faith

where it exists is the strongest and greatest activating force there is.

Officers and men are strongly urged to have a religious faith and practise it.

It is the duty of officers to see that the spiritual needs of their subordinates

are met(BR2138 in Officers Christian Union:1998)

4 - Chaplainsand Officers as Chaplains.


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Large Christian military churches require spiritual leaders, chaplains, to

support them. Such were often at the centre of the ceremonies and rituals that

embodied the Christian ethos of the British military. For example the Articles

of War 1662-3 gave the duty of every chaplain: The Chaplains to the Troops

of Guards and others in Regiments shall every day read the Common Prayers

of the Church of England to the Soldiers respectively under their charge, and

to preach to them as often with convenience shall be thought fit. (Walton

1894:809) By the 1970s this had become, in Queens Regulations, which

applied across all three Services: Chaplains are commissioned by Her

Majesty The Queen to provide for the spiritual well being of Service personnel

and their families. They are to be given every assistance to fulfil their ministry.

( Queens Regulations 1975: JS261) The use of Chaplains in the British

military varied; at times they were very numerous, at other times they were

not; although military law always gave them prominence.

From the earliest days of the Navy many of Britains larger warships

carried resident chaplains to attend to the spiritual welfare of the crew.

Thirteen chaplains were in the British fleet at Trafalgar and fifty one were at

Jutland. (Taylor 1978: pviii) Nine chaplains were at Waterloo. (Smyth

1968:47) The British Expeditionary Force in 1914 had sixty six chaplains

attached to it. (Brumwell 1943: 16) The total numbers in the Chaplains

Department in 1918 was 3,475 of several denominations. (Smyth 1968: 202)

The aim in the Army during the Second World War was to have a chaplain for

every 1,250 men; or sixteen chaplains to a Division. (Brumwell 1943: 30)

There were fifteen chaplains at Arnhem with the 1st Parachute Division.

(Johnstone 1996:241)


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Chaplains led worship, taught the Christian faith and the Christian

ethos identified here. The result of their work was billions of hours of Christian

worship, teaching and spiritual encouragement, to many millions of service

personnel and their families. The Chaplains parishes were the military

churches set up in the 1600s and their legal authority to proclaim Christ to

them was enshrined in military law. Chaplains often showed great Christian

concern for the spiritual and moral welfare of their charges. Many Chaplains

died as they accompanied their men in battle: 96 of them during World War

Two. (Smyth 1968: 307) In battle their place was often with the medical officer

tending the wounded or accompanying stretcher-bearers. Often they buried

the dead and searched the bodies and removed personal effects to pass on to

relatives. Writing a letter home for wounded men and writing a letter of

consolation to the relatives of a dead man was a common task. At the beach

landing at Gallipoli in 1915 one Chaplain, recounts:

The whole beach was soaked in human blood, and for fifty yards out the

sea was crimson. But it was not time for looking around; it was time for

action. I went at once to the wounded, and assisted the RAMC as best as I

could.From man to man I went.With many a man I repeated a last

prayer to God, and over many said the Last Prayers of the Church. (Taylor

1978: 348)

Chaplains were often greatly appreciated by personnel about to go into battle.

Field Marshal Alexander, shortly before the end of his life, and in private

correspondence, wrote; what a strength and comfort it was to me when, as

a young subaltern in the Irish Guards during the First World War, I knelt with

my men on the battlefield before the attack and received that spiritual support


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given to us all, both Protestant and Catholic, by our Regimental Chaplain.

(Brooks 1983:29)

Since the beginning of the modern British state in the 1600s all officers

have had a responsibility according to military law for the spiritual welfare of

their subordinates, as the following from Queens Regulations indicate:

While the responsibility for encouraging religious observance in his ship or

establishment rests primarily with the Captain, the example given by

officers is of paramount importance in leading others to a Christian way of

life. All Christian officers should recognise a moral obligation to give this

lead by joining in the worship of Almighty God. All officers, both senior and

junior, are encouraged to attend Christian leadership courses, details of

which are promulgated from time to time in Defence Council Instructions.

(Queens Regulations 1975: 0843)

The officer military academies at Dartmouth for the Navy and

Sandhurst for the Army and Cranwell for the Royal Air Force all emphasised

Christian leadership. Each academy has a Christian Chapel for worship of

God and permanent uniformed chaplains employed to attend to the spiritual

welfare of students and staff. At Sandhurst the motto is Serve to Lead which

echoes the servant leadership of Christ who for example said in Mathews

Gospel that he did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life.

(The Bible, Mathews Gospel: 20:28) All this is in accord with Queens

Regulations which by the latter part of the Twentieth Century stated:

Commanding officers are to ensure that the curricula of training and

educational establishments provide for appropriate religious instruction to

young personnel ( Queens Regulations 1975:5.269) and, it is important


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that all who exercise authority should set a good example in order to lead

others to an intelligent acceptance of Christian principles in the life of the

Armed Forces. (Queens Regulations 1975: J 1426 and 1427)

5.- A Christian Way of Life in the British Military

Military service is a way of life in a tightly knit community and recruits to

the British military joined a Christian military that was greatly involved in its

members lives. Many military organisational procedures and much military

ethos was inspired by the Bible. For example, Queens Regulations in the mid

1970s, included the following:

The reverent observance of religion in the armed forces is on the highest

importance. It is the duty of all concerned to make adequate provision for

the spiritual and moral needs of all personnel. Commanding officers are to

encourage religious observance by those under their command and are

themselves to set a good example in this respect. (Queens Regulations

1975: J5.262 and 263)

Public Christian worship was a common feature of life in the British

military. Most military establishments had their own Christian church buildings

that acted as strong symbols of religious allegiance. An order made by the

War Office in 1845 instructed that no new barracks was to be built unless it

contained a Christian chapel. (Anonymous 1845: 424) Whilst an Order in

Council of 4th March 1812 required that a copy of the Church of Englands

Book of Common Prayerand the Bibles New Testament should be placed in

each mess in a Royal Naval ship. (Taylor 1978: 233) A remarkable testimony

to the importance of Christianity in the Navy, given the shortage of space on

board warships, was the creation of chapels especially for Christian worship.


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The first one was built in 1913 on board the battle-cruiser Queen Mary.

(Taylor 1978: 362) Several other ships had chapels including one on the

Rodney, completed in 1927, which was known as The Cathedral of the Fleet

and could seat up to ninety. (Taylor 1978: 363) Many military personnel were

confirmed as communicant members of their Church after being prepared by

their Chaplain. The children of ships crew were often baptised as Christians

in the ships bell.

Saying Christian grace, prayerfully thanking God for food before a

meal, was commonly observed. The Loyal Toast to the Sovereign was

another common event; sometimes in the form God save the Queen at other

times, The Queen, God Bless Her. (Edwards 1954: 40) The Sunday

Christian Sabbath was often kept. During the Boer War, at the siege of

Mafeking, the Boer General, a Christian, and Colonel Baden-Powell, also a

Christian, made an arrangement that no fighting should occur on a Sunday.

(Flower Smith and Yorke 2000: 79) However a naval diarist of the 1870s

records a period of intense sea training on the Northampton, captained by the

active Christian, and later Admiral Lord Fisher, which included working on a

Sunday except for a short break at 0930; for divisions, Captains

inspections and short prayers. These were followed by reading the Articles of

War (Naval Penal Code) The first of the Articles of War enjoins that the

Sabbath day is to be strictly observed. A brief smile went around when that

was solemnly read by the Captain. (Bacon 1929: 65)

During the Second World War in 1941 two special orders of the day

were made that emphasised the place of Christian worship in the military:


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The Army Council, direct that, so far as the exigencies of the military

situation permit, every facility should be given for public and private worship.

(Brumwell 1943: 42) The Royal Navy issued a similar order: in the

practice of the Christian Religion may be found to-day the same support

experienced by our Forefathers in establishing in the Royal Navy those ideals

of service and sacrifice which we have inherited. Their Lordships, wish to

emphasise the need for Divine Service and Prayers. They further direct that

in battleships and cruisers all possible steps should be taken to provide a

space set apart for the worship of God. (Brumwell 1943: 42)

The Christian state, the state Church, the Church of England, and the

Christian military were interwoven and the cloth was particularly apparent at

state occasions such as coronations, royal marriages, state funerals and the

like where the military played an important ceremonial role. At times of

national crisis in war time the state called special days of national prayer for

victory which of course embraced the military. One was called by Prime

Minister Lloyd George on Sunday 4th August 1918 which was followed four

days later by a successful British attack and by the end of the war in

November 1918.

Christianity also provided an agreed sense of right and wrong and

acceptable and unacceptable behaviour for the military. So much was this the

case that there were comprehensive and unspecified prohibitions in military

law. Officers, for example, could be convicted of Disgraceful Conduct,

defined as behaving in a scandalous manner, unbecoming the character of

an officer and a gentleman they were to be cashiered. (Army Act 1881: 16)

The Army Act 1955 reduced the punishment to a maximum of two years.


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Such legislation is evidence of an ethos that was so widely known and

accepted that everyone knew what bad behaviour was without it being

codified. It large part it was behaviour that was against Christian principles.

The use of battle flags, or colours, goes back to ancient times and in

the Bible the Israelites carried a sacred standard into the fight. (The Bible

1973: Exodus 15:11) British regiments have their own colours, a flag, often

listing battle honours, symbolising the spirit and ethos of the unit. These were

consecrated with Christian prayers before being used and in retirement they

were often laid up in a Church. Colours ceremonies frequently involved the

military, the Chaplains and representatives of the State, often a member of

the Royal family. At the local level regiments often presented their colours to

the Church of England church of their home town for safekeeping. Prayerful

consecration of colours was common, but it is perhaps not until 1899 that the

military Chaplains devised official religious services for Protestant and

Catholic regiments to do this. (Edwards 1953: 68) Sailors have traditionally

launched new ships with prayers and religious ceremonies which have been

analogous to Christian baptism ceremonies for a new baby. The Archbishop

of Canterbury in 1875 wrote an official prayer for the launching of Royal Naval

ships. (Campbell 1956: 34)

The Christian ethos in the military also found expression in the areas of

family life and sexuality. In Christianity marriage is only between men and

women; and lasts until the death of one of the partners, whilst adultery and

fornication between single people, is forbidden. This is the ideal of a

heterosexual covenant family involving mutual support and sacrifice at

whatever cost; rather than a contract that can be broken in adverse


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conditions. (Deakin 1995: 27-34) Such a covenant has obvious appeal to the

military since it is the key to morale in battle. It is common for people in the

military to think of their unit as a family. Field Marshal Wavell wrote, to the

soldier the team to which he belongs is his family during his service. (Wavell

1948: 49) In the context of a family such a covenant necessitates a good deal

of sexual self-control and the wider community is required to help by

practically supporting these principles. A Christian community will therefore try

to organise itself in a manner that supports this ethos of sexuality and family

life. There is a good deal of evidence of such organisation within the British

military ethos.

From the beginning military law expressed this Christian ethos as it

prohibited offences against the family. The amendments of 1677 to the

Articles of Waradded to Article 37 that adultery or fornication deserved

banishment from the Army plus such punishment as a court martial awarded.

(Walton 1894: 812) The same Article punished anyone beating or abusing his

wife or children or servant with being put in irons and rape was awarded the

death penalty. Homosexuality was also brought into theArticles and

prohibited and it also merited the death penalty.

Support for these ideals continued down the centuries. For example, in

the 1990s, as a result of growing concern within the Army about its ethos, it

produced an internal statement of what was expected of its personnel. The

Discipline and Standards Paper 1993 encouraged good behaviour and

emphasised that certain activities were not to be tolerated. What is striking

about this 1993 document is how similar it is, certainly in ethos, to the original

Articles of War 1639, and later versions. Christianity is not explicit in the 1993


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document, rather it emphasises the need for the military to behave in a way

that supports group cohesion and trust, but the ethos of the Discipline and

Standards Paperis recognisably Christian. It prohibited homosexuality,

dishonesty, indebtedness, drunkenness, adultery within the military

community and, for officers, adultery outside the community if it brought the

military into disrepute.

Christianity distinguishes between male and female sexuality on the

basis that God created men and women for different purposes. The role of

women is especially one of supporting men and of bearing children, whilst that

of men is especially one of protecting and supporting women and children.

Fighting is, with rare exceptions, a masculine activity from which women

should be excluded. This Christian differentiation of sexual roles in the British

military was challenged by the need for labour in the First and Second World

Wars but even here women were almost exclusively employed in roles

supporting men. As the Christian ethos in Britain faded after the Second

World War women were employed increasingly in the military, but not in direct

combat roles. Although by the Twenty First Century, the Parliamentary Select

Committee on Defence argued that the ban on women in the military killing

and being killed could no longer be justified on grounds of moral distaste.

(Evans: 2001)

Military accommodation was divided at least from Victorian times

onwards into single sex accommodation. The practice of married soldiers

sleeping with their wives in rooms with single men for example was brought to

an end by Christian reformers during the Nineteenth Century. It was normally

an offence under Standing Orders to enter the accommodation area of


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another sex. Heterosexual, or homosexual, liaisons in military accommodation

between unmarried military personnel were forbidden. It was common

practice for the military guard to search single accommodation at night to

check that illicit sexual activity was not occurring.

Within Christianity marriage is seen as a God ordained covenant

relationship that gives strength to the man and to the woman and to their

children and to the wider community. Married quarters accommodation,

public housing for serving military personnel, was provided in accordance with

this prevailing Christian ethos in the military. It was available to married

heterosexuals and not to cohabitees or to homosexuals, since both practices

are prohibited by Christianity.

Known homosexuality was illegal in the British military from at least the

1600s until 2000 when it was permitted. (Deakin 2000: 119-138) No Christian

military church could allow homosexual practice among its members because

it is forbidden in the Bible. Also, the practice threatened the established

Christian male and female roles. Because of this it was thought to disrupt the

unity of the community and to decrease its fighting performance.

Pay and pension rules and entitlements, whilst often complex, also

reflected the Christian ethos within the military. Until 1970 when the military

salary was introduced there existed a system where married and singles

received different pay, with the married receiving more to help them with the

extra costs associated with supporting a family. (Jolly 1992:18)This practice

sprang out of the Christian ethos where the community protected families and

children and where single individuals were expected to make this sacrifice for

the sake of the wider community. Pension entitlement reflected the till death


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us do part ethos of the Christian faith and pensions were available to the

surviving married spouse on the death of the main pension holder. However,

these pensions ceased on remarriage or on cohabitation by the survivor

because another union had thereby been established in the eyes of the

Christian ethos that therefore made the original pension arrangement invalid.

Cohabitees were rarely entitled to benefit from pension arrangements and

homosexual liaisons were not recognised.

6 Morale, Victory and Providence

Many works on military strategy and the art of war have emphasised

the importance of religious belief to successful military activity. The Duke of

Wellington wrote in 1811, whilst in the Peninsula wars: I am very anxious

upon this subject, not only from the desire, which every man must have, that

so many persons as there are in this Army should have the advantage of

religious instruction, but from a knowledge that it is the greatest support and

aid to Military discipline and order. (Wellington Life: Vol. iv p.584 1811) ???

Field Marshal Slim led the victorious Second World War Army campaign in

Burma and deliberately fostered a spiritual foundation among his troops to

improve their, initially very poor, morale. He argued that morale was a state of

mind that rested on spiritual, intellectual and material foundations:

Spiritual first, because only spiritual foundations can stand real

strain.Religion has always been and still is one of the greatest

foundations of morale, especially of military morale. Saints and soldiers

have much in common.The Christian religion is above all others a

source of that enduring courage which is the most valuable of all the

components of morale. (Slim :?? 182-3)


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Field Marshal Montgomery also believed strongly in the importance of morale

arguing that it is the most important factor in battle and that the essential

condition for good morale is; such men must have faith in God and they must

think rightly on the moral issues involved. (Montgomery 1958:227)

Christianity is functional for the military since it encourages the qualities

required of the successful warrior. The Bible presents the Christian as being a

participant in the battle between God and Satan. The Christian must exhibit

the characteristics of a good soldier. Hence the Christian is told to Endure

hardship with us like a good soldier of Jesus Christ. (The Bible 1993: 2

Timothy :3) and to Fight the good fight of the faith. (The Bible 1993: 1

Timothy 6:12) The Christian is enjoined to be brave, honest, hardworking,

trustworthy, and obedient to those in authority and to trust God however

adverse the circumstances. There is also the comfort for the Christian

combatant of knowing that he will go to heaven when he dies. Above all there

is the example for the Christian of Jesus, doing his duty and sacrificing his life

for others, regardless of the cost to himself. Chaplains made much of this kind

of thinking as they aimed to raise and sustain morale amongst service people.

(Brumwell 1943: 55)

Many commanders held Christian worship services to celebrate

victories. Lord Howe gathered his ships around his flagship in calm weather a

few days after he defeated the French fleet in 1794 for a service of

thanksgiving for the victory. (Cordingly 2004: 88) Nelson saw victory at the

battle of the Nile in 1798 as being given to him by God. In his despatch

afterwards he wrote Almighty God has blessed his Majestys arms in late

battle by a great victory over the fleet of the enemy, (Douglas 1971:890)


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After Nelson death at Trafalgar in 1805 Vice Admiral Collingwoods despatch

similarly gave credit for victory to God; it pleased the Almighty Disposer of

all events to grant his Majestys arms a complete and glorious victory.

(Douglas 1971: 906) After the battle of Omdurman in 1898 Major General Sir

Herbert Kitchener, later Field Marshal, is reported to have said, I thank the

Lord of Hosts for giving us victory at so small a cost in our dead and

wounded. (Pollock 1998: 137) Admiral Sir David Beatty took the surrender of

the German High Seas fleet in 1918 and signalled to the British fleet: It is my

intention to hold a service of thanksgiving at 6 p.m. today, for the victory which

Almighty God has vouchsafed to His Majestys arms, and every ship is

recommended to do the same (Taylor 1978:358) Montgomery concluded

his personal message to his officers and men before the Battle of Alamein in

1942 with the exhortation; Let us pray that the Lord Mighty in battle will give

us victory. (Montgomery 1958: 128) After the victory in another message to

his officers and men he referred to this and wrote of God, He has done so,

and I know that you will agree with me when I say that we must not forget to

thank Him for His great mercies. (Montgomery 1958: 340) Churchill, after

announcing victory in Europe to the House of Commons on 8th May 1945,

turned to the Speaker and said, I therefore beg, with your permission to move

That this House do now attend at the Church of St Margaret Westminster, to

give humble and reverent thanks to Almighty God for our deliverance from the

threat of German domination. (The Times: 9th May 1945)

War is brutal, yet many in the British military have had a Christian view

of Providence: the Christian doctrine that regardless of the circumstances

God is still in control and loves those who trust Him. The preamble to the


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Naval Discipline Act contained the famous words, the Navy, whereon under

the good Providence of God, the wealth, safety and strength of the kingdom

do chiefly depend. (Naval Discipline Act 1661) There is no doubt a fine line

between a belief in Gods providence and fatalism, yet it is one that many

seem to have drawn. General Gordon of Khartoum for example worried a

good deal in his journals, but as he argued, If we could believe it, we are as

safe in the fiercest battle as in a drawing room in London. (emphasis in the

original) (Gordon 1885: 106) Wellington after victory at Waterloo in 1815

remarked that The finger of providence was upon me, and I escaped unhurt.

(Longford 1970: 490) He may have been echoing Cromwell who told the

Speaker after the battle of Naseby, Sir, this is none other but the hand of

God; and to him alone belongs the glory. (Herspring 2001 :66) Nelson as he

lay dying in 1805 is reported to also have trusted in Gods providence: I know

I am dying. I could have wished to survive to breathe my last upon British

ground, but the will of God be done. (Douglas 1971:908) King George V1

broadcast to the nation and to the Empire on 3rd September 1939 when the

Second World War began and concluded his speech with an appeal to God

and His providence: But we can only do the right as we see the right and

reverently commit our cause to God. If one and all we keep resolutely faithful

to it, ready for whatever service or sacrifice it may demand then, with Gods

help, we shall prevail. May He bless us and keep us all. (The Times, 4th

September 1939)

8 - Death and Remembrance


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Death from disease and also in battle was common place for members

of the military community. The Christian ethos of the military is particularly

evident in this area. It was expected that British personnel and their families

would have a Christian burial. Many naval sailors were buried at sea, with the

corpse wrapped in a shroud and covered in a Union Jack, to the special

prayers for sailors in the Church of Englands Book of Common Prayer 1662.

If the ship did not carry a Chaplain the Captain would take the service. Military

funerals on land had their own strong Christian symbolism. The three rifle

volleys represent the Christian Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. (Wells

1930: 71 and Edwards 1954: 192) The carrying of rifles in the reversed

position acknowledges the shame of killing whilst the Union Jack is laid on the

body to show that he died in the Service of the State, and that the State takes

responsibility for what it ordered him to do as a soldier. (Wells 1930: 72) The

sounding of the Last Post is the deceaseds farewell to the world and the

Reveille signifies the hope of waking in a new world. The Last Post is the

Nunc Dimittis of the dead soldier. It is the last bugle callbut it gives promise

of reveille of the great reveille which ultimately the Archangel Gabriel will

blow. (Wells 1930: 72)

The military had their own Christian cemeteries for example at the

Royal Military Academy Sandhurst a cemetery exists for the use of students

and staff. In Naval ports such as Portsmouth there are dedicated naval

cemeteries, as at Gosport. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission was

created to deal with the enormous number of deaths that occurred in the First

World War and afterwards and it provided Christian burials or remembrance

memorials for most of them. There was considerable debate about the


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architecture of the new cemeteries and memorials and the extent of religious

symbolism that they should express. Churchill wrote to the Archbishop of

Canterbury, I am very anxious indeedto do everything that is possible to

emphasise the distinctively Christian and religious character of these

memorials (Longworth 1985: 51) In the event the symbols of the

Commissions memorials were solidly Christian with crosses on individual

tombstones and often Biblical inscriptions in the cemeteries. A simple

monument in the form of a stone Christian cross with a symbolic sword on its

face was agreed and it became known as the Cross of Sacrifice. For those

dead who could not be identified the words, A soldier of the Great War

Known unto God were adopted. (Longworth 1985: 43) The memorial tablet to

the Unknown Soldier in Westminster Abbey began: To the Glory of God and

to the memory of one million dead of the British Empire who fell in the Great

War 1914 1918. Memorial services to the military dead were Christian

ones.

Whilst the Commission was going about its work, individual towns and

villages throughout the United Kingdom produced their own memorials to their

military dead and these were added to because of the Second World War and

later conflicts. These memorials are often rich in Christian content and

symbolism and frequently they use Biblical texts. Often the trinity of British

military ethos identified here; martial virtues, allegiance to the state and

Christianity are blended together in one inscription. For example on the

memorial at Lynton in North Devon, beneath the stone Cross of Sacrifice, are

the words:

1914-1918


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military ethos. It is common in this literature to criticise the military for its ethos

of old fashioned practices that are no longer supported by civilian society and

to urge it to modernise. Examples of this appeal to modernise include support

for heterosexual cohabitee relationships and for homosexual relationships to

be allowed in military accommodation, pension rights for unmarried and

homosexual partners and greater employment of women in the military. (Jolly

1992; Jolly 1996; Jessup 1996) This literature can be viewed as part of the

movement of secularisation; replacing the Christian ethos in the British

military with a humanist one.

In the Twenty - First Century the British military continues in its

Christian ethos; chaplains are still employed, military law promotes many

Christian principles. Yet there is evidence that this ethos is under growing

pressure from the ethos of secular humanism. A powerful symbol of this

movement towards secular humanism was the decision in 2000 to remove the

prohibition on known homosexuals serving in the British military. This decision

revoked a policy that had been part of the British military Christian ethos since

at least the 1600s. The Ministry of Defence began a review of the Armed

Forces Pension Scheme in 1999 and it announced in 2003 that pensions are

to be paid to unmarried partners and to homosexual partners of service

people. (Smith 2002, 2003) In 2004 a Royal Navy sailor obtained permission,

using equal opportunity policies, to practise Satanism on board ship. (Day

2004) These new policies are outside the boundaries of the Christian ethos

that has shaped the British Military for so long.


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Documents

Dr Stephen Deakin