Dr. Mazharul Islam 1 Topic # 01 Email: [email protected]

Dr. Mazharul Islam www.studyandjobs24.com1

Topic # 01

Email: [email protected]


Research: Research is scientific approach of answering a research question, solving a problem or generating new knowledge through a systematic and orderly collection, organization and analysis of information with an ultimate goal of making the research useful in decision making.

Business Research: Business research is defined as the systematic and objective process of gathering, recording, and analyzing data for aid in making business decisions.

Characteristics of a Scientific Research: Any research endeavor is said to be scientific if it

is based on empirical and measurable evidences subject to specific principles of reasoning;

Consists of systematic observations, measurement and experiment;

relies on the application of the scientific methods and harnessing of curiosity;

provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature;

makes practical applications possible, and ensures adequate analysis of data employing appropriate statistical techniques


Scope or Uses of Research: At the individual level, the results of a research are used by many:

A villager is drinking water from arsenic free tube-well A rural woman is giving more green vegetable to her

child than before A cigarette smoker is actively considering to quit

smoking An old man is jogging for cardiovascular fitness A bank manager is planning to introduce credit card

facilities in the bank. The bank management is planning to open new

counters for female customers

Research Methods: All those methods which are used by the researchers during the course of studying his research problems are termed as research methods.

Research Methodology: Research Methodology is a way to study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problems systematically along with the logic, assumptions and rationale behind them.


Difference between Research Methods and Methodology: All those methods which are used by the researchers during the course of studying his research problems are termed as research methods. When are speak of research methodology, we not only talk of research methods but also keep in view the logic behind the method. Method we use in the content of our research undertaking.

Objectives of Research: The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Also, the other objectives may be discussed as following:

i. To gain familiarity with a new phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it;

ii. To portray accurately the characteristics of particular individual situation or a group;

iii. To determine the frequency with which something occurs;

iv. To test hypothesis of causal relationship between variables;

Areas of Research: Research may be conducted in many fields of inquiry. The areas of research are following:

a) Social Research; b) Health Research.c) Population Research; d) Family planning

Research;e) Business Research; f) Agricultural

Research.


a) Social ResearchExample 1: Although dowry demand is illegal under Dowry Prohibition Act 1980, the practice still persists as a custom, especially in the rural areas of Bangladesh. As a consequence of unpaid dowry, women are tortured by their husbands and in-laws, burnt by acid or even murdered. Despite serious growing concerns within government and civil societies, practice of dowry has not decreased. In most cases, males attitudes were unfavorable. It is important to undertake a study for exploring possible ways to eliminate discriminations towards women and girls due to dowry.Example 2: The government-supplied oral contraceptive pills (OCP) and injectable is provided free of cost while condom is provided at a minimum cost through government fieldworkers and clinics. Even then why do a significant proportion of women apparently prefer to purchase social marketed contraceptives rather than avail free services, is a very crucial information for social Marketing company (SMC). This is proposed to be verified using a field study.

b) Health Research Example 1: (Reproductive Health) Despite that fact that

trained traditional birth attendants (TBA) are readily available in rural areas for safe delivery, only around 20% of the home deliveries are attendant by the trained TBAs. It is thus imperative to identify the reasons why the adult members do not avail of this opportunity.Example 2:(General Health) Obesity plays a role in the development of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease and several cancers. A significant portion of the population is obese in the country. Higher prevalence rates are seen in certain sub-groups of the population, including the middle-aged (35-64). However, little is known of the differences in weight patterns between males and females and that among adolescents. A study is needed to investigate the issue in question.


c) Population ResearchExample 1: Kabir et al. (1997) utilizing the data from various sources examined the prospect for stabilization of Bangladesh population under alternative demographic scenarios. They further examined prospect for achieving zero population growth vis a vis NRR=1 by the end of 2010. Based on their findings, they concluded that if the fertility target can be achieved as envisaged, Bangladesh population will be more or less stable by 2050.

d) Family planning ResearchExample 1: Duston and Miller (1995) initiated a research to ascertain how to improve community-based family planning services and the potential for increasing contraceptive prevalence in Bangladesh. The specific objectives of the study were to investigate the degree to which improved service delivery in Bangladesh can increase contraceptive use in the present status of demand, programmatic factors most associated with increased prevalence and make these projects more widely known.

e) Business Research Example 1: Micro credit programs from both institutional and non-institution sources have been found to have great impact to raise the standard of living of the rural people especially of women. But there are ample evidences that these credit facilities are being misused and misdirected in many instances. This practice has led to the high rate of default putting institution in hesitance in financing the rural people. In this context, it is imperative to examine the status of utilization of credit and assess the extent and magnitude of misuse and diversion of credit in rural areas.


Example 1: Tea in an important cash crop of Bangladesh. A large number of tea industries have been established in Bangladesh depending on the tea as raw materials. But processing and marketing system of tea are subdued by manifold problems hampering the interest of the tea producers. A wide range of variations was observed in yield, cost and return among different types of tea estates. Furthermore, price of tea is so volatile that it is very difficult to anticipate future price. Till to day, no study has been undertaken to identify the exact nature of the tea processing problems and marketing of the same. An attempt should be made to examine the existing marketing system and price behavior of tea.

f) Agricultural ResearchExample 1: It is a long-felt demand in agricultural sector to know the extent of participation of rural households in livestock production activities. A study was designed therefore to identify the type of livestock activities usually done by the rural farmers. They study further aimed at assessing the labor contribution of males, females, children and the paid workers to each of the identified activities.Example 2: Rahman (1999) carried out an analysis of costs and benefits for the production of different varieties of rice in Bangladesh. Based on the partial measures of costs and benefits, the researcher asserted that production of rice is profitable in Bangladesh, Bora rice produces the highest yield and net return followed by aman and aus rice.


Types of Research: On the basis of outcome research can be classified in four categories such as:

i. Fundamental (Basic) Research ii. Applied Research

iii. Action Research iv. Evaluative Research.

i. Fundamental (Basic) Research: When the solution to the research problem has no apparent applications to any existing practical problem but only to expand the boundaries of knowledge or to verify the acceptability of a given theory.Example 1: A business researcher analyzes the existing policies and programs of rural credit in the context of Bangladesh. He finds that the coverage of rural credit to total credit has declined gradually and the programs could not reach the small farmers. Based on his study results, he concludes that political will of the Govt., more NGO involvement in the credit operations, strengthening local bodies, accountability and more involvement of NCBs etc. are some of the vital factors for successful implementation of rural credit programs in Bangladesh (Siddiqui, 1993).Example 2: Basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:How did the universe begin? What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

How do slime molds reproduce? What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?


Example 3: A social researcher in a developed country has investigated if there is any relationship between religion and occupation. If you attempt to see if the relationship found in developed countries is also present in the

developing country, you are doing a basic research.

ii. Applied Research: Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer questions about specific problems or to make decisions about a particular course of action or policy.

Example 1: In the adventure travel survey in a US county, the managers of a group of county river basin outfitters wanted to know how to increase customer satisfaction and repeat business for their multi-day river trips. They wanted to make their business more predictable and profitable. To achieve their goals, they conducted applied consumer research with several river-outfitting companies to help answer questions of interest to

managers.

Example 2: An organization contemplating a paperless office and a networking system for the company’s personal computers may conduct research to learn the amount of time its employees spend at personal computers in an average week.


iii. Action Research: Action research is the application of fact-finding to practical problem solving in a social situation with a view to improving the quality of action within it, involving the collaboration and cooperation of researchers, practitioners and laymen.

Example: New products need to be constantly developed by geographically dispersed teams, but the transportation and lodging costs associated with bringing team members together currently prevent more than two thirds of the needed teams from being conducted.

iv) Evaluative Research: Evaluative Research is concerned with the evaluation of such occurrences as social and organizational programs or intervention.

Example: Goiter is highly prevalent in many parts of Bangladesh. UNICEF, Bangladesh initiated a lipiodol injection campaign in some selected thana in 1989. After a period of two years, the impact of this campaign was evaluated. The results were compared with another area where no such campaign was launched.


Differences between Basic Research and Applied Research

Basic (Pure) Research Applied Research

1. Research problems and subjects are selected with a great deal of freedom.

1. Research problems are narrowly constrained to the demands of client or the sponsor.

2. Research is judged by absolute norms and scientific rigor, and the highest standard of scholarship is sought.

2. The rigor and standard of scholarship depend on the uses of result.

3. The primary concern is with the internal logic and rigor of research design.

3. The primary concern is with ability to generalize findings to areas of interest to sponsor/client.

4. The driving goal is to contribute to basic, theoretical knowledge.

4. The driving goal is to have practical payoffs or use of results.

5. Success comes when results appear in a scholarly journal and have an impact on others in the scientific community.

5. Success comes when results are used by sponsor/client in decision making.


On the Basis of Methodological Principles Research can be classified in two categories such as:

i. Quantitative Research; and ii. Qualitative Research.

i. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is the systematic investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their interrelationships. It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

ii. Qualitative Research: In contrast to quantitative research, qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i. e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative researchers aim at gathering an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern human behavior. Qualitative research relies on reasons behind various aspects of behavior.

Motivation of Research: The possible motives for doing research may either one or more of the flowing:

i. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

ii. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems;

iii. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

iv. Desire to service to society;v. Desire to get respectability;


Desirable Qualities or Characteristics of ResearchThe desirable characteristics of a research are following:i. The purpose of the research should be clearly

defined and common concepts be used.ii. The research procedure used should be described in

sufficient detail to permit another researchers to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.

iii. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.

iv. The researcher should report with complete frankness flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

v. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.

vi. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

vii. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.


Justifying (Criteria) the Merits of a Proposed Research: Each problem that is proposed for research has to be judged for its merit in terms of a few guidelines or criteria. These are following:

a) Relevance;b) Avoidance of Duplication;c) Feasibility;d) Political Acceptability;e) Applicability;f) Urgency of Data Needed; andg) Ethical Acceptability.

a) Relevance: Before one decides on a topic, each proposed topic should be compared with all other options. This enables the researcher to decide whether the topic so chosen is a priority problem or not.

b) Avoidance of Duplication: Before it is decided to carry out the study, it is important to see whether the suggested topic has been investigated earlier in the proposed study area or in an area with similar environment or settings.

c) Feasibility: Every proposed research must be considered for its execution in terms of its complexity of the problems and resources that will be required to carry out the study.


d) Political Acceptability: In general, it is desirable and at the same time advisable to choose a research topic that has the interest and support of the relevant authorities.

e) Applicability: It is the ultimate goal of any study that the study results will lead to some policy recommendations. The question is: how likely is that these recommendations will be endorsed and implemented by the authorities, for which the study was undertaken?

f) Urgency of Data Needed: In implementation of the study results, the authorities give top priority for those studies, which are urgently needed for decision making. This is an important criterion for a research problem.

g) Ethical Consideration: In choosing a research problem, one must carefully consider its acceptability to those who are being studied. Care must be taken so that the subjects of the studies are harmed neither physically nor psychologically and their fundamental rights are not ignored.

× Evaluation of a Proposed Research: Each research topic outlined in the previous section should be evaluated to judge its merits for implementation. This evaluation can be based on a 3-point rating scale. A group of experts may be employed to judge the merit of the topic, who will rank the proposed topic on the basic of this 3-point scaling. Each expert in his own judgment will assign a score from 1 through 3 for each criterion. A research topic receiving the highest score will be considered for execution. The scaling process is en enumerated below:


Criteria/Options Score

Relevance1. Not Relevant

12. Relevant 23. Very Relevant

3Avoidance of Duplication1. Sufficient information already available

12. Some information available but major issues not covered

23. No sound information available to base problem-solving

3Feasibility1. Not feasible considering available resources

12. Feasible considering available resources

23. Very feasible considering available resources

3Political Acceptability1. Not acceptable to high level policymakers

12. More or less acceptable

23. Fully acceptable

3Acceptability1. No chance of recommendation being implemented

12. Some chance of recommendation being implemented

23. Good chance of recommendation being implemented

3Urgency of Data1. Information not urgently needed

12. Information could be used right away but a delay of some months would be acceptable

23. Data very urgently needed for decision making

3Ethical Acceptability1. Major ethical problems

12. Minor ethical problems

23. No ethical problems

3


Suppose 10 experts gave their opinions as to the suitability of a proposed research topic in terms of the criteria listed above. The pattern of opinion is accumulated in the accompanying table along with the average or total scores computed from the ranking process: Scores

Opinion/Criteria 1 2 3 Weighted Sum

Relevance 2 5 3 21*

Avoidance of Duplication

2 6 2 20

Feasibility 4 1 5 21

Political Acceptability 3 5 2 19

Acceptability 4 1 5 21

Urgency of Data 2 2 6 24

Ethical Acceptability 1 3 6 25

*21=1*2+2*5+3*3It appears from the scores that the proposed topic is ethically highly acceptable (which received the highest score, 25). The next higher score is due to urgency (24). This score indicates that we need relevant data on an urgent basis. It may however be difficult to obtain approval of the policy makers, since this criterion received the lowest score (19). Nevertheless, if the implementing authority decides a threshold score for each criterion (say 18, in advance) then the proposed topic may be given approval for execution. When number of expert is exceedingly high, an average may be computed for ease of comprehension simply by dividing the sums in the last column by the number of experts ( in this example 10).


BASIC CONCEPT AND ISSUES IN RESEARCHTheory: A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts).

Proposition: A proposition is a statement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena.Axioms: Axioms may be defined as a statement of relationships assumed to be true but not testable. True statements from which other statements are deducted are axioms or postulates. Let us look at the following propositions: (a) Proposition 1: If A then B (b) Proposition 2: If B then C Therefore; (c) Proposition 3: If A then C. In such a theory, if proposition 1 and 2 are true statements, it follows by deduction that proposition 3 is also true. Postulates 1and 2 are thus axioms or postulates.Theorem: A proposition that can be deduced from a set of postulates is called theorem. If the truth of the proposition 3 is demonstrated by empirical observations, it is more logical to name this as a theorem rather than an axiom and proposition 3 is then a theorem.Model: A model is representative of a system or a process and is usually expressed in the form of a mathematical function or a set of functions relating two or mote measurable variables.

Theoretical Framework: In order to explain, interpret, probe or analyze any process or phenomenon, social scientists usually develop an analytical framework by combining some established theories into an integrated framework of analysis. This in research parlance is called theoretical framework.


Hypothesis: Hypothesis means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved.

Characteristics of Hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

i.Hypothesis should be clear and precise;ii.Hypothesis should be capable of being tested;iii.Hypothesis should state relationship between variables;iv.Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific;v.Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms;vi.Hypothesis should be consistent with most known; vii.Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time;viii.Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.

Role or Functions or Importance of Hypothesis: The hypothesis has the following functions or a great important in scientific research.

i.It gives instructions about the research;ii.It specifies the research boundary;iii.It indicates about solution of the research problem;iv.It specifies the data which are used in research;v.It helps to reject the unnecessary data;vi.It gives instructions about data analysis procedure;vii.It helps us to determine the research methods;viii.It plays an important role to develop theory.


Formulation of Hypothesis: The formulation of hypothesis should be consistent with the research objectives and the number of hypothesis should be determined.

Types of Hypothesis: There two types of hypothesis such as i) Conceptual Hypothesis and ii) Statistical Hypothesis

i) Non-Statistical or Conceptual Hypothesis: The general statement of relationship among the dependent and independent variables is called conceptual hypothesis.

ii) Statistical Hypothesis: The numerical statement of relationship among the dependent and independent variables is called statistical hypothesis.

There two types of statistical hypothesis such as i) Parametric Hypothesis and ii) Non-Parametric Hypothesis

i) Parametric Hypothesis: The hypothesis which specifies parameter of population is called parametric hypothesis.

ii) Non-Parametric Hypothesis: The hypothesis which does not specify parameter of population is called non-parametric hypothesis.

The parametric and non-parametric hypotheses are two types such as i) Null Hypothesis and ii) Alternative Hypothesis

i) Null HypothesisA hypothesis which states that there is no difference between

assumed and actual value of the parameter is the null hypothesis.

ii) Alternative HypothesisThe hypothesis which is different of the null hypothesis is the

alternative hypothesis.


Variable: A variable is a characteristic of a person or an object or a phenomenon that can take on different values in a delineated domain or range.Types of variable: Based on measurability there are two types of variable such as Qualitative or Categorical Variable and Quantitative Variable or numerical variable.Qualitative or Categorical Variable: The variable which cannot be expressed or measured numerically is called qualitative variable. Quantitative Variable or numerical variable: The variable which can be expressed or measured numerically is called quantitative variable.Types of Quantitative variable: There are two types of quantitative variable such as: Discrete Variable and Continuous VariableDiscrete Variable: A discrete variable is that which can vary only by finite “jumps” and can’t manifest every conceivable fractional value.Continuous Variable: A continuous variable is capable of manifesting every conceivable fractional value within the range of possibilities such as height or weight of a person.Types of variable: Based on dependency there are two types of variable such as i) Independent Variable and ii) Dependent Variable.i) Independent Variable: The variable that is used to describe or measure the factor that is assumed to cause or at least to influence the problem is called independent variable.ii) Dependent Variable: The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem under study is called dependent variable.


Different Types of VariablesBackground Variable: In almost every study, we collect information such as age, sex, educational attainment, socioeconomic status, marital status, religion, place of birth and the like. These variables are referred to as background variables. Moderating Variable: In simple relationships, all other variables are extraneous and are ignored. In actual study situations, such a simple one-to-one relationship needs to be revised to take other variables into account to better explain the relationship. This emphasizes the need to consider a second independent variable that is expected to have significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated dependent-independent relationship. Such a variable is termed moderating variable. Extraneous Variable: Most studies concern the identification of a single independent variable and the measurement of its effect on the dependent variable. But still there are a number of variables that might conceivably affect our hypothesized independent-dependent variable relationship, thereby distorting the study. These variable are referred to as extraneous variables. Intervening Variable: Often an apparent relationship between two variables is caused by a third variable. For example, variables X and Y may be highly correlated, but only because X causes the third variable, Z, which in turn causes Y. In this case, Z is the intervening variable.Suppressor Variable: In many cases, we have good reasons to believe that the variables of interest have a relationship, but our data fail to establish any such relationship. It is possible that some hidden third factor is suppressing the true relationship between the two original variables. Such a factor is referred as a suppressor variable.

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Dr. Mazharul Islam 1 Topic # 01 Email: [email protected]