DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 270 627 CE 044 586

AUTHOR Jallade, Jean-PierreTITLE Alternance Training for Young People: Guidelines for

Action.INSTITUTION European Centre for the Development of Vocational

Training, Berlin (West Germany).REPORT NO ISBN-92-825-2870-7PUB DATE 82NOTE 105p.PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Cooperative Planning; Coordination; Educational

Cooperation; Educational Policy; *Education WorkRelationship; Employment Programs; *ForeignCountries; *Job Training; *Nontraditional Education;Public Policy; School Business Relationship;Secondary Education; Training Methods; *TransitionalPrograms; Unemployment; *Youth Employment; YouthPrograms

IDENTIFIERS Europe

ABSTRACTAlternance training and employment policy should

improve youth employment prospects in the European community in threeways. It should enhance young people's employability, improve youth'smotivation and clarify vocational options, and better prepare youthto adapt to abrupt changes in job content. Because alternancetraining is concerned with young people's transition from school towork, the supply of alternance training places should be geared tothe number of those leaving the school system. Guidance, acquisitionof skills, and social integration are the three primary aims ofalternance training. No single formula can be applied throughout theEuropean community to determine who will need alternance training.Training needs must instead be determined on the basis of schoolexperience, employment situation, socioeconomic attributes, and locallabor market requirements. Alternance training schemes must combinein-school learning and in-plant experiences in a way that is morethan a mere juxtaposition, but is rather mutually reinforcing. Forthis, the efforts of teachers and trainers must be coordinated andmutually reinforcing as well. (Appendixes to this report include theresolution of the Council of the European Communities on linked workand training for young persons and a list of organizationsrepresented at the European Centre for the Development of VocationalTraining Board). (MN)

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Aitemance trainingfor young people:

Guidelines for action CEDEFOP

fCV.C)C) u S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

e of Educanonal Relearen and improvement

UCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER IERIC)CVk ha document nas been retarOduCed as

CM rece,ved from ne person or Organizat.onorromatrng A

L/ C Minor Changes have been made to improverePrOduCtrOn Ouairty

Pants ot we., a oar000s stated ,rt Mat:loco-ment do not neCeSdanly represent odrcraiOE RI positron or poirCy

ON

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

9

01, This study was undertaken by Jean-Pierre Jal ladeInstitute of Education/European Cultural Foundation, Paris

,on behalf ofCEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of

uj Vocational Training

0 The Centre was established by Regulation (EEC) No 337/75 of

W the Council of the European Communities

0 Published by:European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training,Bundesallee 22, D-1000 Berlin 15, Tel.: (030) 88 10 61

1

This publication is also available In the following languages:

DA ISBN 92-825-2868-5DE ISBN 92-825-2869-3FR ISBN 92-825-2871-5IT ISBN 92-825-2872-3NL ISBN 92-825-2873-1

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,1982

Design: Rudolf J. Schmitt, Berlin

ISBN 92-825-2870-7

Catalogue number: HX-32-81-714-EN-C

Reproduction in whole or in part of the contents of this publication is auth-orized, provided the source is acknowledged

Printed In the Federal Republic of Germany

4

Foreword by Roger Faist Page 8

Introduction 10

I What exactly is altemance training? 16

1. The economic, social and cultural context of alternance training 17A. Alternance training and employment policy 17B. Alternance training and education policy 18C. Alternance training and youth policy 20

2. Definition and scope of alternance 21

3.The aims of alternance training 25

2 Altemance training: For whom? 30

3 An approach to a pedagogy of altemance 1 38

1. Content of alternance training 39

2. Pedagogical guidelines for alternance training 43A. Relationship between trainers and trainees 43B. Rehabilitation of in-plant training 43C. Pedagogical coordination between school and company 44D. Setting training goals and routes 46

4 Organization of altemance training 50

1. General institutional characteristics 51A. Consultation between the social partners 51B. Decentralization of initiative and responsibility 52

2. Organization of alternance training schemes 53A. Unity of responsibility 53B. The duration and cycling of alternance 54C. How training is tested 56

3. Inspection and assessment of alternance training schemes 58

4. Status and protection of trainees 60

5 1

5. Altemance training and the company 66

1. Participation of companies in training 67

2. The company as a place of training 70

6u Teachers and trainers 74

1. Teachers and trainers: the situation today 75

2. Teachers and trainers: resolving the dichotomy 78A. Producing the ideal 'teacher-cum-trainer' 78B. Developing a common language for teachers and trainers 78C. Towards a tripartite responsibility for the training process 80

7. Costs and financing of altemance training 84

1. Expenditure on alternance training: general trends 85

2. Cost-sharing 88

Conclusions: Guidelines for action 93

Annex I: Council Resolution of 18 December 1979 96

Annex II: List of organizations represented at the Cedefop Board 98

Cedefop Publications 100

6

Foreword

The work of analysis and reflectionpresented here under the title 'Alter-nance training for young people:Guidelines for action' is an extensionof the programme of the Commissionof the European Communities. Thefirst phase of this programme(1976-78) was marked by Communityinitiatives relating to 'young peopleand the transition from school toworking life'. The object of the pres-ent phase is to encourage MemberStates to give concrete expression tothe proposals in the Resolution of theCouncil of Ministers of the EuropeanCommunities of 18 December 1979(see Annex I) on 'Linked Work andTraining for Young Persons'.

The paper presented here is theoutcome of the technical workingsessions organized by Cedefop andhas been drawn up by the Institute ofEducation of the European CulturalFoundation on the basis of the find-ings of a European Conference inJune 1980 held under the joint aus-pices of Cedefop and the Commis-sion, as well as on an analysis of themany new developments in MemberStates which reflect their concern toexplore a variety of ways and meansto enhance the effectiveness of train-ing systems.

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2.The acute youth unemployment pro-blem coupled with foreseeable long-term labour market trends calls for aradical reappraisal of vocationaltraining systems as at present under-stood. At the same time, under thecombined effects of the economiccrisis, the redistribution of jobsacross the globe and the speed ofdissemination of new technologies,some jobs are disappearing, othersare changing in content, and newones are being created. It it being re-cognized more and more that youngpeople coming on to the labourmarket must be equipped with thewherewithal to give them a degree ofautonomy, freedom of choice, and theability to act on their environment.

This explains current efforts to de-velop vocational training' systemswhich strike a reasonable balancebetween basic training, know-how,and learning from experience, i.e.which impart a sufficiently flexiblerange of occupational skills.

The road ahead is a long one, forthe present situation is far from en-couraging. In the various countries ofthe Community, the proportion ofyoung people entering the labourmarket with no occupational trainingranges from 15 to more than 40%. Inthe framework of strategies to in-crease the ratio of trained to untrain-ed young people, alternance trainingis likely to become one of the primeinstruments. It represents a means ofstructuring training and fostering

positive motivation through an appro-priate mix of theory and practice. Thevalue of aitemance training lies notso much in the help it may afford inremedying ills but rather in eliminat-ing these at source.

3.This paper is intended as much forthe policy-maker as for the practi-tioner engaged in the concrete reali-ties of vocational training in the dif-ferent EC countries. It has been de-signed as a contribution to decision-making. The underlying assumption isthat aitemance training is destinedto develo) beyond the experimentalstage in those countries where it is asyet still in its infancy. With this inmind it was important to create aware-ness and offer matter for reflection.Some grey areas subsist on whichmore light must be thrown: How canwe foster cooperation between voca-tional school teachers and company-based trainers? How can we designJobs for young people in which thephases are pedagogically coherent?How can funding be ensured?

Each of us can play a part in thisendeavour in the knowledge that wecan count on the help of others asthey can count on us. Cedefop isconscious of its role in facilitatingthese forms of concrete cooperation.

Roger FeistDirector of Cedefop

8 9

ntroduction

This short monograph is designed toprovide organizations and individualsresponsible for alternance trainingorogrammes with a set of guidelinesfor their planning and implementa-tion. Altemance training is taken hereas meaning:`the development of effective linksbetween training and experience onthe Job These links should involveestablishing coordinated program-mes and structures making for co-operation between the various bodiesresponsible.'

idea of combining training andpractical work experience is not anew one and can be appliea to alllevels and types of training. It is notthe intention here to provide a com-prehensive overview of the variousforms of altemance training to befound in the EC member countries.The aim is rather more modest:namely to investigate altemancetraining schemes for young peoplepoised between school and workinglife. It might be tempting to define thecategories of young people accordingto age group say those between 16and 20 but this could result in theexclusion of a large number of youngpeople who, though over 20, have sim-ilar training needs and personal

I Resolution of the EC Council of Ministers of18 December 1979, on linked work and training foryoung persons: see Annex I.

10 9

ANcharacteristics. In defining young per-sons what counts is less their agethan the difficulties they encounter inmaking the transition from school toworking life and their consequenttraining needs.

There are many types of alternancetraining in the EC countries. Thenotion of alternance has been with usfor a long time in the form of appren-ticeship schemes where the aim isto produce skilled workers by com-bining work experience in the 'real',i.e. non-scholastic, world with gene-ral and vocational training. The Brit-ish sandwich courses are based onsimilar principles. Training for theprofessions, such as medicine andengineering, associates work ex-perience and 'on the job' training as amatter of course on the premise thatexperience in the working milieu is aprecondition for the exercise of a pro-fession inasmuch as many of itsaspects cannot be taught in a lecturetheatre. The recent development oflifelong learning has much in com-mon with the notion of alternance,linking as it does vocational expe-rience and training in a specialized in-stitution.

These considerations do not, how-ever, suffice to explain the renewedinterest in alternance on the part ofmany European countries and inter-national institutions. There are anumber of reasons for this:

Firstly, there is the problem of youthemployment. Whether this takes theform of widespread unemploymentoften on a far greater scale than forthe other social groups or of'fringe' employment of a temporary oroccasional nature (odd jobs followedby periods of inactivity), the pheno-menon is too prevalent to be treatedlightly by the authorities. Since poorlyor inadequately trained young peopleare precisely those who fare worst onthe labour market, complementarytraining on the alternance principlecan serve to enhance their employ-ability and ease the transition be-tween school and work.

The vocational underqualification ofyoung people is matched by a dis-turbing lack of information on work-ing life. This information gap is re-sponsible for many false starts duringthe transition period and turns manyyoung people away from the formaljob market. Here again, alternancetraining emerges as the most appro-priate instrument to help youngpeople decide on a career.

There has been a noticeable waningin enthusiasm for raising the schoolleaving age, on the grounds thataction along these lines only servesto defer the break between schooland working life and tends to makeyoung people feel that they are 'char-ity cases' hardly the ideal ap-proach to adulthood. Moreover, manyyoung people are hostile to lengthyschool-bound training. A dual systemsuch as alternance can here play auseful role.

This monograph comprises sevenchapters. Chapter I attempis toachieve a closer definition of alter-name training, briefly recalling theaims of alternance and its links witheducation and employment policies.Chapter 2 identifies those groups andsituations for which alternance train-ing is particularly suited. The under-lying pedagogical principles are dis-cussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 dealswith problems of organization andconsultation among the various par-ties concerned. Alternance trainingnecessarily involves the active parti-cipation of industry; the problemsthis raises are the subject of Chap-ter 5. The success or failure of anygiven type of training hinges on thequality of the instruction and alter-nance training is no exception tothis rule; Chapter 6 focuses on thisaspect. Finally Chapter 7 tackles thequestion of costs and the variousways in which alternance training Rummay be financed. C:?;

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Alternance training

Alternance training: For whom?What is alternance training?

Alternance training and

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11

A pedagogy of alternance

ACosts and financing

Alternance training

12 13

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131 si letiML.

What exactly is alternancetraining?

15

As has been said elsewhere, the concept of alternance has gainedacceptance in most EC countries and is already being applied in avariety of ways. What is new, however, is the economic, socialand cultural context in which it is currently developing. This chap-ter opens by describing this context and goes on to define thescope of alternance and what it is designed to achieve for youngpeople in the light of the problems they are encountering in enter-ing the working world.

IThe economic, social and cultural

In the range of measures to assistyoung people in the framework of em-ployment and education policies and

context of ottoman** training

youth policy in general, the develop-ment of aitemance training comeswell to the fore.

A Altemance training and employment policy

Present thinking on altemance isnecessarily coloured by the grim em-ployment prospects of young peoplein the EC countries,' reflected in highrates of unemployment or unsatisfac-tory work situations (temporary orunstable jobs, 'moonlighting') whichmay ultimately result in exclusionfrom the formal labour market.Altemance training should help toremedy this situation in three ways:It enhances young people's employ-ability. Admittedly, few training pro-grammes can in fact claim to presentemployers with a 'finished' product;companies are as a rule obliged toprovide complementary traininggeared to their specific needs. But

' See: 'Altemance and Employment Policy for YoungPeople' by Burkett Seiiin In Altemance Training forYoung People In the FEC, Conference Report,CoderoP, Berlin 1961.

this further training which fre-

1'4

quently consists in an adaptation tothe 'style' and 'spirit' of the company CD=

is certainly acquired more rapidlywhen new recruits already have somework experience. This is borne out bythe Swedish firm Ericsson which af-firms that new entrants with a purelyacademic background need at least ayear to become fully operationalwhile those who have enjoyed someform of linked work and training accli-matize much more rapidly.Altemance training, by improving mo-tivation and clarifying vocational op-tions, stems excessive mobility whichis perceived by manpower experts asa significant factor in unemployment.Lastly, those who have benefitedfrom altemance training are consider-ed to adapt better to abrupt changesin job content than those who areeither 100% college trained or who

16. 17

(69

have learnt on the job. In the case ofthe former, curriculum and methodsmay become fossilized through lackof contact with the working world,while In that of the latter, there is arisk of ov,sr-specialization in a narrowrange of skills which may swiftlybecome obsolete.

This said, it would be utopian to be-lieve that iris development of alter-nance training could in itself resolvethe problem of youth unemployment;it could not, and should not, serve asan alibi for a laissez-faire employ-ment policy.

One might go further and arguethat altemance training will succeedonly if there is a concurrent improve-ment in the employment situation,since the one is the outcome of the

other. NothinC would be more prejudi-cial to the idea of altemance than touse the novelty. of the concept tokindle hopes that the labour market isin no position to satisfy. In otherwords, deVelopment of altemancemust go hand in hand with a dynamicyouth employment policy.

In the absence of such a policy, al-temance training can only maintainyoung people in the insecure jobs inwhich all too often they already findthemselves. To prevent this perversionof the notion of altemance it is vitalthat the training leads to qualifica-tions recognized by employers on thelabour market both on recruitmentand in the collective agreements de-termining the respective rights andduties of management and labour.

B Altemance training and education policy

The development of altemance train-ing for young people is an integralpart of the general training effort ofevery society, an effort which isrooted on the one hand in the systemof full-time education and on theother in the opportunities affotded forlifelong learning. It must hence becoordinated with both. In this respectit should be recalled that altemanceis not designed to make good thefailures or shortcomings of compul-sory schooling which remains theprime source of acquiring basicknowledge and skills. Altemance isconcerned with young people's tran-sition from school to work, which im-plies that the supply of places in al-temance training be geared to the

18 ,17

number of those leaving the schoolsystem on reaching school-leavingage. This is no doubt what underliesthe Easter guarantee proposed underthe British Youth Opportunities Pro-gramme (YOP). Under the terms ofthis guarantee, all young joblessschool-leavers in a given year will befound a place in the programme byEaster of the following year.

This major measure is aimed atmaking altemance training an alter-native to unemployment for allschool-leavers. Other countries havegone a step further, taking the viewthat, in the long term, altemancetraining could become a 'normal' oreven obligatory transition stage be-tween full-time schooling and full-

time employment. The idea of part-time obligatory training following onfull-time compulsory schooling has al-ready made some headway in theFederal Republic of Germany and theNetherlands. Such arrangements mayserve to extend altemance training toall young school-leavers, provided ofcourse that the altemance principle isgenuinely respected, i.e. that part-time training is combined withperiods of work experience to attain aclearly defined pedagogical goal.

it is of course important that alter-nance training be clearly defined vis-i-vis full-time instruction in terms ofequivalence of diplomas. As long asthe scope of altemance training ex-tends only to very limited groups ofyoung people, the absence of clearlydefined relationships between diplo-mas is of minor importance. But oncethe system assumes a certain scalethere is a real risk that those graduat-ing from altemance training will be ata disadvantage compared with thosewho have received full-time training.Altemance training may come to beseen as training on the cheap and thediplomas awarded could well be con-sidered inferior to those of establish-ments providing full-time courses ofsimilar quality. Lastly, a policy of di-ploma equivalence is needed toenable those on linked work and train-ing schemes to return to full-time stu-dies at a later date should they sowish. The opportunity to return toschool is a popular option in the Fed-eral Republic of Germany whereyoung people who have completed anapprenticeship may pursue a two-yearfull-time training course in a Fach-schule and become a technician. Thispossibility has certainly helped togive apprenticeship a better image inthe eyes of the German public. The

situation in Germany the most sa-tisfactory in Europe in this respectis in marked contrast to that ofFrance where to embark on an appren-ticeship is tantamount to acceptingthat one has left school for good.

In many respects the growth of al-temance training for young peopleprefigures that of recurrent educationfor adults. It constitutes, however, aresponse to very specific economic,educational and cultural imperativesas well as to pedagogical considera-tions bound up with the characteris-tics of its clientele young peoplewith no knowledge of the realities ofthe working world. Many, moreover,are poorly motivated and experiencedifficulties in adapting to working life.All in all, altemance is to be viewed inthe context of the transition fromschool to work. Altemance trainingmust not be confused with lifelongeducation for adults, which has beendiscussed in general terms else-where.'

This having been said, while thegroups concerned differ both inregard to age and degree of vocation-al and social integration, it is nonethe less true that the pedagogicalprinciples underlying altemance train-ing and lifelong learning have much incommon. And just as there is a needfor a minimum of coordination be-tween the development of full-timeformal education and that of alter-nance training, so must there also bean effective articulation between thelatter and opportunities for lifelonglearning throughout working life.

See: The development of permanent education InEurope, by Henri Janne and Bertrand Schwartz,Commission of the European Communities, StudiesCollection, Education series No 3, Brussels 1976.

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BEST COPY AVAILABLEC Altemance training and youth policy

Some governments justify the de-velopment of altemance training nctonly as a .neans of tackling youthunemployment but also as an ingre-dient of overall youth policy. In theview of many observers, what may becalled the 'malaise' of the youngergeneration is in part due to the exces-sive inflexibility and paternalism ofthe institutions catering for youngpeople. Just as prolonging full-timeeducation fails to meet .he desire ofmany people to assume responsibili-ties and acquire financial autonomy,so exposure to the cold realities ofthe world of work equally falls to sat-isfy their justifiable need for criticalrefiexion. Altemance training pro-vides a better response to the aspira-tions of today's youth and as suchcould form part of an arsenal of mea-sures designed to help young peoplemake the transition to adulthood.

This point has been stressed bymany writers on the subject who con-sider that altemance is a way ofacting on young people's motivationsand helping them assume their res-ponsibilities. Alternance confrontsthem with a 'real-life' situation,allows them to 'perform actual tasksand make real objects', to 'take initia-tives', activities which all serve to mo-tivate those who are 'put off' byschool-type learning. Apart from itscapacity to motivate, alternance isoften credited with stimulating asense of responsibility, accelerating'psychological maturation' and the'transition to adulthood'; it is said toteach 'self-control' and 'autonomy',help adolescents 'develop personalprojects' and learn to do without theoverprotection and mollycoddling ofschool and university.'

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We have 3nly to look at the plan-ning criteria underlying the develop-ment of altemance to realize that cul-tural rather than economic considera-tions tend to be uppermost. Officialsstill talk of the economy's need forskilled manpower, but they nowappear more concerned to 'do some-thing' for the 20 or 40% of the agegroup that reaches the labour marketwith no other training than compul-sory schooling. Often the argument isexpressed both in terms of the de-mands of the economy and the needsof young people seen as a demogra-phic group, i.e. in terms of the laboursupply.

Since the present economic cli-mate is reflected in virtually zerogrowth in demand for skilled man-power, it is more or less certain thatarguments of the first type will giveway to those of the second. This isindeed already the case with the ex-pansion in apprenticeship schemeswhich tend to be justified more by thepresence of a large body of unskilledyoung people than by any increase inactual needs for qualified personnel.

Edmond Mouret, 'Vehemence: reperes theorlques et champd'applicatIon. dans Actual to de la Formation Permanent.,No 2, INFFO Centre, September-October 1979. This articleIs reprinted In the special Issue of Vocational Training, No411980, on Linking Work and Training for young persons inthe European Community, under the :me 'A general survey ofthe theory and practice of alternating training In France'.

2Definition and scope of altemance

The Communication of the Commis-sion of the European Communities tothe Council of Ministers defined alter-nance as 'the linking of practicaltraining obtained by the exercise ofvocational activity at the place ofwork with theoretical training obtain-ed in a training service, organizationor establishment'.' This is a veryloose definition which must betightened up if it is to have any opera-tional utility. In order to limit the fieldof application of alternance we pro-pose to reserve this term for any worksituation allowing the worker todevote at least 20% of his time tosome form of training in a specializedestablishment and, conversely, forany training programme in which atleast 20% of the time is spent acquir-ing on-the-job experience. This is aquantitative criterion which is ob-viously arbitrary. It is, however, usefulin that it excludes work-training sche-mes where one or other of the compo-nents is negligible as, for example, inthe case of training courses offeringa full school-year's instruction with abrief summer placement, or job con-tracts where only a fraction of thetime is devoted to training.

This quantitative criterion has itsuses in defining the scope of alter-nance but is not in itself sufficient,since alternance claims to giveunique pedagogical results byl3om-bining periods of in-plant trainingwith periods in vocational school. Butit is not enough simply to juxtaposethese two types of training, eventhough this can serve to developawareness of the world of work. Truealternance calls for systematic plan-ning of work experience and in-school

6 oo Ar. T'Ili.1

training in a way that is mutually rein-forcing, Learning at work and learn-ing In school should be combined inappropriate sequences to ensureinterpenetration between the socio-professional and academic milieux.This point is taken up in Chapter 3which discusses the pedagogy of al-temance.

A system of linked work and train-ing can cover a wide variety of formsof training, some of which alreadyexist, while others remain to be de-vised. Similarly, the principle of alter-nance might conceivably be extendedto certain types of full-time training.An alternance strategy thus calls fora three-pronged approach:

1 'Linking Work and Training for Young People In theCommunity', Communication from the Commissionto the Council, COM(79)578(Finai) Brussels,29 October 1979.

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COMINN

rs=

extending existing forms of alter-nance training such as apprentice-ship schemes and setting up newones;

extending the prioapie of altek.tinance to existing general's/0,1/o;cations] training schemes;

eschewing 'faire' aitemanceSC:VMS&

Apprenticeship is a type of alter-nance training which is firmly im-planted in all the EC countries.During the boom years, apprentice-ship schemes mushroomed to meetthe burgeoning need for skilled man-power. As regards content, the objectof apprenticeship is to equip youngpeople with vocational skills whichwill enable them to perform a limited

and in some cases strictly de-lineated range of tasks. Appren-ticeship schemes tend, however, tobe confined to the traditional tradesand this often militates against theacquisition of new skills. The splitbetween work experience and train-ing is often weighted in favour of the

22

former under the combined pressureof employers and of the short- termdemand for skilled manpower. Manyeducationalists, especially in France,have spoken out against the over-nar-row specialization of some schemes.In the United Kingdom, for instance,many apprentices do not benefit fromin-school training, though this isclearly stipulated in the collectiveagreements.

The new economic climate prevail-ing since 1973 has been marked bysluggish growth, a radical restructur-ing of industry, considerable uncer-tainty as to the likely impact of tech-nological innovation on employment,and, what is perhaps more serious,rising youth unemployment. A varietyof measures have been taken or areunder consideration with the aim ofadapting apprenticeship schemes tothese new circumstances reflectingthe ever-increasing pace of change injob content and skills and the sharprise in numbers of young job-seek-ers.'

Firstly, it is essential that thenumber of apprentices continue togrow. Government assistance maywell have to be stepped up since thenatural reaction of employers to thecurrent economic crisis is to cut backthe number of places on offer.Secondly, new types of apprentice-ship must be devised to prepareyoung people for the new jobs to becreated in future growth sectors.Lastly, new forms of alternance train-ing are being introduced in this area,with greater emphasis on off-the-jobgeneral instruction in an attempt toavoid premature specialization. The

' Trends in Apprenticeship in the European Com-munity, Chris Hayes and David E. Wheatley, Employ.ment and Vocatioral Training Directorate. EC,July 1979.

-2/1 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

most striking examples of this ap-proach are to be found in Denmarkand the Federal Republic of Germanywhere all apprentices must undergo afull year's technical instruction in atraining establishment before em-barking upon the traditional work/study sandwich in the second year.At the same time apprenticeshipschemes are being streamlined tocover fewer but broader vocationalcategories (seven in Denmark andthirteen in the Federal Republic ofGermany) into which the youngpeople are slotted in their first year.It is only subsequently that the ap-prentices acquire more specific skillsand decide on the trade they wish topursue. This effort to overhaul thesystem points to the vitality of the al-temance concept even in as tradi-tional a training cycle as apprentice-ship.

Alternance training would thusseem particularly appropriate for im-parting the new skills demanded bythe new computer technologies.'While experience in handling the newmachines can be acquired only on thejob, the more `abstract' subjects suchas mathematics and the logical rea-soning required for such technologiescan only be gained in the classroom.

Many educationalists are nowcoming round to the idea that theprinciple of aiternance might be ex-tended to some forms of full-time in-struction following on compulsoryeducation. The systematic introduc-tion of in-plant training into thethree-year courses provided by theFrench vocational training colleges(tycess d'enselgnement professionel)

'Micro-Electronics and Vocational Trailing In the European Community', report prepared by Chris Hayesand Associates for the Directorate-General V of theEC.

Is a step in the right direction, al-though the current programmecannot yet be said to amount to realalternance training. While in somecountries Belgium, France and theNetherlands for instance vocatio-nal training for technicians takes theform of full-time college instruction,in others notably the Federal Re-public of Germany and to a lesserextent Denmark and Luxembourgit is increasingly being replaced by al-ternance training, I. e. apprenticeship,supplemented for the more gifted bytwo to three years' college training.The occupation of technician, epito-mizing the link between theory andpractice, is precisely the type of acti-vity for which alternance training isideally suited.

Some educationalists, like Ber-trand Schwartz in France, go furtherand would like to see alternancemade compulsory for all at the end oftheir ten years' basic schooling, i.e.during the second cycle of secondaryeducation.' As Bertrand Schwartzhimself admits, this is not for todaynor yet tomorrow; its justification ismore cultural (de-cloistering second-ary education, gearing education tocurrent needs, fostering a sense ofcommunity) than economic (helpingyoung people find employment) butthe mere fact that the idea is beingaired would tend to indicate thatheightened interest in aiternance isno passing fad.

On a more modest sale, theNetherlands and the Federal Republicof Germany have instituted part.timecompulsory instruction two days aweek for 16-year olds and one day a

' Unv autre acute, Bertrand Schwartz, Flammerlon,Paris 1977.

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week for 16-18-year olds. Thissystem which picks up where compul-sory schooling leaves off, is designedto combine vocational training andwork experience. Although the prac-tical problems should not be under-estimated low motivation has beengiven as the main reason for the highlevel of absenteeism noted in thecourses the system points to thepossibility of extending some form oflinked work and training to a signifi-cant proportion of the age group inthe countries concerned.

Lastly, several European countrieshave recently taken initiatives to alie-viate the problem of unemployment,some of which are tantamount to al-ternance training. The French 'em-plci-formation' (employment-training)contracts, the Irish Work ExperienceProgramme, the Italian fixed-termtraining contracts, the Unified Voca-tional Programme and Youth Opportu-nine-a Programme in the United King-dom are all attempts to combine indiffering degrees work experienceand further training in colleges ortraining centres.

The in-plant placements introducedin France on the other hand, cannotbe considered altemance training inthe true sense of the term, although120 hours of training are provided inthe course of the four months' practi-cal work. A French Ministry of Laboursurvey has revealed that only oneyoung person in three effectively re-ceives some form of organized train-ing; the remainder have to learn onthe job if at all.'

Inguitite sur (Insertion protessionnelle des jeunesayant effectuO un stage pratique en entreprise: pre-miers disultats', J. Simon and M. Gourmelen, Travailet Emplol, No 1, 1979.

2423

, -

The aims of altemance training

The ultimate aim of ilternance train-ing for young people is to facilitatetheir transition from school to working life, by helping them find theirbearings in a world with which theyare largely unfamiliar. equippingthem with marketable skills andsteering them into full-time stableemployment.

CO(4.01%, A.. ,

Guides* implies familiarizing youngpeople,aath the working world andhel scover their aptitudesand t so that they can makean initialed choice of vocation. Thelinked work and training formulalends itself admirably to this purpose:the opportunity for work experienceduring training avoids the pitfall of

ipreclan . -1-The aolgsition of skills has alwaysbeen t rime aim of traditional vo-cational *Nein. Alternance trainingattempts totto a step further since itis aimed nio* only at facilitating theacquisition of knowledge but also atdeveloping expertise and problem -solving ability in real life situations,implying a capacity for basic re-search, decision-making and working

Alternate training can ennance thevocati I integration of youngMP* them progress intheft or stable full-time em-ploy asmuch as it provides anetwork of training programmes whileat the same time stimulating theirawareness of the realities and con-straints of the labour market. Repre-senting a shift away from the traditio-nal and somewhat constricting dicho-

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On these key issues guidance,acquisition of skills and social inte-gration alternance training ap-pears likely to give far better resultsthan traditional vocational training;there are three reasons for this:

rt4IM altt r,I totit Atif ett,ti164.mir. :101Mrttoverhasty and uninformed decisions;furthermore, training can build on thiswork experience and therefore openup a wider range of options.

v-t-1-1 -.* ."vmmuNhalmoswith others. It is clearly crucial thatsuch training be recognized on thelabour market in just the same way astraditional vocational training.

tomy in which full-time training issucceeded by full-time employment,linked work and training schemes arebetter adapted to a process of inte-gration characterized by a series ofoccasional or part-time jobs, periodsoutofwork interspersed with employ-ment and by wait-and-see worksituations which do not overcommitthe young person concerned.

2425

(1)11=111

These three objectives guidance,acquisition of skills, and integration

are never fully separable and itwould be unrealistic to have specialtraining programmes catering for any

one to the exclusion of the twoothers. It is none the less the casethat some programmes whetherimplicitly or explicitly do tend tofocus on one particular objective.

imimmomm4Such vocational training program-

mes as De Putgraaf in Heerlen(Netherlands) or Intaskill in Birming-ham (United Kingdom) tend to givegreater weight to the first in the formof youth guidance and vocational pre-training.' in both cases the prime aimis to help young people define theirwork goals and give them the meansto plan their careers. The periods ofin-centre training are interspersedwith in-plant placements designed tofamiliarize the trainees with differentwork situations. In this way the youngpeople acquire a number of vocatio-nal skills even though they cannotaspire to the status of 'Mailed worker'on completion of their training: thetime allocated for this is too shortone year at most, and in practiceoften less.

Vocational Preparation of Unemployed YoungPeople, a study based on vocational preparationprojects In five Member States of the EuropeanCommunities, by Jeremy Harrison, Cedefop,Berlin 1980.

2625

Conversely, the prime aim of theFrench 'employment-training' con-tracts and of the British YOP pro-gramme is vocational integration, I. e.maintenance in the job on comple-tion of training. This has virtuallybeen achieved in France where, ac-cording to Ministry of Labour esti-mates, some 85% of the 200 000young people in the scheme duringthe period 1977-81 remained withtheir employers. The degree of suc-cess of the British YOP programmecan also be gauged from the place-ment rate of the young people involv-ed, though this has admittedly fallenfrom 68% in 1978 to 55% In 1979.1 Inboth cases, the young people acquir-ed a complementary training, but thistraining poorly monitored andclosely geared to companies' specificneeds is clearly not the prime pur-pose of the scheme.

' Estimates based on a 'follow-up' study of the trai-nees by the Manpower Services Commission. Thefact that the placement rate has fallen off does notreflect a deterioration In the quality of the pro-gramme, but rather the saturation of the labourmarket for young Jobseekers. See Chapter 4,Section 3.

On the other hand, under the 'dualsystem' applying in the Federal Re-public of Germany which 'alternates'vocational in-plant training and part-time vocational in-school instructIon,first priority is given to the acquisi-tion of skills. The practical .andtheoretical skills expected.df the trai-nees in each trade are stipulated in

,detall and the content Is regularly up-Alated"by the Federal Institute of Vo-cational Training), whose directivesmust be followed by. the vocationalschools and enterprises. Moreover,the length of the training, varyingfrom two to three and a half years, de-monstrates that the aim is somethingmore than guidance or job integra-tion.

Lastly, the importance attached tothe acquisition of skills under linkedwork and training schemes is current-ly borne out by the incentives intro-duced in a number of countries toactively promote apprenticeship, bothquantitatively and qualitatively.Whether these incentives take theform of direct grants to employers of-fering apprenticeship contracts as inDenmark, the Netherlands and theUnited Kingdom, or relief from socialsecurity contributions as in France,the aim is identical: namely to fosterthe production of skills recognized onthe labour market through alternancetraining.

Clearly, young people should beenabled to progress from one type of

training to another. Correctly guidedand motivated by appropriate pre-training, they will be better preparedto acquire real and recognized skillsand to embark on their adult workinglife.

26 27

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c6) Alternance training: For whom?

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A substantial proportion of those who leave school when they areentitled to do so by law some 35 to 55% of the age group ac-cording to country effectively drop out of full-time education.Most of them have no real vocational skills and are likely to en-counter serious problems when they come onto the labour mar-ket. In some countries notably. Denmark, Luxembourg and theFederal Republic of Germany some 50 to 80% enter appren-ticeship. In others far fewer are catered for in this way. In France,for instance, only 40% of the age-group embark on apprentice-ships; in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom the proportionfalls to one in four while in Italy and Ireland it is no more than onein seven.

Apprenticeship schemes thus cannotmeet all the training needs of the age-group. If it is accepted that all youngpeople leaving the full-time compul-sory school system have the right totraining, whatever their position onthe labour market, there is clearlyscope for strengthening and, if neces-sary, overhauling the apprenticeshipsystem as well as for promoting otherforms of linked work and training. Theaim should be to provide all youngschool leavers with some kind of al-temance training, either by extendingthe principle of altemance to the moretraditional forms of vocational train-ing or by creating new altemancetraining structures.

The problem is as much qualitativeas quantitative. Not only should thenumber of training places be increas-ed, but the training programmes them-selves must be geared to the needs ofthe group in question. Naturally theseneeds vary widely. Some youngpeople may already have acquired adegree of work experience, whileothers have known nothing but unem-ployment. Some may have abandoned

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full-time schooling after failing theirexams, while others may have had toleave to earn a living. Some may havea clear idea of what they want fromlife and are highly motivated, whileothers have become permanent drop-outs or even delinquents.

Recognition of the disparate nature.of the target groups in regard to moti-vation, school performance, knowl-edge of working life and of the socio-economic environment, is central toany discussion of aitemance trainingwhich must always respect the needsof the groups concerned. inevitablythe way in which altemance is appliedwill reflect this diversity. The idea of aeagle type of training to replacethose already existing is clearly out ofthe question; the aim must rather beto initiate and foster an array of train-ing mechanisms, geared to local con-ditions and based on the principle oflinked work experience and school-based training. The first step in plan-ning any altemance training pro-gramme is thus to gain thoroughknowledge of the attributes of thetarget groups concerned.

0. 0 31

There can be no universal formulafor defining these groups and existingalternance training schemes all toooften suffer from a lack of precision inidentifying the groups at which theyare aimed. In the present economicclimate, it is imperative to focus ontraining job-seekers and young peoplewho are vocationally ill-equipped. Yetthe definitions are too woolly to be ofany real value in planning training pro-grammes. The following list, while notexhaustive, is an attempt to identifythe key criteria for defining reason-ably coherent groups of young people:

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Much can be learnt in this respectfrom experience in Germany. Here,more than 1 400 000 young people areInvolved in vocational training whichis on a far bigger scale than else-.

where; yet demand is still in excess ofsupply and there is hence keen com-petition among young people for theplaces on offer. This situation defacto favours successful school-leavers over those who leave schoolempty-handed currently estimatedat around 100 000 and children ofimmigrant workers who numberaround 200 000. With a view to thespecial needs of the least favouredgroups, a pilot project has beenlaunched in Rosselsheim (a centre ofthe automobile industry),' stressing

III

close coordination between the plantsinvolved and calling on psychologistsand career guidance specialists. Thefact that the Federal Government isbearing more than half the costs ofthe operation points to the firm inten-tion of the authorities to redress thebalance in favour of the under-priv-ileged groups.

Doubts have been expressed wheth-er such a policy of positive discrimi-nation can be pursued over the longterm in view of the high costs entail-ed. There has even been some scepti-cism in regard to the principle of alter-nance training per se on the groundsthat it would always be considered insome way second class. The only wayto obviate these discriminatory ef-fects would be to extend the alter-nance principle to all training, includ-ing fuli-time post-school instruction.

The all-or-nothing attitude which isprevalent in some circles, particularlyamong the unions, could conflict withthe gradualist approach which aims atachieving a real Improvement in Inte-grating young people, particularly the

most deprived, in the labour market.Even if the advocates of alternancemay not share this view, it is essentialthat the fears underlying it be under-stood so as to ensure the integrity ofthe alternance concept. Some of thesafeguards which might be envisagedare discussed in the following chap-ters. OH'

Frankfurter Rundschau, 12 February 1981.

3435

ca 36

A pedagogy of alternance

833 An approach to a pedagogyof alternance

37

It is now widely recognized that linked work and training facili-tates the learning process and that young people tend to 'learnbetter' when their training follows this pattern. It should not, how-ever, simply take the form of role-sharing between company andtraining establishment; rather it should serve as a vehicle for edu-cational progress and enhance the effectiveness of the training.Much is expected of alternance. For some it fosters cross-fertili-zation between theory and practice; for others it serves to high-light the material aspects of the problems, offsetting the 'bookish'approach of in-school training; for yet others, it facilitates thelearning process because it is more geared to the aspirations ofthe youth of today.

This said, it is easier to point to the benefits whether real orperceived of alternance training than to identify the underlyingpedagogical principles. Despite the many experiments under way,there is no universal formula to ensure that the goals will bereached. The chapter starts out by briefly outlining a number ofapproaches to the content of linked work and training schemesand goes on to review the pedagogical principles on which theyare based.

1Content of aitemance training

In the same way as any other systemof vocational training, G,Iternancetraining must strive to strike a bal-ance between companies' short-termrequirements for specific skills and in-dividuals' long-term needs. The alter-nance between school or trainingcentre and work should help toachieve this. Companies obviouslytend to stress the acquisition of parti-cular theoretical and practical skillswhich may even be company-specificand which can immediately be usedon the job. The young people, for their

part, are not thinking so much of afirst job, but in terms of a career, theywant to acquire knowledge and skillsthat will allow them to switch jobswithin the company, move elsewhereand even change occupations. Theyperceive vocational training as a per-sonal l',-.-Jstment safeguarding themagainst the vagaries of the labourmarket.

In practice this conflict of aims israrely so clear cut. In their desire totake any kind of employment, youngpeople may frequently be eager to

33 39

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acquire skills that fit them for the spe-cific demands of their first job even ifthis may be acting counter to theirlong-term interests. Conversely, manycompanies, particularly the largerones, are conscious of the dangers ofoverspecialization since it can impederedeployment within the company.

In the matter of content, it is cus-tomary to classify skills into threemain groupings: basic skills, transfer-able skills (between sectors or oc-cupational areas) and skills whichmight be dubbed company-specific.

The more the training is geared toskills specific to occupations or tasksto be performed in pre-determinedconditions, the greater its short-termeffectiveness and the less the traineeIs equipped to cope with future tech-nological change. Conversely, thegreater the emphasis on basic train-ing and transferable skills, the greaterthe degree of choice afforded to theindividual in terms of jobs and abilityto adapt to changes in his workinglife.

Today there is a definite will to de-velop aiternance training as a meansof countering over-narrow specializa-tion and promoting labour mobility. InDenmark and Germany, for Instance,occupations and vocational brancheshave been streamlined into seven andthirteen broad vocational groups.There is a one-year core course fol-lowed by specialist courses in thevarious options. A similar effort isbeing made In the engineering sectorin the United Kingdom with a view toassociating forms of training whichhave hitherto been distinct.

40 39.

The only way of scientifically group-ing over-specialized forms of trainingIs to identify the transferable or'generic' skills which lend them-selves to a range of work situations.Many countries are currently engagedIn job analysis. In France, the CEREQis in the process of compiling a 'Re-pertoire frangais des Emplois' (Frenchjob directory), based on the 'modeljob' approach encompassing a wholerange of actual job situations. Thisapproach differs from such traditionalconcepts as:

trade (métier), which supposes alasting link between the individualand a particular product or tech-nique;

occupation (profession), which car-ries statutory and social implica-tions.

It attempts to go beyond the notion of'job', which tends to be defined interms of tasks, and describes the rela-tionship of the individual with thecompany in terms of 'activities' whichescape the arbitrariness of task allo-cation within the firm.' This work willradically transform the systrn of jobclassification to incorporate the im-pact of technological change, e.g. Insuch sectors as printing.

Once there is better knowledge ofthe principal activities constitutingthe model jobs, the latter must thenbe broken down in terms of thetheoretical and practical skills to befostered. A CEREQ study on jobs indata processing shows that whencompanies bring in computer techno-

' See CEREO, te Repertoire frangals des emplois*,press briefing, 18 October 1979 and the ten Cahlerson model Jobs by sector Issued 1975-80.

logy, there is an initial tendency tocreate new specialized courses; then,as computerization is Introducedmore widely, the trend shifts to gene-ralization and Vompftlallzation' oftraining, with data processing beingincorporated into existing schemes.'

This is a useful general approach intraining policy but one that fails topinpoint the theoretical and practicalskills to be developed. There is noeasy solution to this problem. Per-haps the most promising line of ap-proach is that taken by the 'Londoninto Work' programme sponsored bythe United Kingdom Department ofEducation and Science and the InnerLondon Education Authority.2 Morethan a thousand Jobs for semi-skilledor unskilled young workers have beenanalysed on the basis of a grid oftransferable skills to determine theextent and importance of the latter.'

Three criteria are used to decidewhether a particular skill merits in-clusion in a training programme: howoften it occurs in a particular job, howoften it is used on the Job and the per-centage of young people interviewedstating that this skill is needed for theJob. The prellminry conclusions ofthe study which has not yet beencompleted indicate that the skillsmost frequently cited are reading, oralcommunication and problem-solving.

l 'Recherches sur les competences professionnellesdeveloper dans les enseignements. Les activitesgen6r6es par Is developpement des systemes Infor-matiques de gestlon', Mission Pedagogique duCEREQ, Formation-Qualification-Emplol series,December 11;60.

s Skill Development and the Curriculum, by C. Town-send and C. Devereux (ror.soed).

s This grid takes the form of a very detailed question-naire comprising some 300 Indicators broken downInto seven types of skills: basic calculations, mea-surement drawing, practical skills, listening and talk-ing, reading snd writing, planning, problem-solving.The survey is conducted by interview.

This effort to identify a hard core oftransferable skills is crucial to de-veloping new training programmesbut the problems it poses for the com-pany should in no way be belittled;these are immense and may be attri-buted to three factors.

40 41

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Firstly, the skills corresponding to egiven Job will vary according to workenvironment. in other words a job mayrequire totally different skills depend..ing on its context (work organizationwithin the company, industrial sector,outlets). The mass of special cases ishardly conducive to the identificationof transferable skills.

Secondly, how the skills are appliedwill very much depend on the motiva-tion and attitudes of the individualsconcerned vis-a-vis their work. Ayoung person who in theory is equip-

ped for the job he occupies, may lackmotivation and hence be deemed`inapt' by his employer. Conversely, ahighly motivated young worker mayquickly acquire the skills he lacks. Alltoo often job analysis is limited to the

cognitive aspects and neglects theproblem of motivation and attitudes.

Lastly, job content is likely to changeradically under the combined impactof technological development andchanges in work organization, andthis will be reflected in the numberand type of transferable skills needed.There is thus a necessity to keeptraining programmes generally re-cognized as cumbersome perma-

The problem of defining jobs in terms nently under review and revise them

of aptitudes to be developed within as needed.

the training system can be put In verymuch the same terms for both voca-tional training of the traditional typeand alternance training. The interestof the latter, however, is that it doesnot artificially remove training fromits context as does the former. It canalso test individuals' motivations in a

real situation. Lastly, training can bebrought more rapidly into line withcurrent needs when both trainers andtrainees are experiencing techno-logical and organizational changewithin the company.

42 41BEST COPY AVAILABLE

2 Pedagogical guidelines for altemance training

It is generally accepted that the valueof altemance training is that it com-bines periods of in-school learningwith in-plant experience. If this is to

be more than a mere juxtaposition oftraining experiences and is to be mut-ually reinforcing, a certain number ofconditions must be fulfilled.

A Relationship between trainers and trainees

A major difference between in-schooland in-plant training is that, in thelatter case, the trainees voluntarilyaccept a certain number of contrac-tual obligations. Their relationshipwith their trainers is no longer basedon the traditional pupil-master rela-tionship. Work experience puts theyoung person on an equal footingwith other adults and, in the best ofcases, allows him to assume respon-sibilities within the group. A climate

B Rehabilitation of in-plant training

True altemance implies giving fullweight to the training value of workexperience. Thls is not to belittle thebenefits afforded by schools andtraining centres in the form of syste-matic instruction nor to assume thatall work situations have trainingpotential, but rather to restore thebalance between in-school andon-the-job training. There are manyeducators who consider that a largenumber of skills can be acquired onthe job given a certain flexibility in

of mutual trust in working towards acommon goal should thereby be gene-rated. Every effort should be made toavoid recreating a classroom atmos-phere which the young people feelthey have grown out of and to adoptteaching methods which accord alarge place to teamwork and groupdiscussion. Trainees should be active-ly involved in the training process as ameans of strengthening their oftenwaivering motivation.

working conditions and the presenceof industrial tutors in the workplace. Agroup of teachers, trainers and voca-tional counsellors in the United King-dom, have drawn up a list of somefifty skills which could be learntthrough on-the-job experience: theseinclude punctuality, perseverence, ob-serving safety precautions, ability tocommunicate, etc.' A study is cur-

I 'Learning at Work Study', Manpower Services Com-mission, Special Programmes Division (roneoeddocument).

42

rently being made in the framework of erence to the factors favouring the ac-

the YOP programme to assess the quisition of skills and the impedi-training potential of the work expe- ments to such acquisition.'rience so acquired, with particular ref-

C Pedagogical coordination between

Many so-called altemance trainingschemes view in-plant training merelyas a period during which the theore-tical knowledge gained at school isput into practice; this is notably thecase for the traditional end-of-studiesplacement. Though none would denythe worth of such placements in pro-viding an insight into the world ofwork, their value in terms of training islimited inasmuch as they are deemedto come a very poor second to theore-tical teaching in the acquisition ofskills. A true pedagogy of altemancewill strive to upgrade the image ofon-the-job learning by using the worksituations experienced by youngpeople as a starting point for a criticalassessment of experience acquiredon the job. The object of the exercise

which can only be conducted in atraining establishment away from theworkplace is to strengthen theyoung person's grip on his environ-ment and develop his capacity totransfer the skills so attained fromone work situation to another. In otherwords, once the transferable skills re-ferred to in the first part of this chap-ter have been assimilated, it shouldthen be ensured that the youngpeople are effectively capable of ap-plying these skills in a variety of worksituations.'

44 43

'Learning at Work Develbpment Project, ProgressReport: 11 February 1981' by L Hltgendorf andE. Stem, Tavistock Institute of Human Relations.

school and company

The Maisons familiales males inFrance are a good example of this ap-proach. Aimed at young countryfoik,altemance training is here based pri-marily on the 'cahier d'exploltation fa-miliale' (family smallholding record)which is used as a means of stimulat-ing awareness of their milieu.

See 'Altemance: its significance for the developmentof learning' by Chris Hayes In Youth unemploymentand altemance training In the EEC, conference re-Port. Cedefop, Berlin 1981.

2 See Daniel Chattier, 'Nalssance d'une pedagogie de_l'altemance', Mesonance, No 1.1-1978, p. 150 et seq.Organisation and Lemorte der BerufsbIldung, byAntonius Upsmeier, Juventa Verlag, Munich 1978.

The principles underlying the Maisons familiales may be summed up asfollows:

start from the activities of the young person and his milieu;

encourage him to observe, ask questions and learn to formulate them;

respond to the needs expressed by providing him with the elements of ananswer;

help him resolve his present problems so as to better equip him for the futureand assume the role of community leader.2

Despite its interest, the Maisons fami-liaies experiment underlines the diffi-culties inherent in coordinating at theteaching level in-school and in-planttraining in a full-scale system of alter-nance training. in this respect the ob-stacles encountered by the dual train-ing system in the Federal Republic ofGermany give food for thought. Thissystem which has been hailed abroadfor its virtues, is criticized at homeprecisely because of its failure toachieve this coordination.3 it is notthe principle of plurality of learningsites (vocational school, trainingcentre and company) which is calledinto question; on the contrary, the re-spective contribution of each is ana-lysed and assessed on its merits.3 Theproblems of coordination are none the

less real enough and are partly why ayear of basic vocational training(Grundbildungsjahr) has been intro-duced, which is designed to ensurethe system's cohesion and increasethe vocational mobility of the youngpeople who have completed thecourse.

44 45

D Setting training goals and routes

Considerable flexibility is called for inregard to training goals because ofthe tack of homogeneity of the groupsconcerned.' ideally, the store ofknowledge of each target groupshould be identified at the outset soas to gear the training goals to labourmarket requirements. These goalsmust be as specific as possible sothat training routes can be mapped totake in the respective contributions ofschool and company. The goals, con-sisting in a number of skills whichmay be graduated by performance

4546

level, should then be translated intoprogrammes subdivided into distinctand capitalizable units (credits), allow-ing two-way traffic between companyand training establishment, andmore importantly a continuous pro-gression from one training stage tothe next.

The French credit system which iscurrently being introduced in prepar-ing adults for the `Certificat d'aptitudeprofessionelle' illustrates this effortat enriching teaching. Its mainfeatures are outlined below.'

' See Chapter 2.'Le systems (cancels des unites capItallsables',Agence pour le Developpement de l'EducatIonPermanents (ADEP) (roneoed document).

,It'IS goal-orientedVi`:AThe programme is less concerned

.tT with getting the student to digest agiven syllabus than training his capa-

bilities. Vocational aptitudes are de-termined by a yardstick specific toeach vocational area.

,The training route is staked out by credits,:;.By identifying performance levels, it is unit so defined, he is awarded the ap-rt possible to define a series of graded propriate certificate. This is valid for

credits for each type of skill (ranked in five years, after which time he isorder of importance). Each credit is deemed to have lost some of the

"distinguished from the previous one theoretical and practical skills so ac-= not-In terms of additional knowledge quired. Within the five-year period, an

and know -how but of greater mastery adult, even if he has interrupted hisAnd autonomy in the skills concerned. training, is not required to give further

:7. When an adult has attained a per- evidence of his abilities at that panic-formance-level corresponding. to a War attainment level in his branch.

Negotiated training goalsOn entering training, an Individualcan gain some idea of what the pro-

; gramme is designed to achieve andhow it matches up with his personal

Continuous assessment of trainingAs the student acquires skills in the,different areas, this is recorded in hispersonal file with supporting evidenceand he is awarded the corresponding

aspirations. If on testing it is foundthat in some fields the skills he al-ready possesses qualify him for thefinal credit, he is awarded the latter.

credits. When the final credits havebeen gained, he is automatically en-titled to the diploma.

In 1979 some 10 000 adults in France worked towards their CAP in this way. Asyet there has been no evaluation of the system and so far it is not planned toextend it to alternance training for young people.

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ccs. Organization of alternance training

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.Any comprehensive investigation of the organizational problemsposed by alternance training must take a three-stage approach:the general institutional characteristics, organization includingevaluation and inspection, and lastly the status and protection of,trainees.

General Institutional characteristicsiThe institutional context of present ef-forts to promote altemance trainingmay be epitomized in two key words:consultation and decentralization.,The presence of both these factors isadmittedly no guarantee of success,but if one or other Is lacking or not ac-corded its proper weight, serious pro-blems are almost certain to ensue.

A Consultation between the social partners` ...The development of systems of velopment of linked work and training GS

GSlinked work and training (is) impos- and the division of responsibilitysible without the will to maintain and among the social partners. 560expand cooperation among the social This consultation and cooperationgroups involved, as well as between between employers, unions and gov-these groups and the public authors emment Is needed at national, localties.' This was one of the major con- and plant level. At the national level, it IIcluslons to emerge from the seminar is the expression of a common politi- i;sm

on altemance training for young cal will which is a prerequisite for re- COpeople sponsored jointly by the Cede- leasing the fends to develop alter-fop and the Directorate-General for nance training and eneuring its corn-Employment and Social Affairs of the patiblllty 5oth with the education L.EC Commission in June 1960. It might system and the demands of the labour inbe added that this cooperation, if it Is market. At the local level, coneulta-to serve any useful purpose, must be tion between the social partners le Zw,concretized in a frame-agreement crucial since it Is here, as we shall desgosetting out the main lines for the de- see, that the administrative responel

5 0 51

bilities are the greatest; at this level'the prime issue is to determine whoshould be "master' and responsiblefor the training imparted'.' Ministriesof education should not assume anexclusive role though it would beequally unwise to give employers a to-tally free hand. Joint bodies should beset up on an ad hoc basis to start upthe programmes and supervise theirimplementation. Lastly, at plant orcompany level, the dialogue betweenworkers and management should leadto the establishment of a 'trainingplan' for young and unqualified work-ers within the works, while at the

same time the company should be en-couraged to participate in alternancetraining schemes for young people ina wider context.

' La comblnalson d'un emplol et d'une formation: lecontrat d'apprentissage et le contrat emplolforrne-Hon', Raymonde VatInet, In Drolt Social No 6, June1979.

B Decentralization of Initiative and responsibility

Given the wide variety of local situa-tions and the consequent diversity ofaltemance training programmes, it isImportant that administration of thetraining be decentralized to the great-est degree possible. While it is virtual-ly impossible to determine In the ab-stract the 'ideal' decision-makinglevel, it might be useful to specifysome of its features.

Firstly, this local body should havesome responsibility for Information.As alternance training schemes gainground, the demand for informationon the part of companies, unions andindividuals correspondingly Increasesand this demand must be met in ordernot to waste time and duplicate effort.Secondly, it should be endowed withthe means to analyse the local labourmarket so as to keep the 'promoters'of training programmes abreast of de-velopments. Thirdly, it should havepowers of recognition and super-

52 51

vision. Lastly, it should serve to chan-nel public funds to all the parties in-volved.

This decentralization of responsibi-lity calls for appropriate informationcircuits between the decision-makersand those implementing trainingpolicy in the field. A free flow of infor-mation is vital to avoid the systembeing 'fragmented' Into compartmen-talized programmes. A good exampleof such decentralization is seen in theNetherlands. Here the municipalitieshave played a major role in planningoccupational training programmes bysetting up a Programmes Commissionwhich consults all the interested par-ties and takes cognizance of thetheoretical and practical skills de-manded by each occupational branch.The Commission then makes recom-mendations to the Ministry whichthen gives its ruling. Similarly, theUnited Kingdom Manpower Services

Commission has set up area boardsto promote and supervise training pro-grammes at the local level. Theseboards on which sit representatives ofunions, management, local trainingand employment authorities, as wellas of voluntary organizations, play amajor role in decision-making and theallocation of public funds.

Organization of aitemance training schemes

The organization of linked work andtraining may take a variety of formsdepending on local conditions. Thereare, however, a number of basicfeatures which should underlie allsuch schemes:

A Unity of responsibility

is of particular importance in that twovery different worlds the companyand school or training centre areendeavouring to pool their resourcesin working towards a common traininggoal. All too often, for want of anauthority capable of bringing thesetwo worlds together, aiternance sche-mes remain a mere juxtaposition ofwork experience and training in a spe-cialized workplace. Responsibilityshould therefore devolve on a singleindividual to ensure that the various

training stages are truly complemen-tary. His title 'training director','leader' or 'programme coordinator'is of little importance. What is essen-tiai is that he be capable of Institutingeffective collaboration between thefirm and the training establishment.'

See below Chapter 5, Section 2C.

52 53

B The duration and cycling of alternance iisxmorwwwsmst

will be planned flexibly in the light ofthe capabilities and training needs ofthe particular target group. The dura-tion of alternance training schemeshas been found to vary from a fewweeks to several years depending onwhat they are desk. led to achieve. InFrance, for example, there are twotypes of employment-training con-tracts, one for six months and aimedat the occupational integration of trai-nees, the other for at 'east one yearand aimed at the acquisition of skills.In theory, the maximum duration ofthe training cycle under the BritishYOP programme is one year, but inpractice training tends to be for sixmonths. In the case of apprentices,the length of training is three years inthe Federal Republic of Germany formost trades; in France it was cut fror,three to two years in 1971 but subse-quently increased to three years forsome thirty trades. In-plant place-ments whose main purpose is work-orientation, tend to be a great dealshorter.

The same variety is found in thecycling of alternance. Decisions mustbe reached on (i) the length of the ses-sions which may vary from a week toa year, (II) their frequency (ono weekof in-plant training every two or threeweeks, or one month per quarter), and(iii) the pattern and place of training;in the course of a 3-year period, forinstance, some schemes repeat thesame cycle of in-school and in-planttraining each year while others varythe pattern; some schemes use thesame companies throughout, whileother prefer to change.'

In France, apprentices spend threeweeks in the company for every weekin a training centre. In the Federal

54 53

Republic of Germany, the buildingindustry has adopted an alternancesystem varying from year to year,structured as follows:'

Year 1:20 weeks in training centre20 weeks in vocational school12 weeks in a company (Includingholidays)

Year 2:

-4

13 weeks in training centre39 weeks in a company and vocatio-

nal school (including holidays)

Year 3:4 weeks in training centre32 weeks in a company and vocatio-

nal school (including holidays)

See 'OrganIzatIon of alternance' by the ADEP In: Youthunemployment and alternance training in the EEC,conference report, Cedefop, Berlin 1981.Industrlegewerkschaft Bau-Stelne-Erden.

"..7111161

CJI

a ce

_ ra

in

C How training is testeddepends on what teaching techniquesare used.' Four aspects are of particu-lar importance:

See Chapter 3.

The nition of aitemance trainingon t ur market is a controver-si and part of a wider debateo generally. On the one hand

se who feel that the qua-ing is demonstrated by

the pe nd professional suc-cess of the.reciplents, I. e. its validityis borne out by contact with rer ;ity.Others, however, consider that train-ing should be officially sanctioned inthe form of a diploma which.wouldallow the young person to claim hisdue and attest to the worth of thevalue of the training received.Management, needless to say, inclineto the former view, while the unionsand training officials tend to stressthe value of a diploma. This, they be-lieve, situates the degree of skill im-parted by the training within the over-all hierarchy of diplomas, especiallythose awarded for full-time studies.One can well appreciate the anxietiesof management who fear that theaward of diplomas might impede theflexibility of personnel management.

56 55

Firms in regard to the most appro-omi of testing for alternance

ra , continuous assessment withper c reports attesting to the suc-ces I completion of each trainingsta Id appear more suitabletha aditional more formal ex-aminat on; diplomas should be defin-ed in terms of 'capabilities' or 'skills'to be attained in a particular vocatio-nal area;

But there is no gainsaying that in aworld where workers are hired on thestrength of diplomas, to deny such re-cognition to alternance training is im-plicitly to depreciate it.

The problems posed by alternancediplomas and their ranking in the hier-archy of certification are strikingly il-lustrated by the apprenticeship re-forms in France during the seventies.To stem the growing unpopularity ofthis type of training it was decidedInter ally to accord it recognition byawarding the same diploma as thatgiven for full-time training in the voca-tional training colleges (lycees d'en-seignement professionnel).1 In otherwords the goal is the same, only themeans for attaining it are different.Admittedly this measure cannot re-solve the problem of recognition atthe stroke of a pen. The high failurerate of apprentices in the CAP examsbears out that, in their present form,these exams still accord greaterweight to the theoretical aspects oflearning than to expertise acquired on

nt should cover both thend non-cognitive aspects

rain While the former pose fewprobl: it is much more problema-tic est non-cognitive skills, not-

ty for critical analysisob or the ability to

transfer skills. Here we are forced torely on the opinion of the training offi-cer on each of his trainees.

the job, and much remains to be doneif apprentices are to enjoy the sameopportunities as their comrades infull-time technical training. Neverthe-less, the reform is along the rightlines inasmuch as linked work andtraining is now sanctioned by d diplo-ma which has its place in the hier-archy of existing diplomas and whoseworth is recognized on the labourmarket.2

Whia apprenticeship with its longtradition would seem to lend itselffairly readily to recognition by diplo-ma, the same cannot be said for otherand newer forms of alternance train-ing whose impact is intended to bemore area-specific. The problem iscompounded by the fact that most ofthe programmes are too short to allowacquisition of high level skills. Sincethe prime object of the training is tohelp young people find their first jobs,it is in the interest of the main partiesconcerned employers, training offi-cers and worker representatives tocollaborate in devising some kind of

A training examinationsdministered by joint

boa hich both training authori-ties anagement are represent-

Wer her party not to be in-d spect of the training

MEW Eoverlooked.

'training certificate' detailing theknowledge and skills acquired duringtraining. This certificate would help indeciding where the young peopleshould be placed on the wage scaleon entering employment and allowthem to apply, should they so wish,for a more advanced course of train-ing.

' The CAP or Cart Moat d'Aptitude Professionrelle(certificate of vocational aptitude).

2 Jean Pr lour 'La reforms de I'apprentissage', Actua-Ilte de la Formation Permanente, No 36, Septem-berOctober, 1978.

56 57

3 inspection and assessment of aitemance training schemes

Inspection and supervision of alter-nance training schemes is crucial inensuring minimum standards and ob-servance of the contractual obliga-tions incumbent on each party. In thevast majority of cases, in-companytraining is on-the-job and there is atemptation to limit it to merely fami-liarizing the trainee with a particularmachine or production process. Simi-larly, in-school training could simply

onsist in repetitive courses ill-adap-ted to the individual's training needsand having little relevance for his in-plant training. A sine qua non for pro-gress in this area is the establishmentof a qualified corps of inspectors whowould supervise training conditionsand ensure proper coordination be-tween in-school and in-plant training.One of the corps' tasks would be tosee that due account is taken of theinformation gathered by the joint su-pervisory boards and by the authori-ties responsible for assessing the pro-grammes.

Except in the case of apprentice-ship, few linked work and trainingschemes are subject to any kind ofreal inspection. Inspection corps doexist in some countries but their re-sponsibilities would seem to be con-fined to matters of finance. Thenumber of inspectors is as a rule toosmall for them to fulfil their role of`quality control'. Some schemes areas yet in their infancy and still exper-iencing teething troubles. They arehaving to cope with a whole array oforganizational problems and arehardly ideal candidates for inspection,especially since no guidelines yetexist in this area. In the longer term,as the schemes acquire a firmer insti-

58

tutional basis and take on a more per-manent character, such inspectionwill clearly be needed. Meanwhile, aminimum first step might be, forexample, to systematically record anddetail all the practical and educatio-nal experience of young people whohave undergone such training. Thoughonly a beginning, it is a key move inview of the wide variety of courses al-ready existing or in the pipeline.

In a decentralized altemance train-ing system aimed at meeting theneeds of the young, assessment mustbecome a pivotal function serving theinterests of the system as a whole. Itshould be possible at any moment tostate whether or not a given program-me is likely to achieve its goals. Rea-sons for success or failure should belooked into and borne in mind whenreformulating programmes or launch-ing new ones.

Some separation of powers in thisarea is sound practice: the individualsmanaging or implementing program-mes should not be responsible fortheir assessment. Given the import-ance of feedback in the system, thefunction of assessment should carrysome authority so that it is taken ser-iously by all the parties concerned.The foregoing considerations wouldsuggest that this task be entrusted toa specialized central government unitwith powers to investigate individualtraining programmes. The work ofthese 'external' investigators wouldbe greatly facilitated were there to bea self-assessment unit attached to theprogramme itself. Especially in regardto data gathering such units can be ofinvaluable service in formulating adiagnosis.

Several European countries have al-ready undertaken major assessmentsof a number of altemance trainingschemes. The UVPP pilot scheme, forinstance in the United Kingdom hasbeen the subject of detailed evalua-tion by the National Foundation forEducational Research.' The Frenchemployment-training contracts havealso been scrutinized in a recentMinistry of Labour study.2

The current discussions regardingthe extension of the British YOP pro-gramme bear witness to the interest

and difficulty of using assess-ment findings in formulating an alter-nance strategy. Faced with the pro-gramme's loss of credibility In view ofthe steadily declining placement rateon completion of training, the govern-ment is now forced to choose be-tween closing it down or revising itradically. The decision by Parliamentin November 1980 to double the sizeof the YOP programme' was takenagainst a background of intense lob-bying to improve its quality` by in-creasing the length of training for allfrom six months to a year, by expand-ing the training components and

Unified Vocational Preparation: an Evaluation of thePilot Scheme, Monika Jamieson Wray, ChristineMoor, Sheeiagh Hill, NFER Publishing Company,1980.

2 'Les pactes nationaux pour l'emplol des jeunes' byF. Pate, G. Bez, P. Koepp and M. Tardieu, In Travail etEmplol, No 8, October 1980.

3 The total number of entrants Is due to rise from218000 In 1979180 to 440 000 In 1981182.

4 'Quality or Collapse, Report of Youthaid, Review ofthe Youth Opportunities Programme.

5 At present, one trainee In three spends his entiretime in the scheme In a company and receives notraining whatsoever. Youthald now proposes to limitImplant experience to three months, the other ninemonths being spent in training.

above all by converting the pro-gramme into a permanent alternancetraining structure for all 16 to 18-yearolds wishing to benefit from

5859

4 Status and protection of hahnes

From the standpoint of the trainee, or-ganization of altemance training pre-sents three major problems, namelyhis legal status, remuneration, andjob prospects on completion of train-ing.

The legal status of young people inaltemance training schemes varieswidely in view of the diversity of theirbackgrounds and the courses that areoffered. Some altemance trainingschemes e. g. apprenticeshipoften take on their trainees fresh fromschool, while other schemes are pri-marily intended for young workerswho have never received an adequatevocational training. Clearly, the con-tractual obligations differ in the twocases. The status of the first group issimilar to that of students a highproportion of training time outside theworkplace and low wages whilethat of the second is more akin to thatof a full-time worker, with slight differ-ences in working hours and wages tocompensate for time spent in off-planttraining. Where altvnance training isdesigned primarily to cater for theyoung jobless, work experience andoff-the-job training can be combinedwith some flexibility, though it shouldbe ensured that the remuneration oftrainees be at least on a par withunemployment benefit.

Between the two extremes of full-time student and full-time worker,there are any number of possible com-binations of work and training. Appren-ticeship, in the countries where thissystem is practised, is a case in point.Depending on the rights and dutieswhich it entails in regard to number ofhours of work and training, social se-curity, leave, wages etc. which vary

60

Variation in the rate of grants andaids in the EC (9)The diagram indicates the highestand lowest level of assistance

Secondary-school pupilsMaximum grants and aids for pupilsat upper secondary level and as a per-centage of the average industrialwage in 1979/80

University studentsMaximum grants and aids for stu-dents not living at home, as a percen-tage of the average industrial wage in1979/80

Unemployed school-leaversPromotion aids for 16 to 17-year-oldsas a percentage of the average in-dustrial wage 1979/80

ApprenticesInitial and final remunerations as apercentage of wage for an adult

59BEST COPY AVAILARt F

Source Youth unemployment and vocational training. The material indacial standing of young people duringtransition from school to work. Conference report. CEDEFOP 1981.

61

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s

F.4

from country to country and year toyear, it may be situated anywhere inthe spectrum between worker andstudent.

To clarify matters, a distinctionshould be drawn between alternancetraining schemes designed with voca-tional integration in mind and thoseaimed at the acquisition of qualifica-tions. In the first case, a work con-tract taking into account the trainingaspect would suffice, while in thesecond, an ad hoc training contractwould have to be worked out. The con-tent of these contracts would have tobe negotiated between the social part-ners and the result embodied in col-lective agreements.

The extent to which government isinvolved in these negotiations willdepend on the traditions of the coun-try concerned. In France the govern-ment plays a very important role whilein the Federal Republic of Germanygovernment participation is minimal.The diversity of work and training sit-uations in which young people findthemselves would seem to indicatethat government intervention may beessential in imposing minimum condi-tions in respect to length of trainingand wages. This would, moreover, domuch to upgrade the image of alter-nance training in the eyes of the gen-eral public and of young people in par-ticular. By taking systematic mea-sures to shield trainees from poorworking conditions, control the qual-ity of the training and ensure decentwages during training, governmentscould do much to attract the mass ofunskilled young people into alter-nance training.

There would appear to be no gene-ral policy in regard to wages. Insetting wage levels, criteria have been

62 61

proposed based on how trainees' timeat work is allocated:1

(a) time spent in productive labour;(b) time spent in specific in-plant

training;(c) time spent in training related to the

particular firm's sector or branch;(d) time spent in general education.

Wage levels can also be based on thevalue of the work done by the train-ees, though this is hard to establish.In the Federal Republic of Germany,wages of apprentices are some20-30% of those of a skilled workerin the first year, rising to 40-50% inthe last year of training. There arewide variations in earnings, however,between the different occupationalsectors. In France, young apprenticesreceive a wage amounting Jo 15% ofthe national minimum wage duringtheir first six months of training, whileyoung people on traineeships receive25% of this minimum wage.

Clearly, a balance must be struckbetween what firms are prepared topay and what is needed to encourageyoung people to embark on training.But given the employment problemsthey are facing, the free interplay ofsupply and demand is likely to oper-ate to their disadvantage and resultin abuses; hence the need for govern-ment intervention either in settingminimum wage levels or in subsidiz-ing part of the cost of trainees'wages.2

'Social and material standing of young people duringtransition from school to working life', Cedefop Se-minar, Berlin, 11 and 12 November 1980.

2 See Chapter 7: 'Costs and financing of elternancetraining'.

:f.: Except in the case of schemes foronskilled workers such as the

s 't/hIfie#Vocational PreparationAtirgiroKhe,Aritinees have no guaran-

ttelp*Ottient on completion ofledoorsirAithiittedly, placement iskriOntObjettNe of many alter-

r; .erie'iril.hiqg,Oemes, some of4100I'ArfgallY*Taiint to a selection

iiiiesslit-th4#0:90rovide the com-fan.Xie.ititiOppo,:duhity to get tohow,uttraineeeMict:put their

yeakvoilitSLand see how.,?=th; reeti..6ntibility. In many

.4..'",==.1ristandektreirieetutire hired as muchee-10tilliiietrehatOtittie Mutual confi-VdericeAtilaWritirInglielhing as onvAtheir

ohwise tokiito firms to lakebn all the young

PeOPligherhave helpedto train since

this would provide them with a pretextto restrict the scope of training tothose skills which are immediatelyuseful to them and make them extre-mely reluctant to take part in alter-nance training programmes. But, werethey to be allowed simply to 'dump'trainees on completion of theircourse, this would equally lead toabuses and spawn a mass of tem-porary underpaid jobs.

If it is impossible to guarantee jobsfor all trainees, it has been suggestedthat priority be accorded to those whohave successfully completed theirtraining cycle. Trainees should also beoffered an opportunity to return tofull-time training. We need in a senseto 'follow-up' trainees and so help toimprove their chances of integrationinto working life.

62 63

Alternance trainin and the cam an

Alternance training and the company

RN

Experience of working in a company and its corollary, on-the-jobtraining, constitute an essential ingredient of alternance training.Without the active participation of industry, the alternance prin-ciple is no more than a pious hope devoid of any real significance.It is thus imperative to convince companies of the need to partici-pate in the training effort and to do so effectively.

1Participation of companies in training

Without company participation, alter-nance training cannot exist. Once thisprinciple is recognized, the difficultiesposed in applying it must be squarelyfaced. Whatever their wishes in thematter, not all companies are in aposition to participate appropriately.Many are too small or can only pro-vide Jobs which are too arduous orhazardous for young inexperiencedadults. The pattern of work organiza-tion may also involve a high degree ofspecialization and may hence not lenditself to training.

The first step is thus to identify thecompanies and jobs which are suitedto the training effort. The factors to betaken into consideration here includesize of firm, type of product, produc-tion techniques and working condi-tions. In training young people for thecraft trades, it is probably the smallfirm where the young person is ap-prenticed that can provide the bestenvironment for the acquisition of thenecessary skills. The same does nothold true fcr the industrial tradeswhere generally only the medium andlarge companies can provide suffi-ciently varied work situations to givethe young trainee broad experience ofthe conditions in which he will be ap-

plying the skills he is in the process ofacquiring. The smaller firms have,however, the possibility of poolingtheir efforts and setting up inter-com-pany training centres equipped withall the requisite facilities.

The next step is to encourage com-panies with the means to participatein the training effort to do so. Press,TV and radio campaigns to sensitizefirms to the issue and encouragethem to play their part in tacklingyouth unemployment have been suc-cessfully waged in a number of Euro-pean countries, notably France. Ex-perience has shown that the morecampaigns are geared to local labourneeds and to a specific geographicarea, the greater the Impact on em-ployers. By and large, once compa-nies have been made aware of theproblem, they tend to give their whole-hearted support to the training effort.

Many of the major companies havealways taken their responsibilitiesseriously in the matter both in regardto their own workforce and to new-comers; they have no need to beprompted by information campaigns.This background of tradition has un-doubtedly been a positive force forthe dual training system in the Fed-

66

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67

eras Republic of Germany. In France,however, the fact that almost two-thirds of trainees awarded employ-ment-training contracts in the firstquarter of 1979 went to firms em-ploying less than 50 workers' wouldseem to indicate a certain reticenceon the part of larger firms vis-a-vis thescheme.

in trying to 'sell' alternance trainingto firms, two types of argument arehabitually invoked.2 The first consistsin stressing the social character ofthe effort demanded: youth unemploy-ment Is an acute problem which mustbe tackled on all fronts; firms have ina sense a moral obligation which theycannot sidestep. This argument is alithe more likely to be heeded if the out-look for the firm is promising and it iskeen to put over a good image to thepublic.

The second argument, which is es-sentially economic, consists in point-ing out the potential benefits of alternance training for the employer: withtraining, the young people acquiremotivation, identify more closely withthe company's goals and are moreready to work as part of a team andaccept orders; in the last analysis it isthe company that stands to gain. Asone director of a craft firm so aptlyput it: 'It is at the end of the appren-ticeship that we pick up the chips'.'Though this argument can be mostpersuasive, experience has shown

' See Table A.6., p. 51, In 'Les pactes nationaux pourl'emplol des Jeunes' by F. Pate, G. Bez, P. Koepp andM. Tardleu, In Travail et Emplol, No 6, October 1980.Unified Vocational Preparation, op. at pp. 48-70.

' Cited by111.Glrod de l'Aln In VapprentIssage enmilieu artisanal. Trots metiers: boucherle, mocani-que-auto, menuiserie', report by the Centre de Re-cherche sur les Systemes Univeraltalres de l'Uni-versIte Paris IXDauphine for the Secretariat d'Etata la Formation Profeeslonnelle, December 1980.

68 6 7

that it convinces only those who arealready half won over, since em-ployers seldom base their decision toparticipate in an altemance trainingprogramme on highly sophisticatedcostlbenefit analyses. It is more anact of faith, often strongly influencedby immediate socio-political conside-rations and traditional practice.

This latter argument is sometimesInvoked to support the claim that ai-ternance training is used by firms as ameans of acquiring an underpaidworkforce engaged in repetitive andunskilled tasks. Carried to extremesby some authors, it takes on Marxistconnotations: in their view the socialfunction of apprenticeship is tc keepthe bosses of small firms from goingunder by handing them a young andexploitable woter 'on a plate'. Whilerecognizing that abuses do occur,B. Girod de l'Ain contests this view:'if employers so obviously benefit fromhaving apprentices, how is it that theyare so reluctant to take them on? InFrance only one craft firm in six em-ployed apprentices in 1980 and theauthorities would seem to be havingthe greatest difficulty increasing num-bers.

Should these arguments fail toprompt a sufficient number of compa-nies to take part, the governmentcould always have recourse to finan-cial incentives to lessen the burdenon employers. It is then the taxpayerwho is forced to foot the bill. Withoutwishing to encroach on what is moreproperly dealt with in Chapter 7, wewould merely point out here that, de-pending on the size of firms, govern-ment aid will have a very different im-pact. In the case of small companies

See L'apprentlsaage en milieu artisanal... op. cit.

it may actually determine participa-tion though this is of course hard

4o,proye. In the case of large ones,;.government grants generally a frac-tion of labour costs tend to beviewed merely as tokens of goodwilland seldom tip the odds for or againstparticipation.

The form in which governmentmoney is made available is as impor-tant as the amount. The less the redtape, the more readily the aid will beaccepted by the smaller firms whichalready feel that they are overburden-ed with paperwork. This accounts forthe success of the measures underthe French employment-training con-tract scheme giving small employersdirect relief from social security con-tributions.

If companies cannot be persuadedto participate in the training effort,governments can always bring inlegislation to force their hand. This isof course not the best way for govern-ments to achieve their ends for what

Is asked of firms goes beyond simplefinancial participation. They are beingasked to contribute in a complex edu-cative process a contribution thatcan take many forms as we shall seelater in collaboration with the edu-cation system. Applying pressure isnot necessarily the best way of goingabout it and the private sector couldalways turn round and insist that thepublic sector show the way. Indeed,public enterprises, which are moresheltered from competition and bud-getary constraints, often have vasttraining potential and should play anactive role in alternance training.In many alternance training pro-grammes, companies are asked to

468 69

2 The company as a place of traininga

How can companies become placesof training and Instruction when theirprime purpose is to produce goodsand services? Here lies the crux of theproblem. There are a variety of wept-in which they can participate In thetraining effort and it Is Important thatthis misty be fostered as a way of titcouraging participation: t

cooperate by providing time of f foreducational activities which wouldotherwise be spent in production. Thisis particularly the case for the train-ees, who must devote a part of theirtime to off-the-job training, their men-tors, who must themselves be toldwhat is expected of them, and the al-ternance training officers, especiallywhen they are on the company pay-roll. A good deal of time is involved.Releasing a few individuals from theirimmediate duties poses fewer prob-lems for the larger firms, where re-placement is a relatively easy matter,than for the smaller ones.If the principle of alternance is to gainwider acceptance, firms must be ac-

70199

: ofMany major concerns in the publioiogand private,sectors have their ovevw;ip;:,tralaing,-ceetreapiriese are genandboti.4'used do tivinithixnianpower theyand &mance betweenlance and in-centre training is come,..mon practice. It would be inteirosUito explore the possibility of usIng4these facilities to extend Mornings,general instruction for trainees wrikiifilwill not necessarily remain with thecompany on completion of their cow*

.

tively involved in the training pro-grammes even at the planning stage.Their participation in the form of intel-lectual input is essential if traineesare to derive maximum benefit fromtheir placement. After the many yearswhen industry's training potential waslargely disregarded, it would be a mis-take to lean over too far in the otherdirection and assume that any in-plant training, however poorly prepar-ed, is of value. There is a wide gulfhere between expectation and reality.Urged to 'do something' for the young,governments could take the easyoption and simply hand the wholematter over to industry without insist-ing on adequate preparation. Follow-

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Other smilietbenPanko whichnot possess the means to actcould, by pooling their resource',establishioint training centres,headed bi a qualified &Romancetraining officer. Such centres, orgowgnized on a sectoitl.useful fita

diiriijillie'Hiair-feeNttle* . fwhich, with a few minor and relativelyinexpensive changes In work-organi-zation and staff policy, could be usedequally well for the purposes of edu-cation as for production. Without .

un.dulit theo

production pro7,cer could...

as

tQ

E0

ing the same line of thought, evalua-tion of alternance training impliesthat companies accept the idea ofoutside inspection and control.

There are thus many ways in whichcompanies can participate in the ai-ternance training effort, none ofwhich are mutually exclusive. Theform this participation may take andthe quality of the contribution willdepend on the company's trainingpractice and traditions. In the best ofcases the company will have a solidrecord in this area; in others, it maybe necessary to instil a new sense ofpurpose or even start from scratch,and this cannot be done overnight.

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71

U

72 71

726

73

A Teachers and trainers

73

The key feature of alternance is, as we have seen, that it com-bines in-plant experience and in-school training in a mutually rein-forcing manner. Plainly, instruction given in such disparate en-vironments as companies and training establishments cannot besatisfactorily coordinated in the long term without close colla-boration between those responsible on both sides. Some wouldeven affirm that success or failure of alternance training hingeson the quality of the in-plant trainers and of the school teachingstaff and on the .willingness of all to work towards a commonpedagogical goal.Innovation, alas. remains sadly wanting. In most EEC countries,the vast majority of teachers and trainers live in two worlds whosecustoms and traditions are so far apart that communication, letalone cooperation, is well- nigh impossible. There are signs, how-ever, that things are changing. One of the positive effects of theBritish Unified Vocational Preparation Programme has preciselybeen that it has promoted lasting cooperation between teachersand trainers and has helped to bring the two camps closer to-gether in a common concern to further youth training. Alternancetraining demands such a 'rapprochement' but also serves to facili-tate it; the possible confusion of ends and means is of little im-port, providing change is along the right lines.

ITeachers and trainers: the situation todaymask

No altemance training scheme canfunction without in-plant trainers onthe one hand and conventional teach-ers on the other. Indeed, it is an impe-rative that these two corps whichhave traditionally been poles apart,work together in pursuit of a commongoal. This is no mean task. The posi-tion in the Federal Republic of Ger-many where the dual system is farmore developed than elsewhere inEurope may be used to illustrate

some differencos between teachersand company-based trainers in re-spect to numbers, functions, recruit-ment and pedagogical background.'

See 'In -firm training In the Federal Republic of Ger-many tasks, training, continuing training', Reportof the Bundesinstitut fOr Berufsblidungsforschung,by H. Tlich (rapporteur), and 'Training of Vocationalschool teachers In Member States of the EuropeanCommunity', by A. Lipsinsier, In: Vocational Training,No 41979, CA4dop, Berlin.

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In Germany, there are some 72 000teachers employed in vocationalestablishments and around 500 000company-based trainers for 1.4 millionyoung people in training. The formerare generally on the full-time payrollof the Linder, whereas the latter areemployed by the individual companies(90% occupying other functions in ad-dition to training). The total number oftrainers is known only approximatelyand the number of hours spent ontraining is open to conjecture. It ishence impossible to gauge the totalcompany training effort.

In contrast, teachers' functions arestrictly determined. They must providetheoretical instruction of practicalrelevance for a particular occupation.This instruction takes the form of acertain number of hours of teaching ina range of subjects, the overall pro-gramme being established and super-vised by the Ministry of Culture ofeach Land. The same situation doesnot apply for company trainers whosestatus and functions are not explicitlyspecified in the 1969 Act on vocatio-nal training. It is the companies them-selves that decide which staff mem-bers will be given training responsibi-lity and the latter then have a relative-ly free hand in organizing in-planttraining.

Recruitment of vocational schoolteaching staff is determined by pre-cise criteria relating to length of train-ing, level of qualification and teachingability. In the early sixties, responsibi-lity :or training these teachers wasshifted to university-type establish-ments and this resulted in a loweringof minimum standards for practicalskills. In-plant trainers tend to be re-cruited much more haphazardly, theonly criterion being a 'minimum quali-fication threshold', i.e. that they

76 75

themselves hold a vocational trainingdiploma and have 'practical exper-ience'. In-plant trainers tend thus tobe a relatively mixed bunch andanyone can enter the ranks providingthat he has a bent for it and has sever-al years' experience in the companyas a skilled worker.

Naturally, the larger the companyand the longer its history of vocatio-nal training, the better in-companytraining will be organized; there willusually be a training officer, often asenior engineer or executive, and full-time trainers who coordinate and su-pervise on-the-job training. This typeof structure, however, is rarely foundoutside firms employing a workforceof around 500 and over.

As regards teacher training, voca-tional school teachers today receive athorough university grounding in theeducational and social sciences,while their practical teaching skillsare developed through periods ofteaching practice of up to two years.In the case of in-plant trainers, the mi-nimum training can be as little as 120hours though 200 hours are prefer-red and content and methods aredetermined on the basis of guidelinesset by the Federal institute for voca-tional training. On completion of thetraining, candidates may sit an examset by the chambers of commerce andindustry though many trainees (some40% according to the Institute) aredeemed qualified on the strength oftheir training alone.

These differences between teach-ers and trainers are not peculiar to theFederal Republic of Germany. In theUnited Kingdom, the status, functionsand qualifications of inplant trainers,or 'tutors', differ markedly from thoseof the staff in colleges of further edu-cation who teach the theoretical

aspects of the training. In France, theCentres de Formation d'Apprentis(CFA apprentice training centres)comprise both full-time teachers whoare similarly qualified to those teach-ing in lycees d'enseignement profes-sionnel (LEP vocational lycees) andlormateurs d'apprentis', who are skill-ed workers in their field and who areemployed by companies or the cham-bers of commerce and industry. Exam-ples are legion.

The dichotomy between teachersand trainers is generally accompaniedby a distinction in social standing,with the teachers, whose status andfunctions are better defined andwhose training is grounded in higherqualifications, at the top of the scale,and the trainers particularly thoseon-the-job on a lower rung. By andlarge, the system accords greater re-cognition to the teachers' theoretical'skills than to the `practical' skills ofthe trainers. The situation is likely tobe exacerbated in the medium-terminasmuch as teacher training involvesrelatively long studies I. e. at uni-versity level and this can only serveto downgrade the trainers' practicalskills and could well in the long runlead to the disappearance of the prac-tical side of training.

This analysis of the situation,though not new, nevertheless consti-tutes a formidable obstacle to the de-velopment of true alternance training.As A. Lipsmeier has rightly noted `theallocation of training tasks whichnecessarily accompanies this hierar-chization.... could well destroy theunity of theory and practice' whichshould characterize alternance train-ing.' Moreover, the subordination ofpractice to theory could impede cross-fertilization between school and com-pany which alone can give full weightto the diversity of the real world whileat the same time regarding it with acritical eye.

' Training of vocational school teachers in MemberStates of the EC', by Antonius Lipsmeier, In: Vocatio-nal training, No 4/79, Cedefop, Berlin.

76 77

2 Teachers and trainers: resolving the dichotomy

If the principle of alternance is to beimplemented, teachers and trainersmust work together despite all thatseparates them. Three possible linesof approacn could be taken.

A Producing the ideal 'teacher-cum-trainer' im=,

This would imply educating individ-uals to be both teachers and practitio-ners with sufficient academic knowl-edge to teach the theoretical disci-plines and enough practical know-how to be good on-the-job trainers.The unity of the alternance trainingwould be ensured by combiningtheory and practice in the person ofone polyvalent teacher-cum trainer.Though tempting at first sight, this so-lution does not lend itself to universalapplication. Despite what has beensaid, the jobs of teacher and trainerinvolve such very different skills thatit is ur ,Jsual to find people capable of

assuming both functions. To denythese differences could lead to situa-tions where neither function is per-formed satisfactorily. It should alsobe remembered that one of the peda-gogical features of alternance is thatthe young person is exposed to differ-ent ways of apprehending the world ofwork. Here the different approachesof the teacher and trainer can play ai ositive role and this is a form of di-versity which should be fosteredrather than discouraged.

B Developing a common language for teachers and trainers

In essence this means on the onehand that teachers must be sensitizedto the practical realities of a particu-lar occupation and on the other thatin-plant trainers must be given ade-quate teacher training. Much workhas been accomplished along theselines in all the EC countries and theeffort is being pursued. Work exper-ience e. g. in the form of companyplacements is beginning to berequired of teachers, though it isseldom of sufficient duration to pro-

78 77

vide more than a superficial insight.Requiring teachers to hold a vocatio-nal training diploma in addition totheir general university training isanother way of sensitizing them to thepractical demands of a trade.

Conversely, teacher training for in-plant instructors is beginning to be in-troduced in the more advanced sys-tems such as the dual system operat-ing in the Federal Republic ofGermany.This grounding, however,where it exists, tends to be somewhat

patchy. In France, for instance, train-ers employed in firms or in apprenticetraining centres receive only a ske-tchy introduction to pedagogical tech-niques. None of the alternance train-ing schemes launched in recent yearssuch as the French employment-train-

ing contracts or the British Unified Vo-cational Preparation Programme(UVPP) can claim teacher training forin-company trainers as one of theirstrong points, though the importanceof their functions is stressed in tiUVPP which specifies that:

Timin Industrial tutors should be:

'a caring adult or in-company mentor;

a primary link or "bridge" between on-and-off-the-job elementsof UVP;

a resource for advice and information, particularly with regardto in-firm project work;

a person responsible for overseeing job or task rotation andjob-training....; and

someone on whom young people could model themselves asthey learn to cope with responsibilities and relationships atwork'.', Unified Vocational Preparation, op. cit. p. 110

As regards the skills needed to makea good in-plant trainer, UVPP exper-ience in the United Kingdom high-lights the importance of personalmotivation. Trainers should not onlybe experienced and have thoroughknowledge of their company, but

should also be aware of the difficul-ties and learning needs of their char-ges, as well as being capable of com-municating with them and instillingmotivation. However valuable theseskills are, they cannot replace properteacher training nor can they suffice

78 79

to develop what is so sorely neededa common language for teachers

and trainers. The UVPP evaluators arethe first to admit that there is littlecontact between the two camps: thisis partly because of the hazy nature ofthe function of industrial tutor, whoseimportance is still not fully appreciat-ed within the company hierarchy, par-ticularly by those immediately seniorto the trainee, and partly because oflack of time. This latter point should

be stressed. Dialogue and coopera-tion are inherently time-consumingand trainers who must divide theirworking life between their normalduties and their training functionshave precious little time to sparewhile employers are reluctant forthem to spend yet more time awayfrom their productive tasks. This,though, is a small price to pay if co-operation between trainers and teach-ers is to be more than a pious hope.

C Towards a tripartite responsibility for the training process

UVPP experience has shown that thedifficulty of direct dialogue betweenteachers and trainers can in largemeasure be overcome by the presenceof a third party the training directoror officer to whom it in practice de-volves to instigate and initiate thisdialogue. This task is a logical corol-lary to his responsibilities in organi-

8079

zing the training programmes whichwere described in Chapter 4, Section2.A.

What sort of person does this jobdemand? Experience would go toshow that he could equally well havea teaching or industrial backgrounddepending on where the initiative forthe programme lies. He could also

come from adult education, the Cham-bers of Commerce and Industry, alocal authority or a non-profit makingorganization. In the United Kingdom,for example, where there is a livelyand well-organized tradition of volun-tary service, the non-profit making or-ganizations have played and continueto play a valuable role in implement-ing altemance training schemes, inas-much as they provide an informal in-stitutional framework for recruitingtrainers and training officers. Thanksto their knowledge of local conditions,their contacts with youth and theiroperational flexibility, they havebecome valuable mediators in deal-ings with government bodies, in parti-cular the Manpower Services Commis-sion, and have made an itcontribution to formulating a nationalaltemance strategy.'

As things stand, the fact that train-ing officers come from such very dif-ferent backgrounds is probably an ad-vantage since it prevents alternancefrom becoming the apanage of indus-try or a prisoner of the school system.Vetting committees, on which all par-ties would be represented, could beset up to ensure the suitability of ap-pointees. Once alternance training be-comes more widespread, the func-tions of training officers will gain Inclarity and it will then be time to laydown certain rules and standards inthis area, though the merits of selec-tion based on locally recognizedworth must never be sacrificed to thedictates of a central authority.

Work and the Community. A report on the ManpowerServices Commission's Programmes for the Unem-ployed by Richard Grover and associates, NationalCouncil for Voluntary Organizations, Bedford SquarePress, NVCO, 1980.

3081

CMCO

Cos

ts a

ndfin

anci

ng

Costs and financing ofalternance training

83

By and large, the economic situation in the EEC countries canhardly be said to be auspicious for the large-scale development ofalternance training. Cutbacks in public expenditure and the needfor firms to keep down costs in order to remain competitive do notincline to optimism. The development of alternance training :sthus likely to be severely hampered by budgetary constraints af-fecting participation of both the public and private sectors. This isliable to weigh heavy in the decision-making process. Notwith-standing, the widely expressed political will to `do something' forthe young should not be underestimated and may be sufficientlystrong to weather the prevailing conditions which are scarcelyconducive to radical reforms.

Expenditure cn aitemance training: general trends

There has been no systematic collec-tion of statistical data on aitemancetraining expenditure in the EEC coun-tries. Efforts in this area by th3Edding Commission in the Federal Re-public of Germany and more recentlyby the Secretariat d'Etat it la Forma-tion Professionnelle in France havebeen confined to determining total ex-penditure on vocational training' andprovide no indication of expenditureon aitemance training as such.2 Ofthe alternance training programmeslaunched in the last three or fouryears, few have been able to furnish adetailed breakdown of the financialexpenditure incurred.

The reasons for this state of affairsare well known. In the case of in-planttraining, the trainees use facilitiesintended essentially for productionand in practice it is difficult to distin-guish between the two functions. Sim-ilarly, company staff entrusted with

training tasks are primarily engagedin production and their training activi-ties cannot be disassociated fromtheir production function. In theory,the cost of training is equal to theoutput lost through the training, but inpractice few firms bother to make thiskind of calculation.

In 1978, total expend`ture on vocational training InFrance was 15.5 thousand million trance, of which56% was borne by the private sector .nd 44% by theState. The corresponding figure for Germany was 40thousand million French francs, of which 46% wasborne by the Federal Government and the Under,and the remainder by private industry.

2 The Federal Republic of Germany Is an exceptionhere since the bulk of vocational training is in fact&Romance training; in this country 90% of youngechool4eevers with nine or ten years' schoolingembark on some form of vocational training.

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85

Moreover, the cost of the lostoutput varies according to how thecompany's productive capacity isused. It is the greatest when capacityis fully utilized since in this case train-ing effectively results in a loss in out-put; but the cost may be virtually zerowhere there is spare capacity in termsof both men and machines, since turn-ing them over to training has noimpact on output. From this angle, thepresent situation, which is charac-terized by under-utilization of installedcapacity because of a slackening indemand, lends itself ideally to a great-er effort by industry to train young-sters on the job.

A similar problem arises in asses-sing the cost of off-the-job trainingwhen the training is provided in acentre or institution primarily givenover to other activities. This is fre-quently the case since alternancetraining programmes often draw onthe equipment and staff of full-timetraining establishments. The BritishUVP programme is a case in pointwith off-the-job training provided in avery comprehensive network of tech-nical colleges. In France, alternancetraining schemes make considerableuse of the qualified staff and premi-ses of full-time teaching establish-ments. Over 4 300 secondary schoolsand colleges are grouped into a net-work of 400 GRETAs (Groupes d'eta-blissements pour la formation con-tinue groups of lifelong trainingestablishments) with a view to poolingtheir resources for training. It is noeasy matter to separate out the outlayincurred by alternance in the institu-tions' general budgets and how this isdone is necessarily somewhat arbi-trary.

For alternance as for conventionalvocational training, the, easiest item

86 85

to identify is trainees' wages. InFrance,' the United Kingdom2 andGermany,' these represent 40-50%of total expenditure on vocationaltraining. There is no reason to believethat these percentages are materiallydifferent for alternance training. Ad-mittedly, to the extent that the latterprimarily concerns young people, itcould be argued that this is an itemwhere radical cuts could be effected.If, on the other hand, the aim is tosteer young people into alternancetraining, a good image must be putover to the public. Any drop in train-ees' wage levels is liable to tarnishthis image. Moreover, as earnings aregenerally tied to the minimum wage,they have to be adjusted for inflationor even increased in real terms if thereis a policy of narrowing the wage gap.The proportion of training expenditureallocated to trainees' wages is thusunlikely to shrink in the years tocome.

As regards expenditure on trainingand administrative staff, alternancetraining schemes are liable to costmore than conventional vocationaltraining in view of the more complexinstitutional organization entailed.Some savings might perhaps be madeinasmuch as the participation of the

France: 40% in 1978, according to 'Les resultats dela participation des empioyeurs au financement dela formation professionnelle continue' in Actual Ibisde la Formation Pamenente, Centre INFFO No 42,SeptemberOctober 1979.United Kingdom: Trainees' wages represent at least40% of total training expenditure according toM. Woodhall In 'Resources for Vocational Educationand Training and its Financing' SMFJET(78.15, OECDJune 1978.

2 Federal Republic of Germany: The Edding Commis-sion has calculated that trainees' wages accountedfor some 48% of total training expenditure In1971-72. See 'Vocational Education and Training:National Report of Germany', SMEJET127.34101 p. 18,OECD, 1977.

Industrial tutors and teachers in alter-nance training is not their prime acti-vity and the corresponding cost canhence be borne by the company ortraining centre. On the other hand itwill be necessary to recruit additionalstaff whose full-time presence Is cru-cial in ensuring the programme's suc-cess and cohesion,' namely alternan-ce training organizers and directors,inspectors and regional coordinators.

These considerations underlie thearbitrary nature of much of the statis-tical data on aitemance training ex-penditure. Apart from trainees' wages,which are easily identifiable, and thesalaries of the full-time administrativestaff, the other elements must ulti-mately depend on the accounting pro-cedures adopted. While the visiblecosts of altemance training may onoccasion seem low, this can in manycases be ascribed to the hidden con-tribution in the form of staff andequipment which does not appear onthe books. Some experts have pointedout that the net costs of altemancetraining are considerably less thanthe gross costs, the difference beingaccounted for by the savings accruingto the authorities in the form of unem-ployment benefits and increased taxrevenues. Calculations made in theUnited Kingdom have shown that thenet cost of the YOP programme, onceit has been expanded to 450 000 train-ees in 1981-82, will be around two-thirds of its gross cost (UKL 315 mil-lion as against UKL 470 million).

In the British YOP programme the traInee/tralnerratio Is 7 1. 86

87

2 Cost-sharing

The cost of alternance training isborne by governments, employers andtrainees in varying proportions depend-ing on a number of factors: type oftraining, target-group characteristics,economic climate etc. It is thus notpossible to lay down rules applicableto all alternance training schemes.Some general guidelines can, how-ever, be formulated:

off-thejob training in a basic training,year, dse/ or block release should berpaid for out,of taxation by publicaulbsdfle

,*:.t31 tit:er bilk; aio.

-.4t; stittekotl ertottireblenty3 zsek,e.;shi alit Yo rtourt to outran T10114.,

90::$311161t8 110 Snitrik,tp *04

piklivelsisioVelzedibdIwp Wei*dustshormserallaisMisatioto Nagr

ettt no bnaciab ytatich-sictiaiv sill &kW .oargobis VP**

no ism griirriettlonsmetta to a/nun qt nlo Ai% roafti!-rtikli-Monobtgetafti.

.bnatiala towhit) ri

-so :iii 4010W1.1A0 10,wiew *MP'

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trainer renwnerationAlusctraining shOttidfiNkifidtilif ipbplayer at-Slk40.410111,111111aft for thikassigro

el-iffrok

'A note on financial and organizational aspects' byi(eith Drake in Youth unemployment and alternancetraining in the EEC, conference report, Cedefop,Berlin, 1981

88Si

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

In the present economic context,there are likely to be a large numberof exceptions to these guidelines andwe shall be examining some of themain ones here. As regards the role ofgovernment in financing alternancetraining, governments will almost cer-tainly be contributing on a greaterscale than hitherto, and this for anumber of reasons: Firstly, the ad-verse economic climate is causingcompanies to cut down on the train-ing facilities they normally provide;government intervention is imperativeif this trend is to be reversed. Second-ly, and most important, EEC membergovernments, in developing alter-nance training, are pursuing social ob-jectives which go far 'oeyond meetingindustry's need for skilled manpower

namely tackling unemploymentgenerally and providing all young per-sons, particularly in the least-favouredgroups, with an opportunity for train-ing. Such considerations may be im-portant to governments but are notnecessarily of priority concern to in-dustry. Governments must thereforeencourage the latter to assume agreater share of the responsibility,e.g. by shouldering all or part of thetraining costs. This is clearly the aimof the incentives introduced in Bel-gium, France, the Netherlands andthe United Kingdom in the form ofsocial security exemptions or grantsto encourage companies to take onyoung workers. But the success of al-ternance training ultimately dependson its public elements. Several ingre-dients go to make up this image:thorough and well-supervised in-com-pany training, effective coordinationwith off-the-job training, teachers spe-cially trained to instruct underpriv-ileged adults, reccgnition of diplo-.mans. All this costs money and should

Inspire governments to step up theircontributions.

As regards industry's participationIn the financing of alternance training,the scanty data available tend toshow that companies are often pre-pared to be more generous than thelaw demands. In France, for instance,total expenditure on training by indus-try represented 1.33% of the totalwage bill in 1978; it should be notedthat this proportion is closely corre-lated with the size of companies andhas moved steadily upwards. (It wasonly 1.35% in 1972.) Companies with aworkforce of over 2 000 devote nearly3% of their wage bill to training.'These pi?' entages refer to all in-planttraining a.,d not to alternance trainingalone; they are none the Inss en-couraging in that they reflect a grow-ing awareness on the part of industryof its responsibilities In the matter.This should create a fertile terrain forthe growth of alternance training.

' Les resultats de Ia participation des employeura aufinancement de Ia formation professlonnelle conti-nue' In Actualltds de la formation permarmte,Centre INFFO No 42, SeptemberOctober 1979.

88 89

The financing system in the UK

Sy mbolSA = GovernmentB = Department of Education and ScienceC = Department of Employment0 = Rates (local taxes)E = Training CentresF = Manpower Services Commission (MSC)G = Industrial Training Boards (ITBs)a = Grantsb = LeviesH = Employerc It FeesI = Local Education Authorities (LEAs)J = Schools, further education, higher education

and training

90

3%.

89

450

100ma_

100

so 1 a

1200

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C

Source Be-sChreibung derBerufsbildungs-systems in denMitglledstaatender Europillachen Gemeinschaft Verglei.chende Studie.Cedef op 1982.

A cost-sharing mechanism withinthe industrial sector is required to de-termine the allocation of trainingcosts between those companies thatprovide training facilities and thosethat do not (though the latter mayderive benefit by teklng on workerstrained elsewhere). This was one ofthe aims of the Industrial TrainingBoards set up in the United Kingdomin 1964. These boards receive finan-cial contributions from companiesand redistribute the funds to financetraining activities. In the Federal Re-public of Germany an act was passedinstituting a system of selective taxa-tion hitting companies that did notparticipate in the training effort; themeasure was suspended, however, inview of the considerable effort by in-dustry to increase the number of ap-prenticeships. The act has now beanannulled by the Constitutional Coun-cil.'

Trainees' contribution to trainingcosts is in principle a function of thedifferential between the wages theycommand on the labour marketoften the minimum wage and theallowance they receive during theirperiod of linked work and training.This differential represents the sacri-fice involved in participating in a train-ing programme. In the present situa-tion of mass youth unemployment,the contribution of the trainees can begauged by the difference between theunemployment benefit they wouldotherwise be receiving and theirwages during training. This may bepositive or negative. In the formercase, only tho prospects held out bythe training will lead the young people

1 In both countries, the whole question of how VOCRIlona! training Is financed Is currently being re-thought.

v

to participate, while in the latter casetheir contribution is nil. In decidingwhat trainees' contribution should beand how it should be modulated in thelight of socio-economic considera-tions, all three variables minimumwage, unemployment benefit andtraining allowance should be takeninto account. Trainees' decisions, itmust be remembered, are coloured bytheir immediate interests. Alternancetraining will hold no attraction foryoung people J the wagos offered aresubstantially below the unemploy-ment benefit or minimum wage andlikely to remain so.

No discussion of the financing ofalternance training would be com-plete without reference to administra-tive responsibility which is discussedin Chapter 4. Here a decentralized de-cision-making system is called for en-dowed with powers to act in the lightof local needs and able to mobilizethe resources of the existing institu-tions.

90 91

coC

MIMIoCcoc=DCco

U)

U)O0

Participation in training activities

16-17

.1011MINNENEWIIME

17-186 30 io%

92

General educa-tional school orvocational training

General educa-tional part-timeschool or part-timevocational training

1111111-

91

Neither generaleducational norvocational training

This comparison showsthe effect of the mea-sures for promoting vo-cationsl training In theMember States of theEuropean Communities.The training quota theproportion of youngpeople in training sche-mes) for 16-17-year-olds in all countries IsClearly higher than thatof the 17-18-year olds.These figures for 1978can be applied to thepresent day 18-19-yearolds, whereas the pic-ture may now have Im-proved for the 18-17 -year olds.

Source: information Bulle-tin of the European Centrefor the Development ofVocational Training411980. Estimate of theCentre (1979) from Euro-stat Statistics and select-ed material statistics.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

The main raison d'être of alternancetraining for young people is to easethe transition from school to work. Wewill not dwell here on the problemsthis presents which are compoundedby the present economic situation.The important thing Is that most Euro-pean countries are endeavouring toresolve them by introducing an adaptation period of variable length be-tween full-time schooling and full-timework, a period which is designed onthe principle of alternance betweenschool and work. In concluding thismonograph, we should like to remindthe reader of the main guidelines foraction which stem from this centralidea of providing optimum trainingsituations for young people. This said,the idea of alternance like all newideas pertaining to social organiza-tion may seem good in theory buthas many drawbacks In practice andone must be fully aware of all the pos-sible pitfalls. In other words, the con-cept, despite its merits, can be consi-derably distorted In practice if the ne-cessary precautions are not taken. Weshould examine the various formsthese distortions may take, though itshould be emphasized that current ex-perience incites to optimism ratherthan the reverse.

Alternance is first and foremost apedagogical principle based on themutually reinforcing roles of in-schooland in-company training. Applicationof this principle demands specifictraining goals in terms of capabilities,skills and a new pedagogy givingproper weight to the ;alue of work Interms of training and experience. Truealternance tra;iiing thus in many res-pects represents a major departurefrom traditional training. It should atall costs be avoided that it acquire a'second-class' status and that the

92 93

u )coa=

13cO0

term be applied indiscriminately toany training involving any kind of in-plant placement. The possibility ofsuch distortions cannot be disregard-ed.

Alternance is also an institutionalprinciple which, by its very existence,enables a variety of training forms,different both in level and length, tobe organized into a coherent trainingsystem for all young school-leavers.The pitfall hare is to wish to move toofast and expand the system too rapid-ly for evident political reasons, with-out paying due attention to the quali-tative aspects. It is easy to under-stand that governments and localauthorities, urged to do something toalleviate the problem of youth unem-ployment, want to push ahead with al-ternance training. But, as the fore-going pages have shown, true alter-nance must come to grips with a widevariety of pedagogical, institutionaland organizational problems. The goalis ultimately to extend alternancetraining to all 16-20-year-old school-leavers, elit the process throughwhich this is achieved should be thesubject of continuous assessments,whose findings should be reflected inthe further development of the sys-tem.

Organization of alternance trainingdepends on cooperation between thesocial groups involved and on decen-tralization of initiative. The first stepis to negotiate an agreement in prin-ciple at central government levellaying down the general lines of thesystem. Once this is done, decentrali-zation is Introduced in rutting thesystem into practice. Alternance train-ing schemes should be characterizedby unity of responsibility, flexibility ofInternal organization and adaptationto the needs of the target groups con-

94 93

cerned. There is no point in trying toeconomize on the institutional organi-zation and administration of alter-nance training schemes. The fact thatthe schemes are decentralized and in-volve such disparate institutions asschools and companies does notmean that they can do without direc-tors and inspectors. On the contrary,these are even more essential.

Company participation in develop-ing alternance training Is primordial.Whatever form this contribution takes

premises, equipment, time awayfrom their productive duties for indus-trial tutors and trainees, direct financ-ing it must be organized and inte-grated with the contribution of thetraining institutions. Here the pitfallsare to neglect to provide industrialtrainers and teachers with the appro-priate training and to omit to monitoron-the-job training in the companies.These are the two weak points toemerge from an examination of mostEuropean experience in this area. Theabsence of a clear cut policy in regardto training personnel and companies'participation in training Is liable tocreate a (.1redibility gap betweentheory and practice.

The little information available onthe costs of alternance training sche-mes would seem to indicate thatthese arA no cheaper than convention-al vocational training. In the presentsituation it could be tempting to dothings on the cheap and alternancewould then risk acquiring a second-class status In the eyes of the public.It is clearly essential that alternancetraining in no way serves to 'margina-lize' young people already deprived onother front' by steering them into in-secure, poJrly paid and relatively un-skilled jobs. The training should be

given status by ensuring, (I) that itleads to diplomas recognized on thelabour market, (ii) that it affords reci-pients the possibility of returning tofull-time training, and (iii) that it facili-tates access to stable employment inthe same way as other types of train-ing. Lastly, while initially alternancetraining schemes should focus on theleast favoured groups, a policy of pos-itive discrimination must subsequent-ly be pursued to ensure that theyoung people concerned are not con-signed to the fringes of the labourmarket.

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coc0.(05=0c00

3. I 80 Official Journal of the European Communities NoC 1/1

1

(Information)

COUNCIL

COUNCIL RESOLUTION

of 18 1) :ember 1979

on linked work and training for young person:

THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEANCOMMUNITIES,

Having regard to the Treaty establishing the

European Economic Community,

Having regard to the draft resolution submitted bythe Commission,

Whereas in general the prospects of employment foryoung people in the Member States are poor;whereas, furthermore, a significant proportion of thetotal unemployed are young persons withoutadequate vocational training;

Whereas more flexible forms of transition fromschool to working life should be encouraged while atthe same time the development of vocational trainingoffering young persons better opportunities for accessto the labour market should be promoted;

Whereas the European Council on 12 and 13 March1979 made a statement including a section on linkedwork and training and the Council on 15 May 1979reached conclusions on the matter;

Whereas it is therefore necessary to adapt vocationaltraining systems; whereas such adaptation can beespecially encouraged by developing linked work andtraining, that is to 52y the inclusion, during the periodof transition to working life, of periods combiningtraining and practical work experience;

95

Whereas the linking of work and training is especiallyappropriate in three kinds of situation:

young persons undergoing apprenticeships or post-educational training courses,

young job seekers eligible for special trainingmeasures to facilitate the integration of youngpeople into the labour market,

young workers without adequate vocational

training;

Takes note of the communication from theCommission on linking work and training for youngpersons in the Community;

Considers that the linking of work and trainingshould be developed, in a manner appropriate to theparticular situation of each Member State and withCommunity support, in accordance with the

following guidelines:

I. Guidelines for the Member :states

I Content and concept of linked work and trainin:

Member States should encourage the developmentof effective links between training and experienceon the job. These links should involve establishingcoordinated programmes and structures makingfor cooperation between the various bodiesresponsible.

Such programmes should be established havingregard to the need to offer a training base broadenough to meet the demands of technological

NoC 1/2 Official Journal of the European Communities 3 180

developments and of foreseeable changes in occu-pations.

They should be planned in relation to theparticular characteristics of the categories of youngpersons aimed at.

A special effort should be made to broaden therange of occupations offering different forms oflinked work and training includingapprenticeships.

A suitable minimum penod should as a rule begiven over to training off the job.

2. Supervision and recognition of training

If appropriate, training programmes offered shouldbe approved and evaluated by the authoritiesresponsible for vocational training. The levels ofcompetence achieved or the content of the coursescompleted should facilitate access to furthervocational or general training.

The authorities responsible should also endeavourto ensure that linked work and training is in linewith full-time training, possibly by the samediplomas being awarded for both, in order to faci-litate transfers between different branches oftraining.

3. Remuneration and financial support

The Member States consider that where remun-eration or allowances are granted for the differentforms of linked work and training, they should beestablished at appropriate levels, paruculark inorder to facilitate participation by young peopletherein.

4. Working conditions and lanai protection

Member States should ensure that persons parti-cipating in the different forms of linked work and

training enjoy suitable social protection andprotection as regards working conditions withinthe framework of existing legislation.

The Member States should consider whethertraining leave may constitute a useful means ofencouraging in particular young workers withouttraining to participate in linked work and trainingprogrammes

II. Guidelines for the Community

In order to facilitate the implementation of thisresolution the Council requests the Commission to.

examine the conditions under which the EuropeanSocial Fund might be associated with action byMember States by means of small-scaleexperimental projects within the spirit of Article 7of Council Regulation (EEC) No 2396/71 of8 November 1971 implementing the CouncilDecision of 1 February 1971 on the reform of theEuropean Social Fund ('), as amended by Regu-lation (EEC) Nu 2893/77 (1, to develop linkedwork and training during the period of entry intoworking life,

monitor the application of this resolution in theMember States with a view to promotingdevelopment which :, harmonized as far aspossible,

afford Member States all possible tei.hrucalsupport to this end,

promote the exchange of experience gained in thisfield,

report to the Council in 1982 on how far thisresolution is being applied

(') OJ No L 249, 10 II 1971 p S4(') OJ No L 337, 27 12 1977, p 1

3EST COPY AVAILABLE 96

List of organizations represented at the Cedefop Board

B Association des grandesentreprises de distributionde Belgique3 rue de la ScienceB-1040 Bruxelles

Commission des Communauteseuropeennes200 rue de la LoiB-1049 Bruxelles

Confederation des syndicatschretiens de Belgique121 rue de la LoiB-1049 Bruxelles

Confederation europeennedes syndicats (observer)37 rue Montagne auxHerbes PotageresB-1000 Bruxelles

Ministere de i'Emploi et du Travail53 rue BernardB-1041 Bruxelles

Union des Industries de IaCommunaute europeenne(observer)6 rue de LoxumB-1000 Bruxeles

DK Dansk ArbejdsgiverforeningVester Voldgade 113DK-1552 Kobenhavn V

Landsorganisationen I DanmarkRosenorns Al le 12DK-1970 Kobenhavn V

UndervisningsministerietDirektoratet forErhvervsuddannelserneHojbro Plads 4DK-1200 Kobenhavn K

98

D Bundesministerium far Bildungand WissenschaftStresemannstr. 20-5300 Bonn-Bad Godesberg

Deutscher GewerkschaftsbundBundesvorstandHans-Backler-Str. 39D-4000 DOsseldorf

Kuratorium der deutschenWirtschaft far BerufsbildungBuschstr. 83D-5300 Bonn 1

F Confederation Frangaiseet Democratique du Travail5 rue CadetF-75009 Paris

Conseil National du PatronatFrancais31 rue Pierre 1°' de SerbieF-75784 Paris Cedex 16

Secretariat Generalde Ia Formation ProfessionnelleServices du Premier Ministre55 rue Saint DominiqueF-75007 Paris

IRL AnCO The industrialTraining AuthorityBaggot Court27-33 Upper Baggot StreetEIDublin 4

97

Irish Sugar Co. LtdSt Stephen's Green HouseEIDublin 2

Irish Transport andGeneral Workers' UnionLiberty HallEIDublin 1

I Ente Nazionale perl'Energia ElettricaVia Dalmazia, 121-00100 Roma

Confederazione GeneraleItallana del LavoroCorso d'Italia, 251-00100 Roma

Ministero del LavoroVia Flavia, 91-00100 Roma

L Chambre des Métiers41 rue GlesenerLLuxembourg

Chambre du Travail18 rue Auguste LumiereLLuxembourg

Ministere de ('EducationNationale6 Boulevard RoyalLLuxembourg

NL Federatie NederlandseVakbewegingPostbus 8456Plein '40-'45 nr. 1NL-1005 AL Amsterdam

Koninklijk NederlandsLandbouw-ComitePrins Mauritsplein 23NLDen Haag

Ministerie van Onderwijsen WetenschappenNieuwe Uitleg 1NL-2500 EN Den Haag

UK Manpower Services CommissionTraining Services Division162-168 Regent StreetGBLondon WIR 6DE

National Union of TeachersHamilton HouseMabledon PlaceGBLondon WC1H 9BD

Wm Thorpe & Son LtdOld TraffordGBManchester M16 9FB

9899

, -

YouthNorp,eVYouth

Unemployment andocational Wising

Emergency Measures forthe Employment andTraining of Young PeopleM the European Commu-

Anity

documentation1978, 216 pp.Languages: DE, ENOut of print: FR, IT

t9 Youth Unemployment andVocational TMOccupational andMotivation of YoungPeople, their VocationalTraining and EmploymentProspectSurvey on Member Statesof the European Commu-nities1978, 770 pp.Languages: DE, ENOut of print: FR

Youth Unemployment andVocational TrainingOccupational Choice andMotivation of YoungPeople, their VocationalTraining and Employment

Synthesis on theSituation In the EuropeanCommunities1980, 250 pp.Languages: DA, DE, EN,FR, IT, NLEN-ISBN 92-825-1515-XPrice: UKL 5.30, IRL 5.90,US$ 12

Ch &nag* des Ilium's atformation prolessionnelleStatut matelriel et socialdes leunes tors du pas-sage de l'ecole a la vieactive enBelgique.1980, 109 pp.Language: FRISBN 92-8'_'3-2084-8Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3,US$ 8.20

100

EIy

1E

ILE

Jug*ndarbeitsiosigkeitund BerufsbIldungSozIaler und materlellerStatus von Jugend lichenbeim Obergang von derSchule zum Beruf In derBundesrepublik Deutsch-land1980, 184 pp.Language: DEISBN 92825-1741-1Price: UKL 3.90, IRL 4.35,US$ 9.20

CI, 'maga des jounes etformation professionnolisStatut materiel et socialdes leunes fors du pas-sage de l'ecole a la vieactive enFrancs1980, 119 pp.Language: FRISBN 92.825-1743-8Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3,US$ 6.20

Youth Unemployment andVocational TrainingMaterial and Social Stand-ing of Young Peopleduring Transition fromSchool to Work In Ireland1980, 125 pp.Language: ENISBN 92-825-1976-7Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3,US$ 6.20

Disoccupazion glovanileformazions professio-

nalsCondlzioni material! s so-ciall del giovani durante totransistor,' dalla scuola allavoro In Italia1980, 172 pp.Language: ITISBN 92.825-2060-9Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3,US$ 6.20

Jsugdworklooshald en be-rospsopleidingDa socials en mated/liestatus van iongsren bIJ deovergang van school naarwork In Nederland1980, 87 pp.Language: NLISBN 92-8251921-XPrice: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, USS 6.20

99

IEEE

DE

Youth Unemployment andVocational TrainingMaterial and Social Stand-ing of Young Rapeduring Transition fromSchool to Work In theUnited Kingdom.1980, 75 pp.Language: ENISBN 92-825-1975-9Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, US$ 6.20

Youth Unemployment andVocational TrainingThe Matrrlal and SocialStanding of Young Peopleduring Transition fromSchool to Working UfaSynthesis report1981, 164 PP.Languages: DE, EN, FREN1SEN 92-8252041 -2Pricc: UKL 4.80, IRL 6, USS 9 20

Youth Unemployment andVocational TrainingMaterial and Social Stand-ing of Young Peopleduring Transition fromSchool to WorkConference report1981,20 pp.Languages: DA, DE, EN,FR, IT, NL

Youth Unemployment and Al-terminus Training In the EECConference report1981, 224 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FRENISBN 92-825-2265-2Price: UKL 2.90, IRL 3.70,US$ 825

8 Youth Unemployment andVocational TrainingPublications in the ECMember StatesSelected Bibliography1980, 285 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FREN -ISBN 92-825-1772-1

Planning VocationalPreparation initiatives forUnemployed YoungPeople1982, 143 pp.Language: ENISBN 92-825-2402-7Price: UKL 1.30, IRL 1.70,US$ 2.90

Women

@ Equal Opportunities andVocallonal TrainingTraining and LabourMarketPolicy Measures for theVocational Promotion ofWomen in theFederal Republic ofGermany1981, 320 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FREN-ISBN 92-825-2419-1

® Cnbi Zeheft in drBetriebliche INeiterbil-dung and beruflicher Auf-atleg von Frauen in derBundesrepublik Deutsch-land1982, 500 pp.Language: DEISBN 92-825-2670-8

fa Equal Opportunities andVocational TrainingTraining and LabourMarketPolicy Measures for theVocational Promotion ofWomen in France19f,,, 226 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FRENISBN 92-825-M21-7

Equal Opportunities andVocational TrainingTraining and Labc.JrMarketPolicy Measures fry theVocational Promotion ofWomen in the UnitedKingdom1962Languages: DE, FROut of print: ENFRISBN 92-825-2418-3

ri3 Women and VocationalTrainingPublications in the ECMember StatesSelected Bibliography1980, 204 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FRENISBN 92-825-2016-1

Equal Opportunities andVocational TrainingCatalogue of Traininginnovations in the ECMember StatesLanguages: DA, DE, EN,FR, ITENISBN 92-825-2489-2

Equal OpportunitiesM.Vocational TrainingA Survey on VocationalTraining initiatives forWomen In the ECLanguages:DA, DE, EN, FREN-ISBN 92-825-2764-6

Migrant Workers

Migrant Workers and Vo-cational TrainingVocational Training to im-prove Opportunities forMigrant WorkersEuropean Conference1980, 184 PP.Languages: DE, EN, FREN-ISBN 92-825-1775-6

px.) Migrants it flux de retourEn analysant Ies elementsde phenomenologie Ilesau retour des travallleursemigres, on a mis en reliefla difference des condi-tions de reinsertion desdad ultes professionnall-ses) par rapport aux jeu-nes, a l'anciennete de tra-vail plus faibleRapport de recherche1980, 73 pp.Language: FR

Migrants et processes demobilltiPrealables aux precessusde mobliit6 profession -nelie et sociale et disponi-bilite det travailleurs dansle cadre europeenRapport de recherche1980, 196 pp.Language: FRISBN 92-825-1778-0

1 'In

Leaflet"It can be done ..."information on the Pro-ject "Migrant Workers:Second generation"1980, 10 pp.Languages: DA, DE, EN,FR, GR, IT, NI.

Continuing Educa-tion and Training

® Continuing Education andTrainingFile of Innovations in theEC Member States1979, 2nd edition 1980Languages: EN, FR

® Role of Training in Settingup New Economic andSocial ActivitiesFrance Italy UnitedKingdom1980, 330 pp.Languages: FR, EN, ITISBN 92-825-2059-5

Vocational TrainingSystemsmipt=BerufsblidungssystemoBeschreibung der Berufsbil-dungssysteme In den MR-gliedstaaten der EuropAl-schen Gemelnschaft1982, 478 pp.Language: DEISBN 92.825-2263-6Price: ECU 12, BFR 490,DM 29,50

Descriptions of the Voce-tional Training Systems(Monographs)

® Belgium1981,60 pp.Languages: DA, DE, EN,FR, IT, NL

Denmark1981, 91 pp.Languages: DA, EN, FR,IT, NL

el France1981, 118 pp.Languages: EN, FR, IT, NL

101

co

to

® Ireland1981, 116 Pp.Languages: EN, NL

1981, 110 pp.Languages: EN, IT, NL

® Luxembourg1981, 82 pp.Languages: FR, IT

al Netherlands1961, 79 pp.Languages: EN, FR, NL

United Kingdom1982, 72 pp.Language: EN

Comparative Study of theFinancial, Legislativs andRegulatory &ruder, ofVocational TrainingSystemsFsderal Republic of Gar-manyFrance

UnitedItaUnited Kingdom1981, 224 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FR, ITEN-ISBN 92-825-1782-9

The Classification of Skill-ed Workers In the MemberStates of the EEC1981, 154 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FREN-ISBN 92-825-2330-6Price: ECU 6, IRL 420,UKL 3.30

0. C31 Relationships batmanEducation and Employ-mont and their Impact onCl. Education and LabourMarket PatiosA Franco-German Study0 1979, 50 pp.Languages: DA, DE, EN,

USFR, IT, NL

Demarcation of occupa-W Waal groups/occupational

Mikis with regards to voce-

CillVona' training at skilledlevel in tho European Com-munityDJ 1982, 146 pp.Languages: DE, EN, FR

(11)

Price: UKL 2.30, IRL 2.80,USD 4EN-ISBN 92-825-3015-9

02

102

Other Publications

Information and Documen-talon as a Task and a Needof CEDEFOPSeminar report1978, 160 pp.Languages: EN, FROut of print: DEEN-ISBN 92-825-0038-1

® Annual Report 19781979, 48 pp.Languages: DA, DE, EN, FR,IT, NLEN-ISBN 92-825-1154-5

Annual Report 19791980, 72 pp.Languages: VA, DE, EN, FR,IT, NLEN-ISBN 92-825-1764-0

feli Annual Report 19801981,68 pp.Languages: VA, DE, EN, FR,rt NLEN-ISBN 92-825-2317-9

® Annual Report 19811982, 48 pp.Languages: DA, DE, EN, FR,GR, IT, NLENISBN 92-825-3008-6

egit European Centre for theDevelopment of VocationalTraining CEDEFOP Infor-mation Brochure1978,8 pp.Languages: VA, DE, EN, FR,IT, NL

101

Periodicals

Vocational Training Bulletinpublished InDA, DE, EN, FR, IT, NLISSN 0378-5068Price: An nual-s ubscrIption:UKL 2.50, IRL 2.75, US$ 5.Single copy. UKL 0.90,IRL 1, US$ 1.60

Bulletin Main Articles

1978EI No 4

Continuing Education andTraining

1980

No 1Agriculture

IR] No 4 I Special EditionLinking Work and Trainingfor Young Persons in theEEC

1981

No 6Guidance, informationVocational training

la No 7Small and medium -sizedenterprises

1982E No 8

Training and employment

No 9Where is adult educationgoing?

CEDEFOP news

Brief news items on Voca-tional Training In the Euro-pean CommunityISSN 0252-855-XLanguages: DA, DE, EN, FR,IT, NLfree of charge

1982

No 2: Febr. 1982No 3: Sept 1982

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CEDEFOPEuropean Centre for the Development of Vocational Training

Aitemance training for young people:Guidelines for action

Jean-Pierre Jallade

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

1982-103 pp.-16.0x 20.0 cmDA, DE, EN, FR, IT, NL

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