DOCUMENT RESUME

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AUTHOR Hakim, Laurel, Ed.TITLE Conflict Resolution in the Schools. 1993 Edition.INSTITUTION Human Rights Resource Center, San Rafael, CA.SPONS AGENCY Marin Community Foundation, San Rafael, CA.PUB DATE Sep 92NOTE 77p.

PUB TYPE Reports Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCC.!4 Plus Pos'.-.ge.

DESCRIPTORS *Cormier. Resol-tiu:-,; *Elementary School Students;Elementary Secondar:; Education; *InterpersonalCompete.e; Models; *Secondary School Students

ABSTRACTThis manual describes approaches to initiating

conflict resolution programs for kindergarten through 12th grade,details working models, and provides extensive resource information.The guide contains 13 sections. Section 1 discusses why it isimportant to have a conflict resolution program in the schools.Section 2 presents an overview of conflict resolution programs.Section 3 contains "School Discipline, Corporal Punishment andAlternative Strategies," an excerpt from "The Good Common School:Creating a Vision that Works for All Childre..-.," a book pubF.shed bythe National Coalition of Advocates for Students. Section 4 preseLts"We Can Work It Out," an article from Teacher Magazine (Williams,1991). Section 5 presents "Peer Pressure Is Used to Mediate Disputesat School," an article which appeared in the New York Times (Dullea,1987). Section 6, ?roject PACT: Peers Addressing Conflict Together,presents materials for use in setting up conflict resolution programsin schools. Section 7 presents a model program, Conflict Resolutionfor Youth. Section 8 focuses on gang mediation; section 9 presentsclassroom activities for handling conflict; and section 10 focuses oncritical thinking skills and handling conflict. Section 11 provides asample lesson plan for teaching conflict resolution; section 12focuses on the human rights component of conflict resolutionprograms; and section 13 lists additional resources. (NB)

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CONFLICTRESOLUTION

IN THESCHOOLS

A Publication of theHuman Rights Resource Center

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A Publication of theHuman Rights Resource Center

HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER615 13 Street San Rafael, CA 415 453-0404

1993 Edition.Editor: Laurel Hakim

Series Editor: Sandy ShartzerCopy Editor: Sandy Schoenfeld

Design: Kate VialPrinting: Copy Desk Printers

With the support ofcomA,

ogo

1992 Human Rights Resource Center.All Rights Resenfed.

The Human Rights Resource Center is pleased to provide you with this manual

on conflict resolution in schools.

in preparing this manual, HRRC contacted schools and community agencies

throughout the country to identify model programs and educators' responses

to conflict resolution programs.The manual describes approaches to initiating

conflict resolution programs for kindergarten through 12th grade, detailsworking models and provides extensive resource information.

Conflict resolution, peer mediation and conflict management programs are

particularly relevant today with the growing change in the racial/ethnic/cultural

composition of our schools.Successful conflict resolution programs in schools

have resulted in a decrease in violent acts and fighting and a positive change in

the school climate. Successful programs have also allowed teachers toconcentrate on instruction rather than control.

Conflict is inevitable.Violence is not. Conflict resolution programs interrupt

destructive ways of relating and create positive altematives.This cannot only

create more peaceful schools, but, ultimately, a more peaceful world. In the

education arena there is much hope and enthusiasm for school mediaticn

programs as part of the process of establishinga more peaceful and understanding

world community.

Please contact us if you have questions which are not answered in this manual,

or if you have information which can assist us in future revisions of this manual.

To have conflicts is human

To resolve them, Divine

A special thank you to Heather Songster, student intern from World College

West, Spring, 1992. Her diligent research gready contributed to the accurate

and current information provided in this manual.

TABLE OF CONTENTSSection 1

WHY HAVE A CONFLICT RESOLUTIONPROGRAM INYOUR SCHOOL?Section 2

OVERVIEW OF CONFLICTRESOLUTION PROGRAMS 3

Section 3

SCHOOL DISCIPLINE, CORPORAL PUNISHMENTAND ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES 9National Coalition of Advocates for Students

Section 4

"WE CAN WORK IT OUT" 13

Teacher Magazine

Section 5

PEER PRESSURE IS USED TO MEDIATE

DISPUTES AT SCHOOL 15

New York Times

Section 6

PACT,A MODEL PROGRAM 19

Marin County Mediation Services

Section 7

CONFLICT RESOLUTION FORYOUTH 25

Community Board Centerfor Policy & Training, San Francisco

Section 8

GANG MEDIATION 29

Section 9

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 33

Section 10

CRITICALTHINKING SKILLS& HANDLING CONFLICT 39

Section 11

TEACHING CONFLICT RESOLUTION 41

Section 12

TEACHING HUMAN RIGHTS 45

Section 13

RESOURCES 49

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CONFLICT RESOLUTION THE SCHOOLS SECTION-

WHY HAVE A CONFLICTRESOLUTION PROGRAM IN YOURSCHOOL?

Conflicts in schools often reflect conflicts inthe community. When tensions exist among differ-

ent racial, ethnic, economic, religious or other

groups in the community, students often carrythose conflicts into their schools. The conflicts aremanifested in distracting tensions, verbal alterca-tions, and violent confrontations.

A recent survey by the National Institute ofEducation showed that nationwide nearly 300,000high school students are physically attacked eachmonth and one out of five ninth to twelfth graders

carries a weapon.

School conflict resolution programs alonecannot resolve the hateful attitudes that causesome conflicts. However, the programs can ad-

dress tensions in specific situations before conflictescalates to violence.

To have conflicts is natural, to be able toresolve them in a non-confrontational, consensusbuilding manner is ideal. Mediation skills, learnedthrough conflict resolution, last a lifetime andcarry into the home, community and society, atevery level, long after the school years are over.

The California Lieutenant Governor's Com-mission on Prevention of Hate Violence, in its1992 final report, Freedom from Fear: EndingCalifornia' s Hate Violence Epidemic, concludedthat developing skills in communication, coopera-tion and conflict resolution is an essential part ofpreventing hate crimes by young people. The com-mission focused on ways of reaching youth be-cause it found that the vast majority of the growing

number of hate crimes are committed by malesunder the age of 25.

t.)

The commission found:

1. There is more hate violence on schoolcampuses than in the community at large.

2. It is more effective to teach reduction ofviolence than to have programs that sim-ply "promote tolerance and undeistand-ing."

3. Teachers now receive inadequate trainingin bias reduction and conflict resolutiontechniques and need more training in co-operative learning techniques.

The commission recommended:

1. Conflict resolution should be consideredas a method to prevent bias related inci-

dents from escalating into acts of hateviolence.

2. Minimum standards for granting teachingcredentials should include course work inbias reduction techniques; conflict pre-vention and resolution; use of cooperativelearning techniques; and preparation ofbias free curricula.

3. Inservice training on such techniquesshould be provided once every five years.

4. School districts should utilize and dis-seminate information on local dispute me-

diation and resolution services.

Programs that meet the Commission' s call for

the use of conflict resolution are already in placeon campuses across the country. But are they doing

the job?

In surveying existing elementary and second-

ary conflict resolution programs, the Human Rights

2 HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER" SAN IhaFAEL CA

Resource Center concluded that they are. We foundthat these programs:

Provide more beneficial results than sus-pension or juvenile court.

Improve communication and the schoolclimate.

Reduce violence, vandalism, absence andsuspension.

Deepen understanding of one's self andothers.

Prepare students for responsible citizen-ship in our pluralistic society.

S hift problem-solving responsibility fr3mthe adult to the student.

Improve skills of listening, criticalthinking and problem solving.

Teach positive ways of handling frus-tration and anger.

Increase student's multicultural exposure.

Improve teamwork and cooperation oncamp us.

Improve the self-esteem of students.

Develop leadership skills in non-tradi-tional leaders.

Increase mutual respect.

Enhance the success of dropout preven-tion programs.

The evidence shows that campuses with well-

used conflict resolution programs have decreasedincidents of fighting, see a drop in suspension ratesof 30%-70%, and are able to free time for teachersto actually teach. Principals, who may spend up to80% of their time on discipline and compliance,have more time to be administrators. Conflictresolution is also cost effective.

When asked why they would choose to usethe conflict resolution process in their school,students have said: "It's better than ending up atthe principal's office", "I've seen it work", "I geta chance to be heard", "It is easier to talk to a peerthan an adult", and "Other students, not adults,understand the feelings that create problems be-tween students."

Former disputants have become successfulmediators as the process developed their self-confidence and respect for fellow students. Theprocess of peer conflict resolution builds toler-ance, respect, cooperation and communication inall those involved.

Student conflicts have also become learningopportunities. Conflict resolution teaches studentsto be peacemakers through negotiation and media-tion. Students learn s,:tlf-regulation and to act in ahumanitarian manner in the absence of externalmonitors. These programs give students an oppor-tunity to develop and use critical thinking skills.The students make decisions about how to behaveand then follow through on those decisions.

The overwhelming message that our culturegives about resolving conflict is to run away/avoidit or resolve it violently. As conflict resolutionprograms become an integral part of tile schoolcurriculum, we begin to establish a society trainedand experienced in solving conflict with a non-confrontational, non-violent, consensus-buildingapproach. This society will, in turn, be more ableto resolve its conflicts with other societies in asimilar manner, as we all learn that we must coop-

erate to survive.

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Section 2

-CONFLICT- RESOLUTION IN THE - SCHOOLS ' sec-I-FON

OVERVIEW OF CONFLICTRESOLUTION PROGRAMS

Generally, there are three types of schoolprograms dealing with conflict resolution. The "inclass" program builds concepts of conflict resolu-tion into the discussions and activities of the class-

room. The "law related education" program isusually a special class offering models of thejudicial system and concepts of fairness and dueprocess. The third, the "mediation model" pro-gram, involves teacher, student, teacher/student oradult/youth panels as conflict managers for theentire school. This manual focuses on the first and

third models.

Before discussing the details of establishinga conflict resolution program, however, weshould begin with some basic definitions andexplanations.

DEFINITION OF CONFLICT

Conflict is the coming together or clashing oftwo or more incompatible elements, such as be-liefs, goals or needs. Conflict among individuals orgroups can happen whenever there are real orperceived differences and when the actions of one

party have consequences for others.

DEFINITION OF MEDIATION

Mediation is the use of an intermediaryagent to effect an agreement between two ormore conflicting parties. The goal of mediationis resolution.

ARBITRATION

Arbitration is the use of a disinterested thirdparty to make a final binding judgment in a dispute.

CAUSES OF CONFLICT

Conflict occurs when parties have differentand incompatible goals, when parties have differ-ent information or beliefs about a mutual goal,when one party's identity is threatened by the otherparty andkr when there is struggle over th e. alloca-

tion of scarce resources desired by all parties.

CONFLICT RESOLUTIONPROGRAMS

Conflicct resolution, dispute resolution, peermediation and conflict management are terms usedinterchangeably in referring to school programsfor peacefully resolving student conflicts.

Conflict resolution programs concentrate ongetting the parties involved in a conflict together todiscuss the tension-causing issues that are of con-cern to them. Once identified, the problems canusually be solved by mutual cooperation betweenthe parties or by the participation of some thirdparty such as the school administration, teachers,police or community organizations. Problem solv-ing in schools can take various forms:

1. Direct negotiation between students.

2. Mediation by a classmate.

3. Mediation by a teacher.

4. Arbitration by a teacher.

5. Mediation by a principal.

6. Arbitration by a principal.

Similar interests and concerns are discov-ered through constructive cornminication betweendisputants. Students learn essential life skills thatwill help them solve problems their entire lives.

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They become people who discover the impor-tance of getting along and cf respecting otherpeople. They learn self-regulation and how to bea peacemaker.

A GROWING MOVEMENT

Teachers, along with religious and peace ac-tivists, began to understand the importance ofteaching conflict resolution in the 1960's and1970's. Educators developed conflict resolutionprograms and curricula as neighborhood justicecenters started offering mediation services for in-terpersonal and community disputes. Since the1970's, schools across the nation have been work-ing to improve the school climate by buildingconflict resolution skills among members of theschool community.

Today there are several school districts whichhave successful mediation programs in place inevery school in their district. These programs arealternatives to the more traditional control meth-ods of "time out/quiet rooms," scolding, suspen-sion, expulsion and corporal punishment.

Conflict resolution programs have been suc-cessful at every grade level, kindergarten through12th. The program format may vary at differentgrade levels, but the outcome remains the same:reduced tensions, fewer suspensions, less fighting

and increased cooperation, respect, understandingand communication.

Essential to establishing a conflict resolutionprogram is broad based and committed support.School administrators, teachers, students and par-ents must be involved from the beginning. Neces-sary groundwork should establish a school spirit ofaffirmation. a spirit of sharing and a supportivecommunity. Key school personnel must be identi-

fled and available to insure the success of theprogram.

It has been shown that identified school per-sonnel without enough time, without easy assess tostudents or lacking enthusiasm can almost guaran-tee a very slow acceptance and/or failure of amediation program. A local high 2,chool initiated amediation program in March, 1992. The adminis-tration was highly supportive and the trained adultswere very visible and easy to contact. This schoolreported over 30 successful mediations from Marchto June, 1992. Another local high school, havingestablished little administrative support and hav-ing very limited access to trained adults, reporteda limited use of the mediation process, with sevensuccessful mediations taking place between Janu-ary and June, 1992.

Students selected to become mediators mustrepresent the wide range of diversity on campus.Selection must be inclusive and not depend onalready identified class leaders. "Troublemakers"and gang leaders have been found to be very adept

at peer mediation.

A successful school mediation program mustbecome part of the school cuhure, discipline planand curriculum. It must also be carefully moni-tored to be sure that conflicts are resolved, notjust managed. If properly conducted, it can be-come an accepted and successful process forhandling disputes.

SETTING UP A CONFLICTRESOLUTION PROGRAM

Conflict resolution programs can take manyforms. No two need be exactly alike. Certainelements, however, are essential for a workableprogram. The following outline reviews essential

CONFLICT..- RESOLUTION IN THE 'SCHOOLS SECTION

elements and suggests guidelines for a basicprogram.

Purpose: Each school should discuss reasonsfor and expectations of a conflict resolution pro-gram. The purpose and the process should be wellunderstood by the entire school community. Thepurposes of the program could include:

Cutting down violence and potentialviolence by getting people to talk outinstead of acting out their problems.

Providing peaceful solutions to conflictsin the school community.

Allowing students to handle studentsproblems, thus allowing teachers moretime to teach.

Teaching non-violent methods to handleconflict.

Learning the importance of peace in ourworld community.

Scope: A distinction should be made betweenwhat can be peer mediated and what needs to behandled by the teachers and/or administrators.Mediation is not a substitute for discipline. It doesnot replace the authority of school administrators.Suicide threats and other life-threatening situa-tions must be referred to administrators. Clearguidelines need to be established as to whichincidents should be referred to adults. Also impor-tant are school policies that are clear, consistentand well understood as to what behavior, words oractions are acceptable on the school campus.

Training: Ideally, supportive teachers, ad-ministrators and other school staff should re-ceive a minimum of fifteen hours of training

from an agency that provides mediation train-ing. One or more of the staff should be desig-nated as coordinator.

These school personnel then determine theselection method for students to be trained asmediators: student selection, teacher selection or acombination of both. Successful programs takecare to include students from all sections of theschool community. It is generally agreed that stu-dents should be at least third grade level to beu-ained as mediators. However, these mediatorscan and have successfully resolved conflicts withstudents as young as kindergarten.

The selected students K-6 receive an averageof six hours of training and students 7-12 receiveabout fifteen hours training, either from staff or anoutside agency.

Peer mediators are trained to help other stu-dents express feelings, explore options and reachdecisions. They learn listening skills, how to beneutral and how to distinguish between advice-giving and question-asking.

Procedures: Procedures should be establishedto determine where conflict resolution will takeplace, who should be present during the mediation,ground rules for order, and methods for closure.

At the elementary school level, mediatorsmay roam the playground during recess and maybe identified by special T-shirts or arm bands.Often these students will mediate a dispute onthe spot.

At the middle and high school level, media-tion usually takes place in a designated room. Astudent who has a complaint against another fillsout a referral form. The other party is promptly

6 HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER '. SAN RAFAEL CA

contacted and a time is set to bring the two to-gether. Most often, two conflict mediators arepresent at the session.

Role playing and, at the younger grade levels,

puppets, are often part of procedures used to workout differences.

Regardless of how procedural details areworked out, as a general rule both sides of a disputen-lust agree to mediate before mediation can takeplace.

All trained mediators, students and adults,should meet on a regular basis, preferably once amonth, to evaluate the program and discuss cohe-sion and logistics.

Mediation Steps: Steps in group problemsolving, in general, include identifying the prob-lem, explaining the problem, processing the prob-lem into possible solutions, evaluating and testingvarious solutions, deciding on mutually acceptedsolutions, implementing steps to the solution andevaluating the final solution.

In practice, these steps could be organizedinto the following stages for an actual mediationsession:

Stage I: Mediator makes introductionsand sets the tone and ground rules.

Stage II: Each party talks to the mediatorand relates their perspective.

Stage III: The parties talk to each other.

Stage IV: All work together to exploreoptions and work out solutions.

Role of Mediator: The mediator is an activelistener. He/she encourages expression of thoughts

and feelings by encouraging ("tell me more"),restating ("you said . . ."), reflecting ("you seem. . .), clarifying ("I wonder . . .), etc. Themediator also takes care to reframe or translatestatements that attack/blame into messages of posi-

tive needs and desires.A mediator:

Does not act as a judge.

Does not take sides.

Does not give advice.

Establishes his/her position, but doesnot impose.

Establishes equity (impartiality andfairness).

Listens and articulates feelings ofanother.

Facilitates communication.

Understands cultural differences in ap-proaches to discussion and problemsolving.

Serves as a peacemaker.

Sets up the ground rules: each personwill be heard, no one will be inter-rupted, no name calling and sessionswill remain confidential, unless some-thing life-threatening is disclosed.

Asks questions: What happened? Howdo you feel about it? What would youlike to see happen now?

Gets people to identify and talk outproblems, not act out problems.

Allows each, side an equal chance tostate its case.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN. THE SCHOOLS 'SECTION

Suggests solutions.

Questions whether the final solutions arepractical.

Questions whether the solution willreally resolve the conflict.

Makes sure the agreement is understoodby everyone.

Determines if follow-up meetings arenecessary.

Provides for follow-up/support meetings.

Agreement: At the elementary level, peermediation is usually immediate and agreement isverbal. If the conflict continues, a time and placewith an adult/student mediation team may be setup. As a last resort the dispute is referred to theteacher or principal.

At the middle and high school level, an agree-ment is written in such a way that neither partyloses face. It is signed by everyone involved in themediation. The peer mediator always does somefollow- up to see if the agreement is working. If itis not, another session will be suggested to workout the problems.

Multicultural Aspects of Conflict Resolu-tion: it is essential for multicultural awareness tobe part of the training process for both adult andstudent mediators for three important reasons:

1. Bigotry is a common cause of conflict.

2. The mediation process is not value free.

It is a reality that mediators cannotoperate free of race, gender or classidentification and experience.

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3. It must be recognized at the most basiclevel that there are cultural differencesregarding the value of conflict, ap-proaches to resolution and styles ofcommunication.

Mediators must be able to accept and appre-ciate the diverse makeup of the population of theUnited States. They must be aware of differingcultural backgrounds and how these affect themediation process. Differing standards of accept-able behavior and conflicts among various cul-tural/ethnic groups must also be taken into consid-eration.

Basic intercultural conflict resolution skillswould include listening from a multicultural per-spective, being aware of non-verbal clues (such aseye contact, body distance, volume of voice, physi-

cal contact and hand/body gestures), and beingaware of communication styles (formality, infor-mality, poli.teness, self-disclosure, indirect/directcommunication, expression of emotions).

As a trainer or mediator, ask yourself:

1. Is the mediation process being used to foice

conformance to the dominant culture?

2. Is the mediation process requiring thenon-dominant group to assimilate?

3. Does the mediation process meet or failthe needs and values of the non-dominantgroups?

3. Is the mediation process perpetuatingstereotypes, bias or oppression?

4. Is the mediation process being fair to allgroups involved?

HUMAN HTS RESOURCE" CENTER 'SAN 'RA

5. Is the mediation process paying atten-tion to differing cultural values, needsand attitudes?

Justice, Not Control: Conflict resolution hasthe capacity to change norms and values and evento change the assumptions, determined by culturalelements, which underlie the original conflict.Therefore care must be taken to actually resolve,not just manage, conflicts. Conflict resolution pro-grams are meant to be a system of social justicerather than a system of social control.

COMPARISONS, MODELS,CURRICULUM AND RESOURCES

In the next section we take a look at traditional

techniques for disciplining students and how thesetechniques compare and contrast with conflictreoludon. This will be followed by articles de-scribing particular conflict resolution experiences,sections detailing model programs, a section on thespecial problems of dealing with gangs and foursections on classroom activities and curriculum.The last section of the manual is a list of resourcesfor creating and maintaining a conflict resolutionprogram.

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Section 3

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN THE SCH-OOLS SECTION

SCHOOL DISCIPLINE, CORPORALPUNISHMENT AND ALTERNATIVESTRATEGIES

The following excerpt is from a chapter on"School Climate" in "The Good Common School:Creating a Vision that Works for All Children," abook published by the National Coalition of Advo-cates for Students (NCAS). References to researchstudies have been omitted.

SCHOOL DISCIPLINE

Children cannot fully benefit from schoolunless they attend regularly. Despite this, manyschools still resort to ineffective and inequitabledisciplinary policies. According to federal govern-ment surveys (NCAS, 1988), school suspensionand corporal punishment continue to be the mostwidely practiced forms of school discipline.

In theory, school discipline systems have astheir goal development of a classroom environ-ment that supports learning for all children. Thereality in public schools, however, can subvertthat goal. When schools focus on eliminatingbehavioral symptoms rather than determining theunderlying causes, they may actively contributeto the very behavior they are seeking to control.This cycle can result in lower student motivationand academic achievement, worsened behavioron the part of the child or dropping out of schoolaltogether. . . .

SCHOOL REJECTION POLICIES

... Excessive and/or Destructive Punish-ment: Some school policies escalate punishmentbeyond the scale of the infractions, such as disci-pline programs that assign points for small infrac-tions like chewing gum, then allow the points toadd up over time until they result in a full suspen-

sion. The outcome for the child is serious punish-ment when no single serious infraction has beencommitted.

Equally destructive are policies that lower astudent's grades for a series of infractions such astardiness or cutting classes. Rather than hear themessage of growing disengagement that poor at-tendance communicates, such misguided steps re-inforce the child's alicnation from school by de-valuing academic achievement.

Suspension from school is one of the mostwidely practiced forms of discipline. According tothe U.S. Department of Education (NCAS, 1988),during the 1985-1986 school year, almost twomillion students were suspended by U.S. publicschools approximately 5% of the total schoolpopulation. During the same school year, suspen-sion rates among the nation's 100 largest schoolsystems ranged from 7% of enrolled students to an

incredible 50%. . . .

Use of Corporal Punishment: Despite thefact that corporal punishment is now illegal inseventeen states, it remains widely used in manyschools-- especially elementary schools. As notedby researcher Gordon Bauer and his colleagues(1990) and the National School Safety Center(NSSC, 1989), while corporal punishment mayeffectively interrupt disruptive behavior in theshort run, it can harm the student by reinforcing the

very behavior it seeks to alter. Students who suffercorporal punishment are likely to:

experience anger, anxiety and fear,none of which support learnim

learn violent behavior from thepunishment;

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experience rejection from peers;

aim aggressive or destructive behaviot atstaff, students or school property in imita-tion of their punishment;

withdraw from school activities or avoidschool entirely, leading to absenteeism,tardiness, truancy and dropping out ofschool.

CENTER -SAN AE CA

Despite these consequences, over one millionchildren received corporal punishment in school atleast once during the 1985 to 1986 school year(NCAS, 1988). . . .

Perhaps the strongest rebuttal to the use ofcorporal punishment is offered by research thatshows it simply does not work. According to Bauer

and others:

Physical punishment. is associated withless development of conscience and moral

development.

Praise and warmth are more effective.

Children have less respect for teachersand principals who resort to physicalpunishment.

Schools where corporal punishment hasbeen abolished do not experience an in-crease in behavioral problems. . . .

INEQUITABLE USE OF DISCIPLINE

One aspect of school discipline is beyonddispute. S ome students are more likely to be tar-gets of punishment than others particularlythose who are poor or children of color.

[The National School Safety Center] ... finds

that boys are paddled more often than girls, thatprimary students receive more spankings than highschool students, and that special education stu-dents are the most likely candidates to receivecorporal punishment.

African American Students: According tothe U.S. Department of Education (NCAS, 1988),African American students, who represent 16% ofthe U.S. public school population, received 31% ofcorporal punishment in schools during the 1985 to1986 school year twice the rate that would beexpected from their level of enrollment. The sameinequity holds true for suspensions. During thatsame school year, African Americans were sus-pended at more than twice the rate of their whitepeers. . . .

Lack of Accountability: . . . One majorsource of this inequity are school codes that lackclear language about specific behavior and spe-cific punishment. In the absence of explicitly writ-ten codes, administrators and teachers have toomuch latitude to subjectively define and enforcedisciplinary policies. School discipline systemsare also likely to have a disproportionate impact onminority students when school codes and rules aredeveloped without input from a broad range ofparents and others representing all segments of thecommunity. . . .

LACK OF CLASSROOMMANAGEMENT SKILLS

... Understanding Cultural Differences:NCAS has found . . . that cultural differences canalso present problematic mismatches betweenteachers and students that can escalate into misun-derstanding and conflict, particularly i. the case ofrecently immigrated children. For example, call-ing someone with hand gestures is considered very

CONFLICT RESOLUTION' FW- THE- SCHOOLS -SECT N

rude by Cambodians, who employ such gestures tochallenge another person to a fight. In many cul-tures, looking someone directly in the eyes isconsidered an act of defiance; proper deference isdisplayed by averting the eyes downward, a cus-tom that many U.S.-born teachers would consider

evasive. . . .

Blaming the Student: When a teacher reliestoo heavily on referring students to the office fordisciplinary reasons, too many school administra-tors fail to determine if the teacher's training hasprepared her to cope effectively with children wholearn or behave differently. Rather than investigat-ing the situation, administrators tend automati-cally to assume that the "problem" must be with the

student rather than with the teacher. . . .

CRIMES AND VIOLENCE INPUBLIC SCHOOLS

. . . Not surprisingly, violence spills intoschools in many communities. Almost 465,000violent crimes occurred in or around schools dur-

ing 1987. . . .

Children in large urban centers suffer morefrom student violence. In 1987, New York re-ported 1,606 assaults in its schools, Chicago re-ported 698 violent incidents, Los Angeles, 493 and

Boston, 410. . . . While violent incidents tend tohappen more often in junior and high schools,elementary schools do not escape. . . .

It is estimated that on any given day more than

100,000 students carry guns to school. . . .

Between July, 1988 and June, 1989, Califor-nia schools confiscated 10,569 weapons. Kniveswere the most common. . . .

Schools have an obligation to provide allstudents with a safe and orderly environment thatfacilitates learning. But as schools adopt morelaw-and-order tactics to ensure safety, such asmetal-detectors, photo ID badges and uniformedpolice stationed in the corridors, the ambiencebecomes more like that of prison than an openplace that invites inquiry and critical thinking. . .

. As one architect who designed a high-securityschool notes, "If you start making a prison envi-ronment with eight- to ten-foot-high fences, itcertainly changes the character of the school andquality of the experience that students have whileat the school". . .

DISCIPLINE IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

Most schools still seek to impose safety andorder through stringent disciplinary measures,such as suspension from school and corporalpunishment. These approaches are based on thepremise that punishment and temporary exclu-sion will motivate students to change their dis-ruptive behavior. . . .

Studies of suspension and corporal punish-ment show that both are often used for trivial andambiguous offenses and that they are used repeat-

edly on the same students . . . .

Impact on Students: . . . Students who re-ceive suspension or corporal punishment are morelikely to receive failing grades, be retained in-grade, and have pool attitudes toward school.Ultimately, they are more likely to drop out ofschool prior to graduation . . . . Students who drop

out are twice as likely to have been suspended theprevious year.. . . .

12 HUMAN "RIGHTS RESOURCE` CENTER SAN RAFAEL CA

ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES

Schools have instituted a variety of alterna-tive approaches to discipline in efforts to preventdisruptive behavior from occurring. These include:conflict mediation; dispute resolution curricula;violence prevention and in-school suspension.

In conflict mediation programs, students areformally trained as mediators to help peers resolvedisputes with administrators, teachers, parents orother students. Mediation can reduce violence,vandalism, truancy and suspension. Conflict me-diation programs enhance communication amongmembers of the school community, improve theschool climate and prrvide an avenue to addresscommon concerns . . . .

Although mediation programs are usuallyimplemented in high schools, they have been suc-cessfully employed with children as young as eight

. . . . Principals whose schools housed such pro-grams reported a reduction in disruption, allowingteachers to spend more time on instruction insteadof classroom management. In addition, conflictmanagers used their abilities outside of mediationsessions, teaching their skills to parents, siblingsand peers.

Researchers have identified specific elementsassociated with the successful implementation ofan in-school conflict mediation program: supportand commitment from the principal; a core groupof teachers interested in and knowledgeable aboutmediation; training as an integral and ongoingaspect of the program; a strong director who hastime to devote to working with mediators, super-vising hearings, and following up on dispute agree-

ments; and collaboration with a mediation organi-zation in the community . . . .

Dispute resolution courses usually combinereading and discussion with experiential exer-

cises, specific activities around interpersonal com-munication and assertiveness, one-to-one conflictmediation skills and conflict mediation skills forthird parties . . . .

Violence prevention curricula focus more ex-

clusively on alerting students through hard-hittingfacts to their risk of being either a victim orperpetrator of an act of violence. These curriculaencourage students to express their views on angerand to evaluate the long- and short-term conse-quences of fighting. They also provide more posi-tive ways of dealing with arguments and anger,while offering students the opportunity to practiceconflict resolution through role playing and otheractivities . . . .

Violence prevention and dispute resolutioncurricula have demonstrated success in changingstudents' attitudes toward conflict and fighting.Anecdotal evidence suggests they are also helpfulin changing student behavior .. In addition, thesecourses teach skills in active listening, oral lan-guage, problem solving and critical thinking.

Under in-school suspension programs, stu-dents continue to be excluded from the classroomfor disciplinary violations. Unlike traditional sus-pension programs, students are not released fromschool. Instead, they are assigned to an alternativeprogram within the school during the period oftheir suspension. In-school suspension programsare not all equally effective. Successful programsfeature: academic components to continue studentlearning outside of the classroom; therapeutic com-

ponents aimed at behavior modifications; and wide-

spread staff support Such programs can act to

reduce both major and minor disruptive behavior. .

. . . Unfortunately, few in-school suspension pro-grams now in use meet these criteria . . . .

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Section 4

CONIFALICT RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS SECTION 4

"WE CAN WORK IT OUT"This article by Sharon K. Williams, subtitled

"Schools Are Turning to Conflict Resolution toHelp Stop the Violence" , appeared in TeacherMagazine in October, 1991.

In Milwaukee, a 12-year-old fires a semiauto-matic pistol on a school playground because hesays a fellow classmate slapped him in the face.

In Washington, D.C., a 15-year-old is killedby his best friend in an argument over a girl.

In Kresseville, Pennsylvania, a nine-year-oldboy shoots and kills a seven-year-old playmateafter she tells him she is better than he is atNintendo.

While resolving students' conflicts has al-ways been part of a teacher's job, it has never beenmore important. School violence is on the rise, andmore and more disputes that once ended in play-ground shouting matches are now ending in shoot-ing matches. In response, thousands of teachers areattempting to prevent or mediate disputes through"conflict resolution" programs. The goal of suchprograms is to help students control their angerbefore anyone raises a fist or reaches for a weapon.

Conflict resolution, which has its origins incollective bargaining and the peace movement ofthe 1960's, is a method of resolving disputes non-violently that uses a set of formal procedures toimprove communication and to cool tempers. Con-flict resolution programs began to spread to schools

in the early 1980's, thanks to the efforts of groupssuch as the Community Board Program in SanFrancisco and Children's Creative Response toConflict in Nyack, N.Y.

The school programs tend to fall into threegeneral categories: those that train teachers, those

that train students and those that use a specialconflictresolution curriculum in classrooms. Someschools use a mixture of all three.

Teachers who are trained in conflict resolu-tion techniques, usually through inservice pro-grams or workshops, learn how to encourage angrystudents to state their complaints in ways that leaveopen the possibility of a peaceful settlement. Forexample, teachers learn to encourage students touse "I" statements, such as "I feel upset when youcall me names," instead of hurling insults back andforth. They also engage in role-playing exercisesto learn good listening skills.

Other programs encourage students who

learn conflict resolution techniques from theirteachers or from specially trained instructors to

do the mediating. When conflicts occur, the stu-dent mediators step in first. Young mediators arenow dealing with everything from conflicts on theplayground in elementary grades to interracialincidents and even gang fights in middle and highschools.

A third type of program, most commonlyused in the upper grades, teaches conflict resolu-tion as a separate subject or integrates it withanother subject.

The Ann Arbor, Mich., public school systemoperates one of the most extensive programs in thecountry. Introduced three years ago, it now reachesall of the city's 14,230 K-12 students and itsroughly 900 teachers. At the outset, the districtprovided all teachers with a six-to eight-hourinservice training session that introduced them tomediation techniques and showed them how toincorporate a conflict management curriculum intotheir classes. More than 60 of the teachers thenwent on to participate in an additional 12-hourworkshop, where they learned how to train stu-

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14 HUMAN -RIGHIFS. RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL .CA

dents to be mediators. There are now more than125 students mediators in the elementary gradesand more than 30 in the high schools. Conflictresolution has also become part of the curriculumfor students at all grade levels.

So far, the Ann Arbor program appears suc-cessful. Glenna Avery, principal of Logan El-ementary Schlol and district coordinator for theprogram, recalls how in the year before the pro-gram was instituted, one principal had to dealwith about 320 conflicts, ranging from disputes inthe lunchroom to paper fights on the bus ridehome. In the first semester after the school startedusing student mediation, the number dropped to27. In general, Avery says, the climate in theschools changed: "students are concerned aboutone another."

Conflict resolution seems to be working else-where, too. Richard Cohen, director of SchoolMediation Associates in Belmont, Massachusetts,which has implemented more than 100 programsin schools or school systems since 1984, says, "Onaverage, 85% of potentially violent incidents in-

volving mediation end in a peaceful resolution."

One of the most dramatic successes occurredat Washington Middle School in Albuquerque,N.M. In the fall of 1988, the school adminimationdecided to ty using conflict resolution to end thegang-related violence that was plaguing the school.With the help of two local dispute-resolution orga-nizations, the school persuaded the leaders of thethree major gangs to agree to meet for two hourstwice a week for one month. The gang leaders alsoagreed to a set of rules for the mediation sessions,including no name calling, no weapons or acts ofintimidation and complete confidentiality. Theytalked about and negotiated over everything fromfear for the safety of their families to unfair treat-

ment by the school administration.

After the month's sessions, all the gang lead-ers and the school's principal signed an agreementstating that threats and name calling would stopand that gang members would try to settle futuredisputes peacefully. The fighting among the rivalgangs soon ended and within a month it wasn'tuncommon to see the former enemies playingsoccer or giving each other "high fives." The gangscontinued to hold mediation sessions, and theschool has become a model for other local schoolsconfronting gang activities. "Mediation is not apanacea," says Flora Sanchez, a former counselorat the school. "However, gang members learnedthat conflicts can be resolved without violence."

Despite such successes, most schools stilldon't have mediation programs. Although teach-ers don' t have the authority to establish a schoolwideprogram, they can make a difference as individu-als, according to Cohen of School Mediation Asso-ciates. He recommends that teachers enroll in aworkshop on their own and begin using or teachingmediation techniques. If they are successful, otherteachers are likely to follow, and eventually theadministration will come around, Cohen says.

The National Association for Mediation inEducation based at the University of Massachu-setts at Amherst can provide teachers with a direc-tory of workshops, training programs for studentmediators, annual conferences, curricula, and otherpublications. NAME, a clearingh Ise on conflictresolution, lists more than 600 members world-wide, 90% of whom are educators. The Commu-nity Board Program and School Mediation Asso-ciation can also provide training information onschools that are curzently operating mediation pro-grams to help students "talk it out" instead of"taking it out" on each other.

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Section 5

:CONFLICT RESOLUTCON: IN THE SCHOOCS SECTION

PEER PRESSURE IS USED TOMEDIATE DISPUTES AT SCHOOL

This article by Georgia Dullea appeared inthe New York Times on Februwy 9, 1987.

The trouble began at William Howard TaftHigh School in the Bronx when a sophomore boythrew a piece of chalk at a sophomore girl. Ethnicslurs were exchanged, along with threats, and bylunch time the girl was on the telephone to fellowgang members. In the office of Project Smart, thecoordinator, Dorothea Grant, recalls glancing outand seeing "a big gang of kids outside the school.

"There were rumors of weapons," she said."Guns."

If this had happened two years ago, the prin-cipal, Jimmie Warren, said he would have put outan "A.P.B.," or all-points bulletin, to the school'ssecurity guards. Instead, Mr. Warren called in theantagonists and offered them a choice: submit theirdispute to mediation, or be suspended. After anhour of negotiations with a 16-year-old classmate

one of the school's 32 peer mediators theysigned a contract to bury the hatchet and call offtheir gangs.

With cadres of teen-agers trained to mediateconflicts, Taft and five other New York City highschools are outposts of Project Smart, an acronymfor School Mediators' Alternative ResolutionTeam. Students who fight have the same choice asthose in the chalk dispute. "Mediation," Mr. War-ren said, "has cut our suspension rate in half."

The mediation project is part of a larger na-tional phenomenon known as the peer movement.While parents and teachers have always knownthat adolescents speak more freely to peers than toadults, it is only recently that schools have begunto tap the positive force of peer pressure.

Trained to help other students express feel-ings, explore options and reach decisions, peercounselors deal not only with conflicts, but withsuch serious problems as teen-age suicide, preg-nancy, drug and alcohol abuse, divorce in thefamily, anxiety about tests and loneliness.

"The movement is stirring interest in manyschools," said Morton Deutsch, a social psycholo-gist at Teacher's College of Columbia Universityand director of its new Center for Cooperation andConflict in Schools. The center, which trains teach-ers, works with schools on Long Island and inWestchester and New Jersey, among others.

Robert Bowman, editor of the Peer FacilitatorQuarterly, estimated that 20,000 peer counselingprograms exist in elementary schools and highschools around the country. Dr. Bowman, an edu-cational psychology professor at the University ofSouth Carolina, said he had consulted with schoolsin 30 states and helped form peer counseling net-works in 10 states.

"Kids today are leading fast-paced lives, grow-

ing up in families that are not so strong," he said."Research shows kids watch an average of 30hours of TV a week. But the average time of two-way conversations kids getting listened to is15 minutes a week. The suicide rate, I'm con-vinced, is partly because kids aren't being listenedto anymore by families or by each other."

PEER PROJECTS VARY IN FORM

Peer projects take many forms. Examples arethese:

In Tyonek, Alaska, a tiny village whereeight of 30 teenagers have taken theirlives in recent years, peer counselors workwith children as young as 8 to combatsuicide and drug abuse.

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16 HUMAN RIGHTS' RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFA.EL CA

In Peoria, Illinoi t. mental health workershave trained teen-agers to operate a crisistelephone line for other teen-agers whocall in anonymously.

In San Francisco, small-conflict manag-ers in grades four through six are creditedwith breaking up scuffles and lunch-money extortion rings.

"We stress that they're not judges, not cop s

just friends who listen," said Judy Drummond,who teaches bilingual classes and supervises theprogram at Paul Revere Elementary School in San

Francisco.

Small-conflict managers learn their skills from

the Community Board of San Francisco Neighbor-hood Dispute Resolution, which has trained teach-ers in 18 states.

"The first year," Ms. Drummond recalled,"violent crimes were virtually eliminated. Thisused to be known as a rough school."

Courses led by peer counselors are part of thecurriculum in some schools, an optional activity inothers. Counselors wear distinctive T-shirts orarmbands in some schools; others consider suchsymbols elitist. In some schools counselors areelected solely by peers, in others by panels of peers

and faculty.

KEEPING CONFIDENCES

The most effective programs draw counse-lors from every clique in the school, not just the Astudents. "You need nerds, jocks, preppies, punks,"a freshman in Florida said. "You need your leather

jackets, too."

Except for suicide threats or other life-or-death situations, peer counselors generally must

promise not to divulge confidences. Troubled stu-dents are urged to see the school psychologist, butthe watchword is best expressed by a sign in a LosAngeles high school counseling room: "What youhear here, what you say here, when you leave here,stays here."

Like many other administrators, MichaelBiasucci, vice principal of the Cranford (N.J.)High School, acknowledged that "it's risky leav-ing 12 teens alone in a room," but added, "To gettrue peer communication you can't have us oldfuddy-duddies around."

The peer program in his school, part of thefreshman health curriculum, consists of 30 classesrun by 48 peer leaders who are juniors and seniors.In Cranford, as elsewhere, advisors keep an eye onthe program by dropping into the classes unan-nounced and by meeting with the leaders.

Despite intensive training in cornmunica-tion skills as well as curriculum topics, Mr Biasuccisaid peer leaders are "not experts" and are re-quired to alert program advisors in "life-threaten-ing situations."

He said this rule had enabled psychologistsand others to intervene in "a couple of potentialsuicides," and advanced pregnancies in which girlswere Teceiving no medical care because "no oneknew about it."

Rather than raise these "heavy" issues in peerclass, freshman tend to drop the sort of hints thatsuch leaders as Heidi Kiebler, a 17-year-old seniorat Cranford High, are quick to pick up. "So you talk

to them after class," she said, "and you'd be sur-prised how receptive even the coolest kid can be to

a little caring."

"You can't act surprised or give advice,"added Diane Galbraith, also a Cranford senior,

'CONFLIOT RESOLUTION IN THE scHaoLs.

"All you can do is listen, help them to pinpoint theoptions and make their own decisions."

In schools where peer counselors and media-tors are carefully trained and supervised, reportsare positive. "There's some evidence they helpreduce violence and discipline problems and arewell accepted by other kids," said Dr. Deutsch ofTeachers College. "But there hasn't been muchsystematic research, which is one thing we hope to

do in the city schools as we get funding."

MEDIATORS ARE HELPED,T00

Besides Taft High School, other New YorkCity schools in Project Smart are Far Rockawayand William C. Bryant High Schools and HoraceGreeley Junior High in Queens and EasternDistrict and Prospect Heights High Schools inBrooklyn.

The projects are run by the nonprofit VictimsServices Agency and financed in most cases bymoney from the Board of Education's school drop-out prevention program.

One sign of the mediation projects' strength,administrators say, is that some students who gothrough the process later ask to be mediators.

Students who start out as mediators also ben-efit. Stephen Williams, who enrolled in a truancy-prevention class at Taft when he became a media-tor, credits Project Smart with "giving me a reasonto come to school and a sense of importance."

His most recent case was a boyfriend-girl-friend tiff that escalated into a lunchroom foodfight. He has also mediated conflicts betweenteachers and students and between parents andchildren, including a "really emotional" mother-daughter curfew dispute.

SECTION

"After the parties reached an agreement," the17-year-old mediator recalled, "I told the daughtershe was lucky to have a mother that cares, because'some people don't.' When you wrap up a case youwant to offer some insight also."

Carolyn Pogson, the mediator in the chalkcase, said she was once too shy to answer questionsin class. But the tiny, soft-spoken sophomore ap-peared poised as she sat at a conference table withthe sophomores in the chalk fight on either side,glaring.

'NO NAME CALUNG'

Ticking off the ground rules, the 16-year-oldmediator began, "No name-calling, no foul lan-guage, only one person may talk at a time."

It was not, she noted later, her toughest case;"Sometimes they come in all cut and bleeding, andyou have to calm them down."

The settlement, an agreement written in Span-ish and English, was typed by the mediator andsigned by both parties. In it, the boy and girlpromised to drop their dispute, call off their gangsand keep details of the session a secret

So ended the chalk case. "But if either sidebreaks the agreement," Carolyn said a bit wearily,"it may have to be remediated."

17

pACT,A MODEL

PROGRAMMARIN COUNTY

MEDIATION SERVICES

Section 6

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS . SECTION

PROJECT PACT: PEERSADDRESSING CONFLICTTOGETHER

The materials in this section It-ere developedby Marin County (California) Mediation Servicesand its Schools Mediation Coordinator, SusanRohde, for use in setting up conflict resolutionprograms in schools.

WHO ARE CONFLICT MANAGERS

Conflict managers are specially trained stu-dents who help other students get along witheach other.

WHAT DO CONFLICTMANAGERS DO?

When students are involved in a non-physicaldispute, they are asked if they would like conflictmanagers to help them solve their problem. If thedisputants so choose, the conflict managers helpthem by using a problem-solving process to clarifythe nature of the dispute and to reach a solutionsatisfactory to both disputants.

WHATWILL CONFLICT MANAGERSLEARN IN TRAINING?

1. Leadership.

2. Communication:

how to express feelings and needs;

how to listen well without takingsides.

3. Problem solving.

4. How to improve the school environment.

5. Responsibility for their own actions.

BENEFITS OF THE CONFLICTMANAGEMENT PROGRAM

1. Conflict managers gain confidence intheir ability to help themselves.

2. Conflict managers learn to get alongbetter at home and at school.

3. Some schools have reported improve-ment in conflict managers' grades.

4. Other students learn from conflict managers how to get along with each otherbetter.

5. Arguments decrease, so students spendmore time learning.

6. Students and teachers are able to worktogether in a more friendly, relaxed way.

THE CONFLICT MANAGERSPROGRAM

Conflict managers are trained student con-flict resolvers who help disputing students to iden-tify and express their concerns and come to theirown resolutions. The students in conflict often feela diminished sense of fear and hostility, and expe-rience a sense of responsibility resulting from thevoluntary participation in the resolution of theirproblems. Conflict managers gain confidence intheir leadership and communication abilities andprovide modes of effective communication andcooperation for fellow students. School staff spendless time on discipline and problem-solving, andthe overall school climate can improve. The con-flict manager program is an ongoing resourcewhich compliments other school rules and disci-plinary procedures as well as other types of educa-tional programs.

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20 HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL , CAIn elementary schools, trained conflict man-

agers work in pairs, mainly on the playground, tohelp resolve problems which might otherwise callfor adult intervention. They are on duty for recessand/or lunch periods and wear clothing identifyingthem as conflict managers.

At the middle and high school levels, stu-dents who are referred to the conflict managerprogram are scheduled on a case-by-case basis fora session with pairs of student conflict managers.Conflict managers deal with disputes which occurin class, at lunch, in the halls, or anywhere on theschool grounds. The problem may be handled byconflict managers immediately or at an appropri-ate future time.

At all school levels, bi-weekly or monthlymeetings with conflict managers are held in orderto build cohesion among conflict managers, rein-force and add to conflict resolution skills andprovide time for ongoing discussion of previousconflict manager sessions and program logistics.

In each school, program coordination involvesinitial planning of the program, coordinating andconducting training of new conflict managers,conducting bi-weekly or monthly meetings withconflict managers, scheduling mediation sessionsor conflict manager duty, securing meeting spacefor program activities, encouraging teacher andstudent participation, and serving as a liaison be-tween the program, faculty, and parents. The timecommitment for coordination is about two to fourhours per week once the program has started, andis best shared by two or more coordinators.

A core group of other faculty and staff oftenassist with conflict manager training and otherplanning tasks. Training these adults usually takesa minimum of eight hours for elementary andmiddle schools and 16-18 hours for high schools.

The student body is introduced to the conflictmanager program through an assembly or class-room presentations. After the introduction, stu-dents nominate conflict managers by classroom.The conflict mangers are selected from those nomi-nated, with consideration given to qualifications,interest, grade level, reflection of a cross-sectionof the student body, teacher recommendations andparent approval. After the conflict managers aretrained, a graduation assembly may be held, andthe program may begin immediately. At least threemonths usually pass from the initial coordinatortraining to the commencement of the conflict man-ager program.

For middle and high schools, general facultyparticipation is minimal; classroom teachers assisthi conducting classroom nominations of conflictmanagers and refer cases to the conflict managerprogram.

Faculty participation varies at the elemen-tary level, as there are two ways to implement theconflict manager program. One option requiresall third to sixth grade teachers to teach thecommunication and problem-solving skills build-ing activities in their classrooms. This exposes allstudents to conflict resolution and describes indetail the conflict manager program. After theactivities are presented (about two months forseventeen 25-minute classroom activities), con-flict managers are nominated and trained in twothree-hour sessions ....

The middle and high school conflict managertraining takes 15 hours and is designed to beconducted over two and a half full school days. Thenumber of conflict managers varies based on theschool size, but a minimum of 20 conflict manag-ers per school is recommended. Conflict managertraining at all school levels usually occurs onceper year.

.CONFLICT 'RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS SECTION

Elementary and secondary classroom cur-ricu)a, with topics in communication skills andinterpersonai conflict resolution, are available tosupplement the program. Additionally, numerousspecial applications of the conflict manager pro-gram are possible. The Marin County SchoolsMediation Program can help tailor a program to fityour particular needs, with its on-site trainings andconsultation. . . .

PACT TRAINING:TIME REQUIRED

High School

Training Preparation 20 hours

Faculty Training 16 hours

Student Training 15 hours

Follow-up Sessions:

Eight hours per month,first six months 48 hours

Four hours per month,seven-twelve months 24 hours

TOTAL 123 hours

Elementary Schools

Training Preparation 15 hours

Faculty Training 6 hours

Student Training 6 hours

Follow-up Sessions:

Eight hours per month,first six months 48 I lours

Four hours per month,seven-twelve months 24 hours

TOTAL 99 hours

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22 HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER SAN 13AFAEL , CA

The following model letter of agreement wasdeveloped by Marin County Mediation Services asa contract to be signed by Mediation Services andthe school using its services to set up a P A.C.T.program.

SCHOOL MEDIATION PROGRAMLETTER OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN

MARIN COUNTY MEDIATIONSERVICES AND (NAME OF SCHOOL)

To plan and implement Project P.A.C.T.,Peers Addressing Conflict Together, a school-based mediation program at (name of school),Marin County Mediation Services agrees to:

Work with [the school's] administration,staff, students and parents to plan studentoutreach and training. Planning will oc-cur during summer and fall.

Implement outreach to students at [theschool] to introduce the idea of school-based mediation [and] to solicit studentsfor the training through assemblies.

Implement training necessary for ProjectP.A.C.T A minimum of three to fiveinterested staff members (including theperson who will function as school co-ordinator) will receive 16-18 hours oftraining to familiarize them with thecurriculum for the student training. Fif-teen hours of training will be providedby Marin County Mediation Servicesstaff to student mediators, with facultyand/or staff members participating asassistant trainers.

Work with [the school] administrationand the staff person selected as school

coordinator, to implement ProjectP.A.C.T. Included in this will be details of

intake procedure, mediator assignment,follow-up, and record keeping procedures.

Work with trained staff to developongoing support and training for stu-dent mediators.

Be available to [the school] for ongoingfollow-up and support for no more thanfour two-hour sessions a month for thefirst six months following the trainingand two two-hour sessions per month forthe seventh through 12th month after the

training.

To implement a school-based mediationprogram at [the school], the administrationagrees to:

Review [its] discipline code and proce-dure to determine where mediation wouldprovide an effective alternative to current

options.

Work with Marin County MediationServices to establish faculty support from

the outset of the program.

Allow class and/or assembly time tointroduce mediation to the student body.

Release chosen students and staff fromclasses and other responsibilities to at-tend the mediator training and bi-monthlypost-training support meetings. Missedwork and classes will be made up in pre-

determined ways.

Make space available for training andfollow-up meetings.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN THE CHOOLS SECTION 6

Allow a staff person to assume the func-tion of school coordinator. This personshould be included in the group trained.

Refer cases in pre-determined categoriesto mediation.

(If applicable) release student mediatorsfrom study halls, lunch, and/or classeswhen necessary so that they can mediatedisputes.

Allow Marin County Mediation Servicesstaff to conduct surveys with the entireschool community, student mediators andstudents who participate in mediation toevaluate the effectiveness of the program.

Allow Marin County Mediation Servicesstaff access to statistics generated by theschool-based mediation programs so thatthe results can be disseminated to otherschools.

For (name of school) :

Signature Date

Title

For Marin County Mediation Services:

Signature Date

Title

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CONFLICTRESOLUTION

FORYOUTHCOMMUNITY BOARD

CENTER FORPOLICY

SAN FRANCISCO

. CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS SECTION 7

CONFLICT RESOLUTION FORYOUTH, A MODEL PROGRAM

The following materials were developed bythe Community Board Program of San Francisco,a well-recognized leader in the field of conflictresolution that has been working with communitygroups, high schools and elementary schools forover two decades. Included below are an excerptfrom the preface to the text "Conflict Resolutionfor the Elementary Classroom," ten points forsolvipg your own conflicts, a Conflict ManagersReport Form, a teacher questionnaire and ane ercise in asking unbiased questions during con-flict resolution sessions.

PREFACETO "CONFLICTRESOLUTION FORTHE ELEMENTARY

CLASSROOM"

This elementary school text on conflict resolu-

tion presents a radical idea: Conflict is positive andcan enhance our relationships with other people.We believe that conflict can help us to learn moreabout ourselves and others, to build better and more

lasting relationships, and to find new and betterways to respond to problems in our lives.

In a world where conflict is quickly equatedwith violence, it is important to distinguish be-tween the two in order to underscore the opportu-nities presented by conflict. When violenceemerges, the opportunities of conflict are lost.Because TV, movies, and popular works so oftenextol the virtues of violence, it is critical that wemake the effort to embrace the positive aspects ofconflict. This is particularly important for those ofus who are involved in teaching young peopleabout the world.

Through our work over the past twelve years,we at the Community Board Program have found

that the starting point in finding a peaceful resolu-tion to conflict is the active participation of thoseinvolved in the dispute. In order to resolve adispute, it is essential that the disputants commu-nicate directly to one another why the dispute isimportant, what it means to them, what fears andangers have arisen, and what attitudes and impres-sions they have of the other disputant.

Through this text, teachers and their elemen-tary school students will learn how to express andresolve their own conflicts. The skills presentedhere will enable students to reduce the tensions andhostilities associated with conflict. At the sametime, they will learn how to acknowledge oneanother, and how to come to an understandingbased on the real needs of both people involved inthe dispute. In short, this text is about developingnew life skills that students can use to deal effec-tively with everyday conflict and to improve thequality of their own lives.

This skill building is especially important foryoung people because they often feel powerless.Personal power can be seen as having choices. Theability to express issues and resolve differencespeacefully is empowering because it offers a choice

a new way to respond to conflict. In teachingthese skills, we intend no value judgement towardsother conflict styles learned at home. In offering achoice, our intention is to give students skills andattitudes that will help them achieve success in theschool environment, while respecting that thereare important cultural differences in approaches to

conflict.

Our society and our schools are becomingever more diverse culturally, ethnically, andracially. This diversity, and the conflicts it gener-ates, offers unique opportunities for us to learn

26 HUMAN RIGH'TS RESOURCE CENTER 'SAN RAFAEL CA

about ourselves and others. But in order to takeadvantage of these opportunities, students need todevelop an appreciation for differences betweenpeople, and they need to learn the skills to solveproblems collaboratively. These important atti-tudes and skills are most easily learned early in life.Through the conflict resolution model presented inthis curriculum, students are encouraged to use thedifferences between people as an opening to learnmore about one another, and to appreciate themulti-dimensionality of personal interactions ,mdrelationships.

Part of the mission of the Community BoardProgram is to make the resolution of conflict the"Fourth R" of our educational system. You, as theteacher, are at the critical edge of this effort. Yourwork in modeling new forms of conflict resolutionadvances the cause of peace in our complex, heter-ogenous, democratic society. To you and toyour students who practice the skills of peacethis curriculum on conflict resolution is apprecia-tively dedicated.

TEN POINTS FOR SOLVINGYOUR OWN CONFLICTS

1. Talk Directly: Assuming that there isno threat of physical violence, talk di-rectly to the person with whom youhave the problem. Direct conversationis much more effective than sending aletter, banging on the wall, throwing arock, or complaining to everyone else.

2. Choose a Good Time: Plan to talk tothe other person at the right time andallow enough time for a thorough dis-cussion. Don't start talking about theconflict just as the other person is leav-

ing for work, after you have had a ter-rible day, or right before you have tomake dinner. Try to talk in a quiet placewhere you can both be comfortable andundisturbd for as long as the discus-sion takes.

3. Plan Ahead: Think out what you wantto say ahead of time. State clearly whatthe problem is and how it affects you.

4. Don't Blame or Name Call: Antago-nizing the other person only makes itharder for him or her to hear you. Don'tblame the other person for everythingor begin the conversation with youropinion of what should be done.

5. Give Information: Don't interpretthe other person's behavior: "Youare blocking my driveway on pur-pose just to make me mad!" Instead,give information about your own feel-ings: "When your car blocks mydriveway, I get angry because I can'tget to work on time."

6. Listen: Give the other person a chanceto tell his or her side of the conflictcompletely. Relax and listen; try to learnhow the other person feels.

7. Show That You Are Listening: Although you may not agree with what isbeing said, tell the other person that youhear him or her and axe glad that you axe

discussing the problem together.

8. Talk It All Through: Once you start,get all of the issues and feelings out intothe open. Don't leave out the part thatseems too "difficult" to discuss or too

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS. .S CTION

"insignificant" to be important. Yoursolution will work best if all issues arediscussed thoroughly.

9. Work On a Solution: When you havereached this point in the discussion,start working on a solution. Two or

3. When do most conflicts occur?

a. Before school.

b. During lunch.

c. After school.

more people cooperating are much d. During passing periods.

more effective than one person telling

another to change. Be specific: "I will 4. What are most of the conflicts between

turn my music off at midnight" is bet- students about?

ter than a vague, "I won't play loud

music anymore." a.

10. Follow Through: Agree to check witheach other at specific times to make b.

sure that the agreement is stillworking...Then really do it! c.

CONFLICT MANAGERS PROGRAMTEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

5. How do you usually deal with conflictsbetween students?

1. How much class time do you spend ondiscipline? (Circle one.) a. Refer to counselor, dean, or principal.

a. Less than 20%. b. Give detention.

b. 20% 40%. c. Let students work it out themselves.

c. 40% 60%. d. Act as mediator between students.

d. 60% - 80%. e. Other (specify):

e. More than 80%.

2. Where do most conflicts at this school

occur?

a. In the yard.

b. In the lunchroom.

c. In the classroom.

Please check whether you agree or disagree

with these statements:

The conflict resolution program sounds

like a good idea.

a. Agree b. Disagree

d. In the hall. C. Don't know

JLI

27

28 HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER SAN. RAFAEL CA-

2. The conflict management program couldwork at this school.

a. Agree b. Disagree

c. Don't know

3. Students here would benefit from learn-ing conflict resolution skills.

a. Agree b. Disagree

c. Don't know

4. I would be willing to release studentsfrom my class for conflict managementtraining (provided they are responsiblefor making up any class work missed).

a. Agree

c. Don't know

b. Disagree

5. I would be interested in becoming ateacher/trainer for the conflict manage-ment program.

a. Agree b. Disagree

c. Don't know

6. I would be willing to attend a trainingsession/workshop to learn conflict man-agement skills.

a. Agree b. Disagree

c. Don't know

If you answered yes to either 5 or 6,please give us your name and phonenumber:

7. What problems do you foresee inimplementing the conflict management program at your school?

8. Please add additional comments aboutthe conflict management program.

Thank you for youur time and cooperation.

NEUTRAL QUESTIONS: AN EXERCISE

Directions: Turn the following statementsinto neutral ones or into questions that will helpdisputants come up with their own answers. Thesetting is a conflict management session and thestatements are . . . by conflict managers.

1. "I know that if someone yelled at you with-out reason, you would feel mad. So can yoube polite next time?"

2. "Are you jealous because she's so popularand has so many friends?"

3. "Don't you feel a little bad about havingdone that?"

4. "Why can't you just pay her for the damageto her records and she'll forget the wholething?"

5. "I suspect that one of you is lying."

6. "I think that if you don't apologize forgossiping about him, this will never getresolved."

D

4 i

A

AI&

Section 8

CONFLICT RESOLUTION-, IN SCHOOLS SECTION -8

GANG MEDIATIONYouth gangs appear to be on the rise and

violence between gangs is increasing on and offcampus. Gangs, "islands within a community",have a distinct purpose in urban communities.They provide safety, comp anionship, "family" andoften survival for their members. They often carrythe traditions of the community. This meaning cannot be overlooked or disregarded. It must be posi-tively replaced for any success in decreasing gang

violence.

Several middle and high school campuseshave been successful in eliminating gang relatedviolence at their schools. Through mediation, gangbehavior has been modified and there has been anequalization of power between gangs. Successfulmediation has changed gang members' attitudes,allowing schools to become neutral zones. How-ever, off-campus gang activity is not much af-

fected by a successful school truce unless a com-munity agency gets involved in mediating street-

related disputes.

School mediation sessions for gangs typi-cally include (1) gang leaders, (2) school adminis-trators, and (3) one or two mediators.

The Northwest Mediation Service used thefollowing steps in successfully negotiating a gangtruce on a middle school campus:

1. Initial meeting with individual gangs;

2. Preparation;

3. Joint sessions;

4. Caucuses;

5. Individual mediation;

6. Negotiations of "no-first-strike"agreements;

7. Gang member sign-off on theagreement;

8. Negotiation of a second agreement;

9. Sign off.

It has been noted that gang members aftergoing through mediation have sometimes decidedto get involved in the conflict resolution processand become peer mediators. These gang leadersfrequently become skilled, successful mediators,gaining self-esteem and skills in negotiation andcooperation.

The following article tells of a unique pro-gram with exciting success in working with gangsin Los Angeles. The program uses a creative method

of non-school reduction of gang conflict and vio-lence, replacing self-hate, distrust, destruction andprejudice with understanding, cooperation and ap-

preciation of others.

29

30 HUMAN :RIGHTS-- RESOURCE .CENTER ' SAN RAFAEL CA'

MURAL MAKING ANDCOMMUNITY BUILDING AT THEGREAT WALL OF LOS ANGELES

Reprinted from "This Way DaybreakComes: Women's Values and the Future," byAnnie Cheatham and Mary Clare Powell, NewSociety Publishers , Philadelphia, P ennsylvania,1986, pp. 67-69.

In Los Angeles, Chicana muralist Judy Bacahits the streets every summer looking for teenagegang members who will help her paint the historyof California on the Tujunga Wash Flood ControlChannel in North Hollywood. Since 1976, youngdropouts with police records have learned to readJudy's blueprints, calculate complicated math prob-lems about scale, and prepare an outdoor, some-times underwater, surface for paint. They havealso learned to trust and work with kids differentfrom themselves.

In 1974, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineersasked Judy to design a mural along the flood-control channel. A founder of the Social PublicArts Resource Center (SPARC) in Venice, Cali-fornia, Judy works on issues that affect the variedpeoples of Los Angeles. The Great Wall of LosAngeles, as the Tujunga Wash Project is called,turned into her biggest project.

But not her first. Since 1970, Judy has painted

murals in East Los Angeles barrios. There shefound young people drinking wine, sniffing glue,playing idle games. Unemployment, drug use, andviolence prevailed. "There was nothing for them to

do in the parks no programs, no jobs not then

and not now," Judy told editors of"La Comunidad".

"No one was taking an interest in them, and I gotthe idea of trying to relate to them through art."

Many of the young Chicanos and Mexicanoswere artists. Formed into fiercely territorial gangs,they established boundaries with graffiti-coveredwalls. Judy capitalized on this inherent artistictalent and asked gang members to help her paint amural. At first, the atmosphere was charged, mem-bers of one gang didn't trust members of another.But they trusted Judy, and gradually, by usingimprovisational games to defuse tension, she helped

them trust each other.

When the Tujunga Wash project came along,Judy was prepared. She knew that racism wascreated by isolation and misunderstanding. "Theblack, Asian, and Chicano communities were milesapart," she said. "There's terrific geographical andcultural isolation; the people just can't read eachother at all. One sentence can mean three differentthings, depending on who's talking and who'slistening." By inviting minority group members topaint a mural about the history of minorities inCalifornia, she knew she could heal wounds.

As an urban artist, Judy cares about the whole

fabric of Los Angeles the physical, the socialand the cultural. "Art is not just for the rich, theeducated, or five of my friends," she said. "Art isvital to the spirit of human beings, rich or poor."And she knows that public, blank walls do nothing

to address the depersonalization already felt byurban residents. Art on those walls changes every-thing. It expresses a people's experience of placeand reduces cultural isolation. "Space is power.Take over a big public place and you've gotpower."

To prepare for the Tujunga Wash Project,Judy called community meetings and asked formoney and support. She explained the mural mak-ers would be low-income youths between fourteenand twenty-one, many of whom had trouble with

CONFLICT RESOLUTI.N . IN' , THE SCHOOLS SECTION 8

the law. She outlined her strategy: form raciallymixed crews, set aside one day a week for study,and use improvisational drama to handle personal

problems.

Some of the kids had never met a person ofanother race, let alone worked with one. Creating

mixed crews of Chicanos, blacks, and Asians en-couraged familiarity. Interracial friendships de-

veloped, along with interdependence it tookteamwork to erect a scaffolding and paint eight-

foot walls. Lives were changed. One young Chicana

with a troubled past, including incest, self-torture,

and armed robbery, announced at the beginning of

the summer, "I ain't never gonna work with them

niggers." By summer's end, she was teamed upwith an all-black video crew.

Friday 's were "study days". Judy recruiteddynamic teachers to talk about economics, poli-

tics, and social history suggested by the mural.

When the crew was working on a panel about

fascism, the first speaker was a historian specializ-

ing in the Holocaust, the second was a Holocaust

survivor, and the third was a relative of a displaced

European Jew.

One of Judy's major goals is to root out

racism. Using dramatic improvisation, she teaches

problem-solving and conflict resolution skills. Dur-

ing group role plays, teenagers write down their

ideas about other groups, then act them out."Chicanos are lazy and dirty' becomes hilarious,"

Judy said, "when it's being acted out by kids so

energetic you sometimes want to hogtie them."

The energy and power of the mural are im-

pressive. When we visited on a muggy Los Ange-

les afternoon, we couldn't believe its detail and

scope. Bright, aggressivecolors swayed and surged,

coattails became railroad tracks, outstretchedhands

became flames of fire. Decades unrolled down the

channel, and successive panels depicteddinosaurs,

gold mining, industrialization, depression, war,and prosperity. When it is finished in 1987, the

mural will be one mile long.

Over the years, kids return to tell Judy Bacahow their work on the Great Wall changed them.

By confronting racism they have explored and

exploded stereotypes about others. By learning

reading, math and communication skills, they have

a chance to move out of the ghettos into main-

stream Los Angeles life. By painting a history of

their people, they have applauded their heritage.

"The racism directed at these youngsters leads to

self-hate, which amounts to a death-wish," Judy

said. "There's no way they can participate in the

American dream of 'hard work and get ahead.'Painting the channel widened their scope. Before

they would say, 'We can't move all that dirt.' They

now say, 'We'll get it moved today.'

31

CLASSROOMACTIVITIES

CONFLICT RESOLUTION -IN THE' SCHOOLS 'SECTION.

HOW DO YOU HANDLE CONFLICT?

This is a preliminary exercise to raise awareness

about how to deal with a situation that is confrontational.

Directions: Following each conflict resolution technique, the student should indicate whether

she/he uses it often, occasionally, or seldom in handling real-life conflict situations.

OFTEN OCCASIONALLY SELDOM

I. Avoid confrontation.

2. Attempt to understand

others' point of view.

3. View conflict as a joke.

4. Admit guilt regardless

of what you really

believe.

5. Apologize.

6. Work toward a

compromise.

7. Superficially reach a

compromise.

8. Involve another person

to decide upon a

compromise.

9. Assert your own view.

10. Physically fight.

I I . Change the subject.

Class discussion should follow based on the pros and cons of each technique.Special attention

should be paid to number six (work toward a compromise).This should lead to a discussion of basic

peer mediation skills and procedures.

33

34 HUMAN RIGHTS' RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL 'CA

"I-MESSAGES" INRESOLVING CONFLICTS

The "I-message" is a method for expressing awant, need or concern in a non-judgmental, non-confrontational, non-blaming and personal man-ner. It should be expressed as:

I FEEL (EMOTION) WHENYOU (BEHAVIOR)

BECAUSE (TANGIBLE

EFFECT).

It is generally recognized that I-messages arevery important in the solving of a dispute, whetherin the mediation process or a one-on-one personaldispute.

Skilled use of well constructed I-messages,where the listener can hear and understand theproblem his/her behavior is causing for the speakerin a descriptive and not judgmental way, often canresolve a dispute without mediation or third partyintervention. If the intent of having the other per-son modify their behavior without loss of self-esteem or a functional relationship is achieved, theproblem can be solved without further interven-tion. However, if the results through I-messagesare unacceptable to both parties, conflict resolu-tion procedures may be necessary.

Whether using I-messages in one-on-one dis-putes or in the mediation process, it is alwaysimportant to be aware of the depth of one's ownfeelings and to be realistic about the outcome.Also, caution should be taken not to use I-mes-sages to punish, get revenge or in reoccurringsituations.

I-messages continue to be an important skillfor peer mediators. Peer mediators should be ableto state a concern in a descriptive, non-threateningway to either disputant during a conflict resolutionprocess.

The benefits of properly expressed I-mes-sages include:

1. A format that is non-confrontational isestablished to express the effects of aperson's behavior on you/others.

2. The responsibility for each party'sbehavior is retained by that party.

3. The chance of getting your need met isincreased.

4. The potential for resistance and threat-ening interaction is minimized.

As an example, you could use a confronta-tional, threatening response to someone else'sbehavior:

"Stop yelling, you are being rude, conspicu-ous and obnoxious."

Or you could use a descriptive, non-threaten-ing, non-confrontational I-message:

"I FEEL frustrated WHEN YOU yellBECAUSE it makes it very difficultfor me to really hear what you aresaying."

The following are samples of exercises thatcould be included in training peer mediators. Askthe trainees to design I-messages for the followingsituations:

1. One disputant is really angry. She/heyells at you, saying, "Get off my caseand go take care of someone else." Stateyour I-message to this disputant:

I feelWhen youBecause

CONFLICT RETOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS SECTION

2. Two disputants keep interrupting eachother. You remind them several timesof the pre-established ground rules. Nowgive I-messages to the disputants:

I feelWhen youBecause

3. After some hard work, the two dispu-tants seem more relaxed and are sharingresponsibility for the problem. Givethem an I-message about their improvedbehavior

I feelWhen youBecause

35

36 HUMAN : RIGHTS 'RESOURCE .CENTER SAN RAFAEL ' CA'

LISTENING FACTS AND SKILLSThe art of listening is an essential element in

mediation, as well as a key ingredient in all commu-nication and positive relationships. The mediatorwho knows how to listen and what to listen for willattain more success in the resolution of conflicts.

Consider these well documented facts:

We spend 45% of our time listening,compared to 30% talking, 16% readingand 9% writing.

70%-80% of our waking hours aredevoted to communication.

Impressions of us are derived from fa-cial expressions (55%), voice tone (37%)and words (.8%).

After hearing a speech an untrainedlistener will retain only 25% of whatwas said eight hours later.

Effective listening can reduce tension, buildtrust, stimulate the speaker and increase knowl-edge and understanding. Developing listening sldllsalso reduces the chances of mishearing. Mishear-ing can lead to distrust, further misunderstanding,increased tension and a feeling of unimportance bythe speaker and a lack of caring by the listener.

All training for mediators should include dis-cussion on active listening. Mediators should betrained to:

1. Attempt to put themselves in thedisputant's place to understand whatthe person is saying and how he/shefeels.

2. Use non-verbal behaviors to showunderstanding and acceptance:

Tone of voice (37% of impressiongiven).

Facial expression (55% of impression given).

Gestures.

Eye contact.

Posture.

3. Take into account the differences innon-verbal behaviors between variouscultures. It is important to be alert to thevariety of meaning of these behaviors tothe numerous cultural and ethnic groupsthat make up the United States.

4. Not interrupt, not offer advice and notcompare the disputant's conflicts withsimilar experiences, feelings or prob-lems they might have had.

5. Ask open questions to better under-stand the other person's issues andconcerns.

- CONFLICT RESOLUTION I THE SCHOOLS SECTION 9

OPTIONS IN SITUATIONS OF CONFLICT

In class discussion, have students give examples of various conflict resolution options they have

experienced. Have them decide where on the chart below each option would fit. Did both sides

lose? Did both sides win?

I LOSE/YOU LOSE I LOSE/YOU WIN I WIN/YOU LOSE I WIN/YOU WIN

Violence

War

Injury

Escalation

Submission

Compromise

Suppression

Coersion

Dominance

Compromise

Aggression

Mediation

Collaboration

Cooperation

I winlyou win in situations of conflict places value on interpersonalrelationships. Each individual and society profits.

37

CRIT1CeLTHINKING

SKILLS &HANDLINGCONFLICT

CONFLICT RES.OLUTION IN" - THE SCHOOLS -SECTION I 0

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS ANDHANDLING CONFLICT

Critical thinking is the process by whichacquiied knowledge is applied to new problemsor situations in order to devise new solutions.Strong critical thinkers are able to be sincere, fair-minded and understanding in evaluating situa-tions or problems.

Critical thinking teaches a student how to find

the answer and does not dictate the answer. Con-

flict resolution teaches a students how to solve

problems and does not dictate the solutions.

Critical thinking skills are very important in

peer mediation. By applying a wide variety ofcritical thinking skills, students can understand thenature of conflict and develop the most feasible

solutions. Understanding conflict requires: listen-

ing, questioning, analyzing, identifying, toleratingambiguities, comparing, contrasting, restating,evaluating evidence, discussing the impact of lan-

guage on perception and trying ideas in new and

different ways.

Critical thinking is a different approach toteaching. It encourages students to ask "why" and

"how". Students learn to process the informationthey have to learn, to ask pointed questions and tomake new discoveries. Asking the right questionbecomes as important as giving the right answer.

Additionally, critical thinking skills can be

instrumental in reducing prejudice. Judging with

full and sufficient examination and forming opin-

ions with just grounds and sufficient knowledgethe opposite of prejudicial thinking is the goal

of the critical thinking process. Curiosity, objec-

tivity, open-mindedness, skepticism, honesty, sys-

tematic persistence, decisiveness and respect for

other viewpoints are essential to developing criti-

cal thinking skills and nonprejudicial attitudes.

Teach students to ask questions, get to thesubstance, take/explain/defend positions, be aware

of multiple perspectives on issues, acknowledgethe importance of knowing all sides of an issueand assess information carefully and fairly. Thesestudents will then increase their awareness oftheir own biases, heighten their openness to re-thinking their positions in the face of conflictingevidence, and take the time to reflect rather thanmerely react.

The following are generally recognized atti-tudes essential to developing critical thinking skills.These attitudes are also essential to successfulmediation, for both the mediator and disputants:

1. Intellectual curiosity.

2. Objectivity.

3. Open mindedness.

4. Flexibility.

5. Intellectual skepticism.

6. Intellectual honesty.

7. Being systematic.

8. Persistence.

9. Decisiveness.

10. Respect for others' point of view.

Why is it better for a school to teach studentshow to find answers than to teach students theanswers? Because learning how to find answers is

a lasting skill that leads to independence. It helps

students find answers to their own problems. Andit helps them to deal with other people.

The thought process of critical thinking isbasically the same as that necessary for satisfac-tory completion of peer mediation:

39

40 HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL CA

1. Identify the problem.

2. Hear the points of view involved.

3. Understand the assumptions made.

4. Listen to the ideas involved.

5. Acknowledge the evidence and reasonsadvanced.

7. State the implications and consequenceswhich could follow.

8. Reach agreement on feasible solutions.

When a student knows how to go beyond justthe facts to analyze the situation, put him/herself in the other person's shoes, look at a lot ofdifferent components and suspend judgement untilall sides are studied that student becomes skilledin both critical thinking and the mediation ofconflict.

The critical thinking strategy of observing,inferring and evaluating before acting leads to anopen-minded and understanding approach to awide range of situations and problems experiencedin life and enables one to reach new enhancedsolutions.

Section 1 1

ON LICT 'RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS SECTI.ON I I

TEACHING CONFLICTRESOLUTION:A SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

The following sample lesson plan is from"Building Better Communities by Developing Criti-cal Thinking Skills: Curriculum for Living in aDemocracy," Dorothy Hughes, 1991. It teachesthe importance of community by stressing theinterconnected values of ecological wisdom, so-cial responsibility, participatory democracy andnon-violence.

OBJECTIVE

To explore ways to resolve arguments, dis-putes and disagreements in a non-violent manner.

NARRATIVE FOR THE TEACHER

We all practice non-violence when we arepatient, forgiving, merciful to those who have been

unkind to us. We practice non-violence daily whenour arguments and disagreements with our family

do not result in yelling or abusing each other.

People of goodwill can find peaceful ways ofresolving differences and settling disputes. (People

of goodwill are compassionate people. They careabout what happens to others. They are interestedin the common good. If vr =thing is good for me,but bad for others, that something is not in thecommon good.)

First, we must be willing to listen, to try tounderstand each other and each other's point ofview. We must concede that it is all right for people

to disagree. We need to respect honest differences.

Second, we need to analyze the problem.What is the problem? What is at stake here? Whatdo you want? What do I want? Is it just, fair? Does

what either side wants violate the four values . . .

(ecological wisdom, social responsibility, partici-patory democracy and non-violence) [or] . . . the

guiding principle (to develop and maintain morecaring relationships among people and betweenpeople and the planet)?

Third, we must be willing to cooperate, tocommunicate openly and have the ability i.o trusteach other.

Fourth, we must drop preconceptions aboutthe other person or group ('He's greedy,"Theyalways want it all,' etc), we must focus on problemresolution rather than personalities ('I don't likehim,"Don't like the way 'n,:t talks').

Fifth, using consensus to reach agreement ona decision is helpful in not setting up a "win-lose"situation. The resolution or solution should be"win-win", satisfying both parties, rather than thetoo familiar "winner takes all, loser loses all."

Consensus, rather than voting, when makingdecisions is another peacekeeping, non-violenttool. People work for agreement by discussingthe issues, trying to reach an understanding thatwill be satisfactory for all. If everyone can bebrought along to a joint decision, then they canact together on carrying out the action decidedupon. When we vote, some people vote "yes" andothers "no". The "noes" may go along with greatreluctance, not being very helpful or even ob-structing the group action.

Consensus does not mean complete agree-ment on a proposal, but it does mean that theperson who does not agree will examine whetherhe/she can stand aside and let the proposal pass andnot block consensus. Consensus must be takenvery seriously. Individuals must respect their own

41

42 . HUMAN' RIGHTS 'RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL CA

feelings, but must also respect the overall needs ofthe group (common good). In consensus decisionmaking there is respect, common searching, un-derstanding and openness to ideas and a sense ofdedication to the truth.

One of the main problems on finding agree-ment is the competitive nature of our society. Wecan't expect people to always agree. However, acooperative framework is critical for dealing withdisagreement. Conflict and disagreement are natu-ral, but destructive when competition is added.When cooperation is present, conflicting interestscan be defined as a mutual problem to be solvedcollaboratively. Competition interferes with com-munication, winning is everything.

It is healthy to air our differences; we feelbetter. We feel bad when we pretend to agree, butwe must explore our differences and look for

resolution on a spirit of working with, rather than?gainst, each other.

ACTIVITIES

Acting as moderator, not judge, find twostudents who are involved in a conflict or havebeen involved in one that was not resolved. Askthem if they would like to have this conflict re-solved. Tell them that a mutually agreeable solu-tion can probably be worked out if they are willing

to submit to the following process. (First giveexamples of a conflict: whose house are they going

to study at? Who owes money to whom?)

1. Each person, one at a time, describes thedisagreement without interruption.

2. Each person than rephrases what the other

person said.

3. Ask each in turn how they feel aboutthis dispute.

4. Have each rephrase what the other per-son said about feelings.

5. Have each state what they would like as

an outcome.

6. Ask each what they would be willing togive up.

7. Have each look at alternatives.

8. What changes are they willing to makeover a specific period of time?

9. Draw up a list of steps each agree to take.

10. Suggest a check back time to see howwell the solution is working.

Class discussion questions:

Why it is important to have a third partymediate disputes?

Why did the steps used help the two come tomutual agreement?

Ask the students in the dispute if their feelingschanged during the mediation and how they feelabout each other now.

How were members of the class feeling during

the discussion?

What other suggestions are there for findingagreement?

What about the common good?

How much does fairness and the feelings of others

come into the compromise?

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN THE . SCHOOLS 'SECTION I I

Remind [them] of the guiding principle: to developand maintain more caring relationships amongpeople and between the people and the planet.

Ask students to think of times when they havenot acted for the common good of their family.Give [an] example: [A child] ate the food that wasmeant for desert. In the larger society it might bedamming a river or using too much fossil fuel.How would this not be in the common good?

TEACHIN,qHUMAN\RIGHTS

CONFLICT / RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS SECTION 12

HUMAN RIGHTS COMPONENT OFCONFLICT RESOLUTIONPROGRAMS

"Human rights are the rights of every

person to reach hisl herfullhumanpoten-

tial without distinction or discrimination

of any kind, such as race, color, sex, age,

language, religion, political or otheropinion, national or social origin, prop-

erty,birth, disability or other status.These

rights include the necessities of human

existence, food, clothing, shelter, andthose freedoms which are stated on the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights,

the Declaration of Independence and the

Bill of Rights."

Virginia Franklin, 1987.

It is essential to include information on human

rights as a necessary component of any conflictresolution program. Not only are human rights basic

to all learning, but the human rights emphasis on

respect, responsibility and fairness leads naturally to

reduction of conflict in daily life on and off campus.

Teaching human rights dissipates students'egocentric and ethnocentic views of right and

wrong. It teaches that each person is a member of

the human family, sharing common basic needsand aspirations and interdependent on each other.Students learn that common needs and hopes un-derlie cultural, national, racial, religious, ethnicand linguistic differences. When human rights areincorporated into the curriculum, students compre-

hend the significance of:

1. Human dignity: they develop an un-derstanding of themselves and others,including respect, self-esteem, fair-ness, tolerance and justice.

2. Humanhood: they strive to create amore caring and humane worldthrough understanding the principlesof justice, freedom, equality, safetyand interdependency.

3. Human involvement: they becomeaware of their participatory responsi-bilities, including problem solving,conflict resolution, civic participationand critical thinking.

Additionally, schools should comprehend the

significance of:

1. School policies that demonstrate equalrights, responsibilities and respect for

safety.

2. Students who are able to demonstratecooperation, sharing and responsibil-ity to others.

3. Programs in conflict resolution, com-munication, decision making, andcritical thinking.

4. Teacher/student interaction thatdemonstrates respect for each other,communication and understandingof authority.

The climate of a school must reflect the hu-man rights principles of justice, security, respectfor group differences, individual integrity andpeaceful management of conflicts.

45

46 HUMAN RIGHTS RES URCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL CA

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,Article 26, paragraph two states:

Education shall be directed for the fulldevelopment of the human personalityand to the strengthening of respect forhuman rights and fundamental freedoms.

It shall promote understanding, toler-ance and friendship among all nations,racial or religious groups and shall fur-ther the activities of the United Nationsfor the maintenance of peace.

This human rights education policy promotescurricula that teaches a global perspective at alllevels of education, an understanding and respectfor all peoples, their cultures, civilizations, valuesand ways of life; an awareness of increasing globalinterdependence; an ability to communicate; anawareness of rights and duties incumbent on peopletowards each other; an understanding of the neces-sity for international cooperation; and a readinessof the individual to participate in problem solvingfor the community, country and world.

The following sample activities enhance thehuman rights aspect of a conflict resolution pro-gram. The significance of human dignity,humanhood and human involvement are taughtthrough these exercises:

1. Have students bring articles from news-

papers depicting conflict. Make a dis-play. Discuss the nature of the conflicts

and the possible settlements.

2. Discuss physical force (e.g., a fight fora book) and implied (psychological)force (using threat's to obtain for thebook). Role play situations in whichstudents settle disputes using physical

force and psychological force. Discusshow these situations could have beensettled peaceably. Describe feelings re-sulting from each role play situations.

3. Chart conflict situations seen on TVand cooperative situations seen on TV.Discuss each program, the nature ofconflicts depicted and how cooperationcould resolve these conflicts. Discussvarious methods of settling conflicts.

4. Discuss positive communication. Listmethods of communication (words,force, gestures, expressions). Brain-storm for increasing communicationbetween groups. Devise a plan forincreasing communication betweenparent/child, teacher/student and stu-dent/student.

5. List resources available on family,local, national and international lev-els for peaceful resolution of disputes.How do these resources improve com-munication between people and showthe interdependency of people?

6. Discuss and chart what all people need to

survive (e.g., water, shelter, food, love).

7. All people are interdependent, partof one global community, depen-dent on one body of resources andbound together by ties of commonhumanity. Discuss these aspects ofcommon humanity for variousgroups/cultures: a) family, b) edu-cation, c) government, d) economicsystem, e) religion, and f) recre-ation. Make a mural, bulletin board

.-CONFLICT I'RESOCUTION -IN THE 'SCHOOLS SECTION

or chart comparing these aspects ofvarious social institutions.

8. Discuss 'what is a right' and 'what is aresponsibility.' Write out definitions ofa right and a responsibility. Give ex-amples of rights and responsibilities.Examine situations depicting conflicts.Determine who has rights and what therights are and who has responsibilitiesand what the responsibilities are. Usefamily members, peers, school staff and

others as examples.

9. What are human rights? Discuss themeaning of human rights, which rightsare most important and why.

10. Discuss why an increased understand-ing of human rights can lead to a re-duction in human conflicts throughincreased respect for human dignity,commonality and interdependency.

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RESOURCES

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN THE SCHOOLS SECTION 13

RESOURCESOrganizations with asterisks after their namespublish newsletters andlor other publications.

American Arbitration Association*140 West 51st StreetNew York, NY 10020-1203(212) 484-4000

AAA has 35 offices nationwide and produces

several publications.

California Community Dispute Services30 Hotaling Place, Suite 302San Francisco, CA 94111(415) 434-2200

California Middle SchoolBob Tafoya, PrincipalSacramento, CA 94818(916) 553-4550

Mr. Tafoya has designed a process for setting up

conflict resolution programs in elementary and

secondary schools that involves taking selectedadministrators, teachers and students on 11/2 day

retreat for training as conflict resolution team

members. He has done presentations and training

on this process nationally as well as in Canada.

Center for Teaching Peace4501 Van Ness NWWashington, DC 20016(202) 537-1372

Children's Creative Responseto Conflict (CCRC)P.O. Box 271523 North BroadwayNyack, NY 10960(914) 358-4601Contact: Pricilla Prutuzman

CCRC, which is affiliated with the Fellowship of

Reconciliation, offers adults and children an op-

portunity to experience new ways of examiningconflict and creating solutions together. Work-shops focus on four central themes: cooperation,communication, affirmation, and conflict resolu-tion. Exercises on the four CCRC themes areadapted for K-12 and often are used for in-class

workshops.

The Children's Hearings Projectao Cambridge Family and Children Services99 Bishop Allen DriveCambridge, MA 02139(617) 876-4210

Community Board Centerfor Policy and Training

See: Conflict Resolution Resources for Schools

and Youth.

Community Relations ServiceU.S. Department of Justice5550 Friendship Blvd., Suite 330Chevy Chase, MD 20815

The Community Relations Service (CRS) wasestablished in 1964 to provide assistance to com-munities and individuals in resolving disputes,

disagreements, or difficulties based on discrimina-

tion due to race, ethnicity or national origin. CRS

is not a law enforcement agency. It focuses on

mediation, technical assistance and training to

provide direct conflict resolution assistance to all

communities. In 1990 it added a hotline for report-

ing hate violence and incidents of harassment

based on race, color, or national origin: 1-800-347-

HATE. CRS suggests the following representa-tive questions, based on actual casework, in decid-

ing whether your school needs its help: "Have you

seen an increase in racial fights in your school? Do

members of one racial group seem to be disci-

plined more severely than another for the same

0

49

SO :HUMAN. RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL CA

offenses? Are there allegations of racial favorit-ism? Is racial conflict management at sportingevents a problem?"

Community Relations ServiceRegional Offices:

Region INew England Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service10 Causeway Street, Room 1192Boston, MA 02222-1032(617) 565-6830

Covering Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Mas-sachusetts, Connecticut. and Rhode Island.

Region IINortheast Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service26 Federal Plaza, Room 3402New York, NY 10278(212) 264-0700

Covering New York, New Jersey, the VirginIslands and Puerto Rico.

Region IIIMid-Atlantic Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service2nd & Chestnut Streets, Room 309Philadelphia, PA 19106(215) 597-2344

Covering Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia,Maryland, Delaware and Washington D.C.

Region IVSoutheast Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service75 Piedmont Avenue, NE, Room 900Atlanta, GA 30303(404) 331-6883

Covering North Carolina, South Carolina,Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama,Georgia and Florida.

Region VMidwest Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service175 West Jackson Street, Room 1113Chicago, IL 60604(312) 353-4391

Covering Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Wis-consin and Minnesota.

Region VISouthwest Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service1100 Commerce Street, Room 13B-35Dallas, TX 75242(214) 767-0824

Covering Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisianaand New Mexico.

Region VIICentral Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service911 Walnut Street, Room 2411Kansas City, MO 64104(816) 426-2022

Covering Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska and Iowa.

Region VIIIRocky Mountain Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service1244 Speer Blvd., Room 650Denver, CO 80204(303) 844-2973

Covering Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, Montana,South Dakota and North Dakota.

Region IXWestern Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service211 Main Street, Room 1040San Francisco, CA 94105(415) 744-6565

Covering California, Hawaii, Arizona, Nevada,Guam and the Pacific Territories.

CONFLICT RESOLUTIOW: I. THE 'SCHOOLS SECTION 13

Region XNorthwest Regional OfficeCommunity Relations Service915 Second Avenue, Room 1898Seattle, WA 98714(206) 442-4465

Covering Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Alaska.

Comprehensive Dispute Resolution Services1335 ChambersColorado Springs, CO 80904(714) 471-0970Contact: Michael Maday

Conflict Resolution Center International*7101 Hamilton AvenuePittsburgh, PA. 15208-1828(412) 371-9884; FAX (412) 371-9885;ConflictNet:crcii

Conflict Resolution Resourcesfor Schools and YouthCommunity Board Center for Policy and Training1540 Market Street, Suite 490San Francisco, CA 94102(415) 552-1250Contacts: Terry Amsler/Jim Halligan

Since 1977, Community Board has provided train-

ing, program development and research whichadvances the theory and practice of conciliatorydispute settlement. They serve both school andcommunity agencies and recently developed cur-ricula on collaborative strategies for schools intransition and conflict management for juveniletreatment facilities. [For excerpts from theirmaterials for elementary schools, see Section 7of this manual.]

Educators for Social Responsibility23 Garden StreetCambridge, MA 02138(617) 492-1764; FAX (617) 864-5164

ESR's "Resolving Conflict Creatively" programprovides effective instruction in conflict resolutionand productively managing conflict in the class-room and school. ESR haF model programs in fiveU.S. cities and produces numerous publications.

Fellowship FarmR.D. 3, Sanatoga Rd.Pottstown, PA 19464(215) 248-3343Contact: Cherie Wilson, Executive Director

Fellowship Farm is a nonprofit, nonsectarian edu-cational center for human relations and socialchange in the Philadelphia metropolitan area. Itpromotes understanding between groups of vari-ous races. The education program involves stu-dents drawn from different grade levels in aweekend retreat. Students participate in work-shops on "unlearning racism" and get together todiscuss ways to resolve conflict in their schools.The program has been particularly successful inpreventing and reducing violence in schools re-cently integrated.

Green Circle ProgramNational Conference on Christians and Jews(NCCJ)777 North First Street, MezzanineSan Jose, CA 95112(408) 286-9663

Contact: Dorothy Dorsay

Green Circle is a curriculum that facilitates anawareness and understanding of human differ-ences and reinforces a positive sense of selfworth. Volunteers visit the classroom using a feltboard with a green circle to represent a "circle ofcaring" to stimulate discussion on how peoplefeel when they are left out. Through such a pro-cess students lean to be respectful of others while

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52 HUMAN RIGHTS RESOURCE CENTER SAN RAFAEL CA

finding alternatives in solving conflicts. The pro-gram has proved most successful with elementaryand junior high students.

Human Rights Resource Center615 B StreetSan Rafael, CA 94901(415) 453-0404; FAX (415) 453-1026

Institute for Mediation & Conflict Resolution99 Hudson Street, 1 lth FloorNew York, NY 10013(212) 966-3660

Intercultural Communication Resources1701 DeLoz AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90027(213) 662-7078Contacts: Erica Hagan/Judith Roth Goldman

International Center for Cooperation& Conflict in SchoolsTeachers College, ColumbiaBox 53New York, NY 10027(212) 678-3402

The Lesbian and Gay CommunityMediation ServiceThe Center208 West 13th StreetNew York, NY 10011(212) 713-5089

Marin County Mediation Services

See: PACT, below.

National Association for Mediationin Education (NAME)425 Amity StreetAmherst, MA 02139(413) 545-2462Contact: Annette Townley

NAME provides networking, technical assistance,theory research, training, conferences and work-shops. They have an extensive resource list / bibli-ography and a bi-monthly newsletter, The FourthR.

National Coalition of Advocates for Students100 Boylston StreetBoston, MA 02116(617) 357-8507; FAX (617) 357-9549

A coalition of 24 child advocacy groups nation-wide dedicated to providing quality education forall students. Provides extensive resources, spe-cial publications and reports. [See Section 3 ofthis manual.]

National Institute for DisputeResolution (NIDR)*1901 L Street NW, Suite 60,JWashington, DC 20036(202) 466-4764

Neighborhood Mediation CenterKing Facility4815 Northeast Seventh AvenuePortland, OR 97211(503) 243-7320

New Mexico Center for Dispute ResolutionMediation in the Schools Program510 2nd Street NW, #209Albuquerque, NM 87102(505) 247-0571

NMCDR provides on-site and regional training,technical assistance, materials and a newsletter,Dispute Resolution News. Also, they provide in-tervention and protection programs for youth andfamilies and have been successful at gang media-tion. NMCDR's programs provide skills in listen-ing, self expression, critical thinking and problemsolving, with students assisting students, K-12.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN -THE SCHOOLS.- SECTION

Northwest Mediation Service405 114th Avenue SE, #300Bellevue, WA 98004(206) 455-3989 or (800) 932-0315

Since 1977, NMS has provided direct mediation

and training in cooperative dispute resolution.

Their "Student Mediation Project" for K-12

involves 10-16 hours in class with psychologists,social workers and attorneys to help peers resolve

disputes and manage anger without resorting toviolence. They have a newsletter, Alternativesand training materials.

PACT(Peers Addressing Conflict Together)Marin County Mediation Services3501 Civic Center Drive, Room 277San Rafael, CA 94903-4177(415) 499-6194Contact: Susan Rohde

See Section 6 of this manual for a description of

this program.

Peace Resource CenterWilmington CollegeP.O. Box 1183Wilmington, OH 45177

Peace Resource Center produces books and videos.

Project SMART(School Mediators' Alternative Resolution Team)

50 Court Street 8th floorBrooklyn, NY 11201(718) 858-9070, Ext. 220

Contact: Linda Lausell

Some of New York's toughest junior and senior

high schools teach students, teachers, and parents

mediation skills through Project SMART. Sus-

pension rates for fighting have fallen 40-70% in all

participating schools since the program began in

1983. See Section 5 of this manual.

Resolving Conflict CreativelyNew York City Public Schools163 Third Avenue, #239New York, NY 10003(212) 260-6290

Sacramento Mediation CenterPO Box 5275Sacramento, CA. 95817(916) 731-5511

School Mediation Association72 Chester Rd., #2Belmont, MA 02178(617) 876-6074Contact: Rich Cohen

Society of Professionals in DisputeResolution (SPIDR)1100 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 700Washington, DC 20036-4101(202) 833-2188; FAX (202) 293-3054

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