DOCUMENT RESUME ED 342 138 EA 023 796 AUTHOR Mitman ... · 5 We Are Unique: Hewes Middle School (Orange County) 93 Chapter Four: Interdisciplinary Instruction 99 1. Lucky Links: Buchser

ED 342 138

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Mitman, Alexis L.; Lambert, VickiInstructional Challenge: A Casebook for Middle GradeLducators.California League of Middle Schools, Irvine.; FarWest Lab. for Educational Research and Development,San Francisco, Calif.Office of Educational Research and Imprcmement (ED),Washington, DC.Jan 92RP91002006146p.Far West Laboratory for Educational Research andDevelopment, 730 Harrison Street, San Francisco, CA94107-1242.Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

MF01/PC06 raus Postage.Case Studie., Change Strategies; *CooperativeLearning; Educational Change; *HeterogeneousGrouping; Individual Development; InstructionalImprovement; *Interdisciplinary Approach;Intermediate Grades; Junior High Schools; *LearningStrategies; *Middle Schools; Preadolescents; StudentNeeds; *Student Participation; Study Skills; ThinkingSkills*Active Learning; California

The cases in this book, based oil classroomobservations and interviews with principals and key teachers at 17California middle schools, focus in depth on middle-grade reform inthe classroom. Organized in four chapters, the cases look at fourcritical areas of curriculum and instruction: (1) heterogeneousgrouping; (2) cooperative learning; (3) active learning; and (4)interdisciplinary instruction. In each chapter, an overview isfollowed by stories from folr or five schools that have grappled withthe given reform. The overview consists of background about theparticular reform, a table summarizing key features across sites,observations that analyze those features, and a set of questions forteachers to consider as they think about their owm classroom orschool. The goal of the overview is to illustrate the complexity andmultiple dimensions involved in filtering the change process througheach school setting. Then the history of implementation at theparticular site is recalled; current practices, including specificclassroom examples of the reform, are described; and the continuingissues and challenges the reform poses for the school are addressed.

(18 references) (MLF)

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INSTRUCTIONAL

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A Casebook

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Alexis L. Mitman

Vicki Lambert

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TO THE EDUCATtONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

INSTRUCTIONAL

CHALLENGE

A Casebook

for

Middle

Grade

Educators

Alexis L. Mltman

Vicki Lambert

January 1992

Far West Laboratory

for Educational Research and Development

California League of Middle Schools

This document is supported in part by federal funds from the U.S. Departmentof Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, contract numberRP91002006. Its contents do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of theDepartment of Education, nor does mention of trade names, commercialproducts,or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government.

411

Preface

It's one thing to talk about changes teacherscan make. It's another to let teachers see howdifferent instructional strategies actually work.The cases in this book, based on classroomobservations and interviews with pnncipals andkey teachers at 17 California middle schools, focusin depth on middle grade reform in the classroom.These CaseS look at tour critical areas ot curriculumand instruction: heterogeneous grouping,cooperative learning, active learning, andinterdisciplinary instruction.

During the past decade, the momentum toreducational reform has led to a significant re-think-ing of middle grade education, described in 1989by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Devehip-ment as -potentially society's most powerful force!o recapture millions of Youth adrift and hel p everyyoung person thrive during early adolescence."Two documents Caught in the Middle: EducationalReform tor Young Adolescents in CalifornUi Public

Scluvls and Turning Points: Preparing American Youthtor the 2Ist Century have provided state andnational blueprints for middle grade restructuring,and a number of efforts to act on these recommen-dations are well underway.

In California, 10 regional networks of middlegrade Partnership and Foundation Schools and asecond group of 11 regional networks of middlegrade Partnership Schools have been established.Their overall goal is facilitating the evolution ofstate of the art" middle schools. Also, every middle

level school has been offered the opportunity tosecure planning funds under the School Improve-ment Program (SIP). And the state has mapped outdear accountability guidelines in the Qiuility Crite-

ria for Middle Grades Planning, implementing, Self-

!triity, and Program Quality &Mil'. This documentprovides standards against which a middle school'sprogram is to be compared, first through a self--itud v involving the school community and then byan outside Program Quality Review team.

These changes are exciting because they aim toenrich the school experience for students at a pivotalpt)int in their lives. While the middle school conceptis based on a philosophy rather than a set of essentialelements, effective middle schools consistently tendto include the six features deemed critical by Wil-liam Alexander in 1987: an interdisciplinary orgam-/ation; an adequate guidance program includingteacher advisory; a tull-sca le ex ploratory program; abroad curriculum encompassing personal develop-ment along with basic knowledge; varied instruc-tional practices; and continued orientation and ar-ticulation tor students, parents, and teachers.

Each ot these features has organizational andinstructional implications. Though certain organi-rational characteristics must precede instructionalchange, ther existence alone doesn' t doesn't seem toguarantee it. M idd le level teachers enthusiastic aboutthe new reform agenda want and need resoufcesthat translate abstract principles into concrete prac-tice. This casebook aims to reveal the ni tty gritty" ofeveryday instruction in schools dedicated to seriousreform. An essential resource to middle level practi-tioners, it chronicles the inspiration, diligence, com-mitment, and success ot classroom professionalsdedicated to giving young adolescents a substantiveeducational experience.

Carl L. Zon, President(..ilifornia League of Middle Schools

June 1991

III

Acknow1e. ments

Staff at Far West Laboratory first conceived of this casebook as a way of responding to the need

expressed by middle grade educators to share with each other their problems and successes while

implementing a challenging range of recommended instructional reforms. The California League of Middle

Schools (CLMS) volunteered its support, and considerable credit goes to the CLMS Board of Directors for

shaping the book's approach.

We are extremely grateful to the administrators, teauters, counselors, parents, and students of the 17

participating middle schools for their generosity and forthrightness, which made each case a realistic

portrayal of their efforts. We also wish to thank the administrators of more than 62 other California middle

schools who participated in the casebook survey process. These professionals provided valuable informa-

tion to guide our work; we regret that limited resources precluded further study of these sites.

We wish to thank certain Far West Laboratory staff members for their valuable contributions: John R.

Mergendoller and John Thomas 'mho have subsequently left the Laboratory for other positions) provided

conceptual vision and direction; Nikki Filby (who directed the development of the companion casebook,

Middle Grades Reforms; A Casebook for School Leaders) contributed impetus and ongoing feedback; James

Johnson, Joan McRobbie, and Joy Zimmerman lent their editing expertise; Fredrika Baer handled desktop

production; and Rosemary De La Torre provided administrative assistance. Design is by Patricia Christen.

iv

Table of Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments iv

Introduction 1

Chapter One: Heterogeneous Grouping 5

I. Backing Up High Standards: Willard Junior High School (Berkeley) 9

2. The Real World Here: McKinley Middle School (Redwood City) 16

3. Good . . Better.. . . Best: Sequoia Middle School (Redding) 21

4. More Than Just Making a Decision: Talbert Middle School (Fountain Valley) 27

Chapter Two: Cooperative Learning 33

1, Productive Social Energy: Piedmont Middle School (San Jose) 37

2. It's All About Process: Benicia Middle School (Benicia) 43

3. One Thing Leads to Another: Turlock Junior High (Turlock) 51

4. Good Things Come in Small Packages: La Vina Elementary School (Madera) 57

Chapter Three: Active Learning 61

1. A Sense of Order: Benjamin Franklin Intermediate School (Colma) 65

/. No More Alibis: Burlingame Intermediate School (Burlingame) 72

3. It Has to Fit: Margarita Middle School (Temecula) 79

4. Building Bridges: DeAnza Middle School (Ventura) 84

5 We Are Unique: Hewes Middle School (Orange County) 93

Chapter Four: Interdisciplinary Instruction 99

1. Lucky Links: Buchser Middle School (Santa Clara) 103

2, The Accidental Team: Fort Miller Middle School (Fresno) I W

3. A Driving Force: Sparkes Elementary School (Winton) 120

4. Teacher Empowerment: Chaparral Middle School (Diamond Bar) 126

References133

7

Introduction

A Focus ON INSTRUCTION

The great current interest in middle gradeinstructional reform has prompted numerous rec-ommendations from various educational constitu-ents. Middle school educators around the countryare engaged in diligent efforts to bring about andinstitutionalize more student-centered classroompractices, since school experience in the early teenyears can often ignite or dampen a student'sacademic aspirations and enthusiasm.

Our interest in middle grade reform reflectsour belief that what students learn in school is mostdirectly influenced by the teaching activities thatoccur day to day in the classroom. Instructionalreform is thus a high priority. This casebook exam-ines in detail the implications of four practiceswidely advocated for the middle grades: heteroge-neous grouping, cooperativt learning, active learn-ing, and interdisciplinary instruction.

The book's purpose is to capture and sharethe process of change as it is taking place 'n 17middle schools. We believe other practitioner; cangain valuable insights from these real-life exaraplesand from participants' reflections on them, particu-larly in three respects. First, the cases aim to conveya broad understanding of each reform and how it istranslated into practice at a given school site. Sec-ond, they are intended to stimulate thinking aboutimplementation options and enable other educa-tors to better anticipate and avoid or overcomecommon obstacles. And third, the cases shouldinspire confidence that these reforms are indeedfeasible and beneficial. Implementation of all fourreforms rests primarily with teachers. Of course,each is much more likely to take shape if fosteredwithin a school climate where change is planned

and supported. A companion casebook, MiddleGrades Reform: A Casebook for School Leaders (Filbv,Lee itr Lambert, 1990), loolz at important featuresof the organizational environment. Drawing fromboth research on school change and the experi-ences of California educators, that book uses themetaphor of a ship, captain, and crew taking anautical journey to give the reader an easy-to-graspframework for the issues involved in leading aschool through the process of long-term change.

How This Casebook is Organized

This casebook is organized in four chapters,one for each reform area. In each chapter, an over-view is followed by stories from fou r or five schoolsthat have grappled with the given reform. Theoverview consists of background about the par-ticular reform, a table summarizing key featuresacross sites. observations that analyze those fea-tures, and a set of questions to consider as you thinkabout your own classroom or school. The goal ofthe overview is to illustrate the complexity andmultiple d imensions involved in filtering the cha ngeprocess through each particular school setting.

While each school has its own rich and uniquestory, all the cases follow the same general progres-sion. First, we concentrate on the history of imple-mentation at the particular site. Second, we de-scribe current practices, including specific class-room examples of the reform. Third, we addressthe continuing issues and challenges the reformposes for the school.

Introduction 1

California Role'We chose schools in California because so

much retorm act ivity is occurring in that state. Fourmajor forces have accelerated middle grade reformin California. First, the Califoraia Department otEducation (CDE) issued Caught in the Middle, ablueprint tor broad-based, middle grade reformthat includes numerous specific recommendations.

Second, the CDE actively supports two net-works of schools that arecommitted to carrying outthe reforms of Caught in the Middle. One network,founded in 1988, links Foundation and PartnershipSchools in 10 geographic regions coveringthesta te.Each has a designated hub, or Foundation school,that takes primary responsibility for regional coor-dination and assistance. Each Foundation schoolhas nine to 12 affiliated Partnership schools. Theother network, founded in 1990, expands the num-ber ot schools with Partnership status. An addi-tional 111 schools are divided among 11 state re-gions. Within each region, schools set commongoals and share expertise and resources. rresently,a total of 226 schools are involved in these twonetworks.

third way that C DE supports midd le graderetorm is through its quality. criteria. Documentedin Qua/ itu C riteria tor Middle (rades (Ca I ifornia StateDepartment of Education, 1989), these criteria aredrawn trom Caught in the Middle and state guide-lines on curriculum. State funds from the SchoolImprovement Program (SIP) are made available toany middle school willing to embark on a conscien-tious process ot meeting the criteria. Doing soinvolves tou r steps: planning, implementation, self-eva luation, and evaluation by an outside team.

A fourth catalyst for middle grade reform inCalifornia is the California League of Middle Schixils(CLMS), a professional organization serving ap-proximately 14,000 practitioners through individualand institutional memberships. CLMS is devotedto encouraging the implementation ot middle gradereforms and sharing of middle grade research,ideas, and training.

Site Selection and VisitsIn soliciting potential participants for this

casebook, we sent letters to members of the Foun-dationand PartnershipSchool Network and CLMS.

2 Instructional Challenge

Eighty-three middle grade practitioners responded(primarily principals, but also some teachers anddistrict administrators). All indicated interest inthe project. Using this initial list, we identified 79middle grade schools as candidates for study. Ex-tensive phone interviews with each schcol fol-lowed, revealing schools had highly developedreforms that had been in place for some time.

Four or five schools were selected in each ofthe areas ot heterogeneous grouping, cooperativelearning, active learning, and interdisciplinary in-struction based on their progress and expertise inthat area. We were mindful of representingCalifornia's economic, geographic, and ethnic di-versity. Three of the 17 schools serve higher socio-economic (SES) populations. Eight serve middle ormixed SES populations, and six serve lower SESpopulations. Eight are in northern California, withthe remainder spread across the central and south-ern part of the state. Nearly all have substantialproportions of ethnic minority students. The chart

p. 3 presents the demographic characteristics ofthe 17 schools, including grade configuration andschool enrollment.

We arranged two-to-three-day visits at eachNite tor extensive data collection. We interviewedadministrators (e.g., principals, assistant princi-pals), teachers, students, and other key people;observed classes where instructional practice dem-onstrated reform; and collected sample materials.We then used our audiotapes and notes to shape awritten case for each school.

Suggested Strategies for Reading thisCasebook

The casebook can be used in a variety of ways.The ambitious reader, for example, can gain muchby considering all four chapters together. A thor-ough reading provides not only a good foundationin these four middle grade reforms but the oppor-tunity to see how each relates to the other three.Such insight is critical at each stage of instructionalreform. For instance, if your school is just embark-ing on middle grade reform, you'll be equipped forcareful reflection about which reform area(s) mightmake the most sense as a starting place.

At another level, each chapter is designed tostand as an independent piece. For example, thereader particularly interested in how other schools

9

Chait Demographic Characteristics of the 17 Middle Grade Schools

I, of the fourYears implementing reform areas

School Enrollment Grades SES % Minority the targeted reform being attended to

HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING

Willard 500 7-8 avgMcKinley 730 7-8 avg

Sequoia 1,000 0-8 .1 vg

Talbert 540 h-8 avg

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Piedmont 970 h-S avg

Benicia 930 h-8 high

Turlock 1,2o0 7-8 avg

La Villa 310 K-S low

ACTIVE LEARNING

Ben Franklin 480 7-8 low

Burlingame MX) 6-8 high

Margarita 300 ti-ti vgDe Anza 720 h-$ low

Hewes 770 h-8 high

INTERDISCIPLINARY INSTRUCTION

Buchser 1,300 h-8 avg

Fort Miller 870 7-8 low

Sparkes 670 444 low

Chaparral 1,230 6-8 high

68 8 4

55 3 1

10 5

23 4 1

fl3;

90

5

4

1

7 3 1

-,-, 3 1

45 -, 1_

19 5 -1_

10 11

30 3 3

KS-, 1

60 -,_ 1

47 1 4

indudes mixed SFS

Introduction 3

have gone about implementing heterogeneousgrouping can turn to that specific chapter.

Whatever your purpose, we recommend be-ginning with the chapter overview. Besides beingan organizer, each overview alsooffers backgroundOn the given reform and a framework for thinkingabout the chapter's cases. More important, eachpresents a series of reflections and questions tostimulate in-depth analyses of the cases andultimatelyto help the reader apply the specificsof the given reform at his or her own school site.Next, read each of the cases in the chapter. Thenreturn to the overview as a summary and guide tohelp you synthesize what you've read.

1 1


HETEROGENEOUSGROUPING

BEST COPY AVAiLAILE

12

CHA PTER 1

HeterogeneousGrouping

ETEROGENEOUS grouping is an in-

structional mandate for equity an

effort to ensure that all students have equal access

to what a school has to offer. It requires that middle

schools abandon the long tradition ot tracking

i.e., "identifying and grouping students for instruc-

tional purposes according to presumed ability and /

or demonstrated acadernic achievement" (Califor-

nia Office of Middle Grades Support, 19S7, p.

leterogeneous grouping implies an opposite

a pproach. Students are assigned to classes with no

direct reference to ability differences as measured

3 Chapter One: Heterogeneous Grouping 5

by standardized tests, teacher observation, or othersimilar criteria. Many further claim that heteroge-neous grouping is best accomplished not by ignor-ing student achievement levels in class schedulingbut instead by purposely attempting to balance themix ot students in each class so as to represent theschool's overall composition.

Although research has not produced conclu-sive proof that heterogeneous grouping at them iddle grades enha nces student achievement, thereis compelling human evidence to suggest thatschools should try this means of eliminating track-ing.

Those who tavor tracking have long arguedthat homogeneous classes allow teachers to in-struct according to students' differing needs, re-sulting in higher achievement tor all. But propo-nents of heterogeneous grouping assert that track-ing damages lower achievers in ways that cannotbe adequately documented bY a few test scores:'Time and again, young people placed in lower

academic tracks or classes, otten during the middlegrades, are locked into dul I, repetitive instructionalprograms leading at best to minimum competen-cies. The psychic numbing these youths experiencefrom a 'dumbed-down' curriculum contrastss!larply with the exciting opportunities tor learn-ing and critical thinking that students in the highertracks or classes ma v experience" (Carnegie Coun-cil on Adolescent Development, 1989). That suchacademic inequities indeed exist in tracked schoolshas been persuasively documented (Oakes, 1985).

At the very least, heterogeneous groupingshouid involve lower (and middle) achievers in amore interesting and challenging curnculum. Thesesame students also appear to benefit from the ex-ample set by higher achievers. I ligher achievers, inturn, may derive extra rewards trom opportunitieste lead and instruct fellow students.

These scenarios assume that teachers willprovide a relevant curriculum and also assure highlevels ot student participation by using such ap-proaches as cooperative and active learning. Fur-ther research is needed to show whether thesepractices result as intended in higher achieve-nwnt, since most existing' tudies predate the rise ofnew teaching approaches and ignore instruction asan intervening variable.


"Detracking" requires structural changes suchas altering course labels, class schedules, and theways students get assigned. These alone can causetumult. But the real challenge begins when stu-dents enter the classroom, and that challenge restswith teachers. Hetergeneoi is grouping makes teach-ers rethink their educational philosophies, coursecontent, means of instructional support, and in-structional techniques and styles. The cases in thischapter illustrate how four different faculties haveresponded to this tall order.

CONTRASTING THE CASES

Table I summarizes kev organizational andinstructional characteristics ot the tour cases. Thepattern ot similarities and differences suggests anumber of things that educators implementingheterogeneous grouping at a school might con-sider, including the following observations andquestions:

Observation: In all four cases, not one schoolhas yet been able to heterogeneously assign stu-dents to all basic academic classes. This is true evenat Sequoia and Willard, where detracking begantive and eight years ago, respectively. The percep-tion is that students with d iftering abilities are mostdifficult to mix in math classes. But retaining trackedmath classes tends to affect the scheduling of otheracademic classes, even when conscientiou s effort ismade to counter the effects. GATE and "honors"classes also are relatively difficult to absorb into anequitable schedule.

Why is it so difficult to "detrack" an entireschool schedule when, from a purely ad-ministrative point of view, total detrackingwould be easier to accomplish than retain-ing a few tracked classes? How does schoolsize affect the dynamics of scheduling, es-pedally when one or more tracked sub-jects still exist? If you were to begin theprocess of detracking at your school, whatwould be the most effective method? Forexample, would you opt for a gradual orquick process? !low would you determinewhat subject areas to begin with?

Schools that are very small (e.g., a K-8 ruralschool) usually have no choice but to em-ploy heterogeneous grouping. What, it any,

14

Table 1: Heterogeneous Grouping Comparisons Among the Four Schools

WILLARD

Organizational Attributes

Humanities grant motivatedprmcipal and humanitiesteachers to begin detracking

MCKINLEY

Supenntendent and localboard of educationrecommended detracking

SEQUOIA

Cooperative learningtraining motivatedprincipal and teachers tobegin detracking

TALBERT

Detracking motivated byprincipal's middle schoolphilosophy and staffconsideration of Caught inthe Middle

Immediate detracking othumanities core; othersubjects phased in; all exceptmath eventually detracked

Detracking ot most classestook place in second year ofplan except math and one"honors" core per grade

Immediate detracking ofall basics; math tracksreinstated one year later;7th and Sth GATE studentsmeet before school begins;nth GATE students arepulled out once a week

Immediate detracking of allbasics except 7th and 8thgrade math

Principal is stalwart advocate ot heterogeneity and supports teacher adjustment with resources and training

Continuing chalkmges from board and parentsto reinstate more tracking

Instructional Attributes

Backup classes in reading,math tor lower achievers

Smaller class sizes andextended core penods

Parental pressure tomaintain GA FE andtracked math

Parental pressure tomaintain tracked math

Use ot core periods and nthgrade teacher teams

Support from adult and peertutors, homework center

Support from peer tutorsand study teams

ligh level of teacherL-oordination and controlover curriculum

Teachers "over.plan''cumculum to accommodatehigher achievers

Teachers create moretkAible assignments

Conscious use of technitlues to motivate and involve students. especially woperative learnmg


are the implications of this for largerschools?

Observation: A move to heterogeneousgrouping begins with an administrative decision.Nearly all teachers will be affected. While princi-pals at the tour schools sought to maximize teacherbuy-in before starting the process, many staff re-mained ambivalent or opposed as the change wasinitiated. Most, but not all, of these reluctant teach-ers were "converted" once they saw changes instudent behavior and performance that seemedassociated with the switch to heterogeneous group-ing.

What factors might make a teacher at Yourschool unwilling support the move toheterogeneous grouping? Consider eachand suggest measures that could preventor minimize negative impact. Should thedecision about detracking take into ac-count that many initially reluctant teach-ers do change their minds? Could theseteachers become resources at their ownand other schools? How?

What, it any, critical mass of support shoulda principal have before mandating thechange to heterogeneous grouping?

Observation: When teachers at the tourschools reflected on the most salient benefits ofheterogeneous classes, many cited improved moti-vation, participation, and achievement among stu-dents who had previously been identified as lowerachievers. They attributed this to increased aca-demic opportunities, collaborative work with otherstudents, and exposure to positive role models,both social and academic.

While many teachers readily testify to waysthat students benefit from heterogeneousgrouping, they've probably given lessthought to the reform's impact on theirown professional lives. How might theassignment to teach heterogeneous classesaffect a teacher's professional growth andmorale? How might this impact differ ac-cording to previous assignments (e.g., ateacher who once taught honors classesversus one used to working with remedialclasses)?


Observation: Heterogeneous groupingevokes a strong political reaction from two influen-tial groups parents and local boards of educa-tion. In all four cases, parents have exerted success-ful pressure to maintain some classes for higherachieving students. In two of the schools, the de-gree of board support fluctuates, depending onmembership and/or parental pressure. Contro-versy is heightened when ethnic and socioeco-nomic d istinctions a re perceived as related to formertrack assignments.

What are the best ways to educate schoolboards and parents about heterogeneousgrouping? Once a school staff has optedfor a predominantly heterogeneous pro-gram, how can it best prepare for vacillat-ing public opinion and unpredictable lev-els of support?

Many teachers in ethnically diverse schoolsseem to develop a particularly strong per-sonal commitment to heterogeneousgrouping because -f its equity goals. Doesa teacher's commitment to equity haveimplications for communication with stu-dents, parents, and others? In what ways?What else might be affected?

Observation: in response to heterogeneouslygrouped classes, some teachers in all four schoolshave either added cooperative learning to theirrepertoire of instructional strategies or expandedtheir use of it. Many, however, have not madedramatic chi.nges in instructional practice but areaccomodating heterogenity by altering the contentof their lessons, establishing greater relevance forthat content, and expanding the range ot studentassignment options.

What advice would you have tor a teacherof tracked classes who uses more tradi-tional instructional approaches a nd is aboutto start teaching heterogeneously groupedclasses: Which instructional methods arelikely ta be most effective? Why? Do youthink direct instruction has an importantplace in the heterogeneously grouped class-room? When would it be most effective? Ifteachers use it, a re there anv potential dra w-hacks for students that they should be es-pecially sensitive to?

111

BACKING UP HIGH STANDARDS: WILLARD JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL (BERKELEY)

Wit lard lumor I figh ticcupws a large portion at a NOCk bantered On one end by a 1711S11 t'OMMelTlai

,treet and on the other by the beginnings of an attractive residential neighborhood that continues up

mto the hills. Enrollinent shghtlY trwer than 300 seventh and eighth graders reflects. tilt'

41011Onlit- and ethnic diversity ot the coinmunity. The student population is 5.3 percent black, 32

percent white, eight percent Asian and rive percent Hispanic. with the remainder a combination at

other ethme-ines. 1.-Shile some students cow from nilper-muldle t lass homes. others live in impoper-

islud conditions where malnourishment . tare by siblings. or exposure to trade' in illegal drugs are :It

too common, Most classes are taught in One large, t oncrete, split-level building. Tlw school also hiei

an administration budding, an anditornon and tine arts complex, a gymnasium and pool lymph. v

stTeral portable' classrooms. 4Villard has been -.eke-fed a Middle Grades Partnership School.

Oates ot Mau 7 . icon. Pr melon: 1-11,.1-4t1ne im

iii MO it)itYl !Wilde t' halleiNedthe higher people who are truing to learn. 1 he lower

people saw, They' ,e learunN. an be 111-4 41

Whall I ey/ain !,1117111/ttiti,7 to %Oiltettfle, It help

inifterqilliti it MO11. MOO

teaCile Other+.

People who a re tor track:rt.; sat/. IhetiNhaChlei"-114tUdentSaren't learning enonh. That's bull. In thk;

theu grce the most adz,anced work to et-erybody,and everubodti is pulled up.-

fere they' re saying, tVe'lt gear Ilan up so youan ill) ire/I itnei inaube get into high trth ks in high

-Tracking puts a limit on your tI/nut y to do things,lit a lower-track class. you would mostlu be learning the

-ame !:tutf ore,- dotnAnd the whole point or!,chool is to expand your knowledge'. It tltis school uvre

tracked, people in lUgher-track classes would hinT ii

omplete advantage.'"

'typical comments from Willard students

i7

TAKING nu PLUNGE:

I leterogeneous grouping was introduced atWillard in 4S2. It was a key aspect ot the school'splan tor carrying out its Demonstration Program inReading and I Iumanities under a new (aliforniastate Department ot Education grant. The granthad quickly set several forces in motion. First,faculty decided to concentrate on developing anew humanities {English and social studies) core.including writing their own literature-based cur-riculum. Second, given low test scores and obser-vationsot poor self-esteem among lower achievers,faculty committed to the immediate "detracking"of the humanities core. Third, faculty put in place aunique support structure to enable lower achieversto participate in the core. This structure allows torsuch things as adult tutors in the English classes.But its main feature is the "reading backup" classfor students who a re at least two years below gradelevel on their CTBS reading scores. Taken in placeof an elective, these classes have students studyand map the readings that will be covered a weeklater in English. Special education students alsoreceive this curriculum.

Finally, the grant enabled the faculty to ini-tiate retreats. Each year before school starts, most


faculty meet tor several days to share and shapenew strategies and policies.

SOME RESISTANCE; MUCH SUPPORT

Detracking the humanities core had strongrepercussions. "Many parents of high achievingstudents tormed a Greek chorus and bemoaned thepotential loss ot standards within the class," re-members Willard's then-principal. Not surpris-ingly, some of these parents pulled their childrenout ot the school. One humanities teacher alsoresigned. Most humanities taculty, however, wereexcited and dedicated to instituting the change.The adult tutors were hired promptly. In the tirstyear, teachers reduced their teaching load bv oneclass, using the time instead to have a commonplanning period.

Since Willard begandetracking, transfers fromprivate schools haveincreased by 13 percent.

-There were lots ot perks involved in getting the,tatt ready'," says Ms. Um, the principal since 19$h.The change also had strong board support. "Fortu-nately, we had a board very committed to the lowerachieving student, So they went ahead, despiteresistance."

Today, mathematics is the one subject areathat remains tracked. In the rest, the method forbalancing classes relies on teacher ratings. Aca-denuc core teachers or previous sixth grade teach-ers rate students as high, medium, or low perform-ers in English and history. Students who needreading backup have an additional designationbased on CTBS scores, A specially designed com-puter program then schedules students and classesso as to maximize balance. The school's demonstra-tion program coordinator then makes some finalad justments.

While Willard no longer has the luxury af-

forded by 19M2's start-up funds, it continues to

receive demonstration program money. Also, city


voters passed a tax override measure several yearsago to raise additional education funds. Ms. Limreports that these funds have been a vital help inpreserving program quality, especially by allow-ing Willard to reduce class size to an average of 27.

Willard is now perceived as a very successfuldetracked school, she notes proudly. That reputa-tion has greatly eased her dealings with parents.She can answer concerns about high achieving kidsby saying that there's a fast-track program in allclasses. "I give them the facts: our classes are het-erogeneously grouped, and your child will be ahigh, medium or low. I assure them that all classesare balanced and all students have equal access tothe same instructional program." She cites clearevidence that parents are impressed. "Three yearsago, 19 percent ot new registrations were fromprivate schools. The following year it was 22 per-cent, and this year it's jumped to 32 percent, Fortv-eight transfers already have enrolled tor next year

all from private schools."

&HAMM; THE HUMANITIES CORE

The instructional program of the humanitiesdepartment, the showpiece ot Willard's heteroge-neous approach, is by now second nature to thefaculty, its smooth operation belies the level oteffort and coordination it requires.

The program is rooted in faculty cmsensusabout what will be taught. Eight years ago, teachersdecided that English would revolve around a spe-cific set of novels. For example, in seventh grade,students read Swami , The Good Earth, .Sou nd Wares,Romeo and fuliet, lvan the Fool, and Walkabout. Foreach novel, groups of English teachers have writ-ten an extensive study guide which all teachers areexpected to follow (including the reading backupteachers who use them in conjunction with a spe-cial "Willard Reading Program" guide.) The 50-page guide for Romeo and Mid includes a readingschedule, background about Shakespeare, a tem-plate for mapping key aspects of the play, and anumber of discussion guides, project suggestionsand journal topics. (See attachment for two samplepages.) Exercises in each guide are consciouslydesigned to engage students in more complex pro-cessing of information.

Social studies teachers coordinate their topicswith English. When seventh graders stud y Tolstov's

18

Ivan the' Fool, for example, they simultaneously doa Russian history unit. Evenr year the humanitiesteachers prepare a calendar that specifies when thevarious topics get taught. Minor adjustments aremade as the year progresses. Such a tightly struc-tured curriculum is critical, explains the Englishspecial education teacher. "Right now, the seventhgraders are all reading Tolstoy and the eighthgraders are reading Steinbeck. Since I, for one, havekids from all different English classes, it would beimpossible to back them up if they were all readingdifferent books."

Though the English teachers are qu ite pleasedwith the interface between the regular and backupclasses, they are aware that the backup class is itselfa form of tracking. For that reason self-esteembuilding is an essential part of the backup class, andteachers teel it's been effective. While they've hadsome disappointments students who appear tohave "topped out" where they are stories ofsuccessful transition to regular English classes pre-dominate. Recounts one regular-class teacher:"When I first introduce a book like April MormiN,

say, 'Now this is a famous book hy Howard Fast.Some of you may have heard of it.' I lands shoot upamong the special education and reading backupkids who have studied and mapped this reading aweek earlier. The high academic kids don't knowwhat's going on. One time, a brilliantly verbalyoung man from special education said, 'Oh yes,this is a story about someone our age who is goingthrough his rite of passage in the first 24 hours otthe Revolutionary War.' Whoo! Those high aca-demic kids were outflanked and just astounded."

Regular English teachers have worked hardto handle the heterogeneity by using the specialtechniques mentioned earlier e.g., cooperativelearning or extra assignments for high achievers.One teacher uses her daily seating charts as a kindof checklist to ensure that she's called on all stu-dents, gearing questions to each one's abilities.Meeting so many needs is unquestionably a chal-lenge, but these teachers don't find it daunting."With all the levels in one classroom, their differentneeds occur at different times," said one. "So youactually can get to them an.-

1 9

SEVENTH GRADE ENGLISH: TEASING

APART TOLSTOY

This lesson illustrates high academic expecta-tions (content is sophisticated) and a high levelof participation across the class make-up (pri-marily black and white.)

Today, 23 students are seated in rows inMs. E's English class. As class begins, nearlyall takeout their binders and open them totheir log entries. Ms. E asks students toshare recent entries with a neighbor. Theyshuffle binders across desks. After a fewminutes, she announces that when she callsroll, each student should tell her how manylog entries they have completed.

Following roll call, Ms. E announcestonight's homework assignment: a "reflec-tion" type of log. She then begins today'slesson: a continuation of Section 9 ofTolstoy's Ivan the Fool. All students takeout their paperbacks. Most get out theirnovel "maps" as well.

Ms. E begins a fast-paced recita tion, quicklyestablishing a pattern whereby she para-phrases or reads key lines out loud, thenasks a series of questions. All but a coupleof students appear very attentive; partici-pation is good. The teacher sometimeswelcomes a chorus of answers; sometimesshe designates who she wants to respond.At times she signals some of her frequentvolunteers that they should hold back togive others a chance.

Here is one segment near the beginning ofthe lesson:

Ms. E (looking at her book): One of hisministers came to Ivan and said there's nomoney to pay salaries. Ivan responds,"Don't pay them." Now, listen to this: "Butthe people will stop serving." What does"serving" mean here?

Several Students: Working.

Chapter One': Heterogeneous Grouping 11

Ms. E: What kind of working?

Mike: Slave work.

Ms. E: Sort of. What kinds of things dothese servants do?

Jan: They bring your meals.

Sue: They wait on you.

Ms. E: And do for you what kinds of things?

Jim: What you're supposed to do.

Ms. E: Things you should do yourself. Thankyou very much. "Then, let them stop serv-ing," says Ivan. Now listen to this line. "Ifthey stop serving, they will be free to work."Write down, "They will be free to work."Where are vou going to write if? Jim?

Jim: Under Tolstov?

Ms. E: Right. Under Tolstoy's philosophy(referring to a section of their maps). Whatdoes it mean to be free to work?

Karen: You wouldn't be idle.

Ms. E: And what else? Come on. Figure itout. If you're free to work, what kinds ofthings will happen to your life?

Carol: You'll be happy.

Ms. E: You'll be happy. You won't have abig belly and be idle. You'll sleep at nightall those things. You're not worldng forthings that are not needed. Oka y ... "Peoplecame before him to be tried, 'He stole mymoney', said one. 'Well, why not?' saidIvan. 'That shows he needs it.' (Class laugh-ter.) Everyone recognized that Ivan was afool. 'They say you're a fool,' his wife saidto him. 'Well, why not?,' said Ivan. (Morelaughter.) His wife thought and thoughtabout this, but she too was a fool." Bov,you're not kidding read the next line.Why should I go against my husband?'she said 'Where the needle goes, the thread


must follow." Now, that actually is sort ofa nice little metaphor. What does it mean?

Several Students: Ivan's in charge.

Ms. Eastmoor: Right. Pretty Freudian, too.So, therefore, write it down under "lan-guage."

For another 30 minutes, the teacher leadsthe class through several more sections ofthe book. As class draws to a close, shereminds them that Tolstov is showing howthe logic of "the fool" is not what they areused to and vet it is indeed very logical.

COMMITMENT BASED ON A VISION Of STUDENTS

Willard statf have a very personal kind otcommitment to heterogeneous grouping. They'veclearly given serious thought to how students re-spond to educational environments. Articulatingthe thinking that prevails at the school, Ms. Limdescribes how changing the classroom climate hasbenefited students at every level. Tracking, shenotes. puts all the pt)or role models in one class.Moreover, teachers assigned to such a class tend togo in with lower expectations which lead them toteach repetitive, drill-type lessons. In heteroge-neous classes, low achieving students have accessto a more thought-provoking, challenging pro-gram.

But it's average kids, she says, who probablyget challenged more than anyone when a school isdetrocked. Since placement in tracks May be basedOn "very little information, just some judgments-

a student with much to offer may be labeledaverage only because he's quiet and slippingthrough the cracks. "Your average kid is the oneyou really don't know. Tliev don't shine and they'renot a deficit." A heterogeneous class allows thatchild an unprecedented chance to grow.

High achievers immediately find themselvesin leadership roles. "They not only get information,but they have to teach it or articulate it for others."Not only is that a powerful way t) learn, Ms. Limsays, but "working with people is one of the mostimportant skills in lite. 1 don't think we shouldminimize that."

.2 0

Individual teachers give specific examples otchanges they see in students since detracking. Ascience teacher, noting that science test scores havegone up every year tor the past tour years, favorssmall group work that allows students to serve asrole models for each other. "Good explainingmodeling of oral language is very valuable toour kids on the low end. Pretty sotm that startstranslating into writing skills. They may not get thelanguage the teacher is using, but they can see tromt heir neighbor's work what they're supposed to do."

This teacher had a ready basis for compari-son. "I taught a low-track math class last year, andI hated it," she said. "These same kids never actedout in science class. But in math, all kinds of behav-ior problems would :time up. They telt crummyabout themselves. You couldn't put them in coop-erative groups because there weren't any leaders.There wasn't a wide range ot problem-solvingskills. Verbal skills were limited. Atter that experi-ence, I'd never want to teach a tracked clas,.

Even the head ot the math department be-moaned "resistance to karning" in the low-at. hiev-ing track. She noted peer pressures that result fromthe lack ot positive role models. "It is not fashion-able to be smart. In subtle ways, their friends aresaying, 'don't do it, don't do it,

Higher achieving students may not resistlearning, but an English teacher recounted how, inher experience, they too are poorly served by tracked

t ua t ions. "You may think it's easier to teach whenvou have an entire GATE group. But what youhave is impulsivity running rampant. I know, be-cause I taught (AIT for many years. They wastetime in trial-and-error they lust plunge in be-cause they're so excited and turned on and moti-vated. it's hard to keep them channeled in anyway." Perhaps even more important, she says.; ATE students may be socially isolated. "It's scary

to think that these kids who may be our futureleaders have been in an elitist setting and not beensocialized." She also fears that this kind of separa-tion may be helping to create "a permanentunderclass."

MATH: THE BIGGEST HURDLE

The math department Willard's last %es-tige of tracking has two tracks: "grade levelmath" and "above grade level math." In addition,

21

some seventh graders in grade level math get extrahelp trom a math backup class. Math backup istaken in place ot an elective if the student does nothave reading backup; in place of science it he does.For those with very low skills (primarily specialeducation students), the derirtment offers oneproficiency class that relies heavily onmanipulatiyes. Finally. there is an algebra class foradvanced students, composed primarily ot eighthgraders.

The principal feels strongly that the depart-ment should try detracking, but math teachersare themselves at odds. The heart ot the matterseems to be that since math skill levels are moreeasily measured than skills in, say, literature,student differences are more apparent. With awide range ot abilities so clear, some teacherswho otherwise favor heterogeneous grouping areinclined to think that math is an exception theone subiect where heterogeneity would workagainst student progress.

The department chair, Ms. C. favorsdetracking. One ot her arguments is that those highachievers good at automatic production of answers%yin benefit trom the greater problem-solving ori-entation . t some lower achieversAt least oneother teacher is adamantly opposed; the rest havea "wait and see" attitude. Frequent argumentsarise over this issue at department meetings, withkis. Lim often involved.

Atter several years ot unsuccessful prodding,Ms. Lim is taking a "back door" approach todetracking math. For next year, she has put to-gether a volunteer interdisciplinary team at theeighth grade level consisting of an English, history,science, and math teacher (Ms. C). The team willt eac h a common, heterogeneous group ot students,To put such a group together, Ms. Lim has begunrecruiting parents who want their children assignedto it. At the most recent parent night, 40 parents otpredominantly higher achievers indicated interest

enough to balance two sections, says Ms. Lim,assuming that enough middle and low students arerecruited, But even this plan to detrack on a trialbasis has not met with the total approval ot mathteachers.

At a recent math department meeting, Ms.Lim flatly told balking teachers that despite theirresistance, she and Ms. C have the right to try out an


approach they strongly believe in and that at leastsome parents clearly want for their kids.

TAKING NOTHING FOR GRANTED

While understandably proud of theirachieve-ments at Willard, teachers know that much of theirsuccess with these highly diverse students is due tothe school's support structure. An important pieceof that structure is the uniform discipline policy,developed over the last few years and posted incapsule form in every classroom. The policy tries toachieve a balance of incentives and negative conse-

quences a great improvement over Willard'sformer, strictly punitive system. The most activea rbiters of d iscipline are the school's three "studentsupervisors" currently three black adult maleswho describe themselves as having "a physicallystrong presence." The three are ever-present oncampus, assuming roles that range from trustedconfidante to confrontational judge. With theadministration's full backing, they exercise thepower to choose appropriate disciplinary actionfor a given student. It is not surprising that facultyhave voted them as the most valuable staff mem-

bers on campus.

Teachers are also grateful for the school'satypical amounts of money and manpower. They

hold dear their special funding from grants andta pavers and view their substantial grou p at adult

tutors as essential for enabling small-group workand "catching kids up."

Even assuming that all these positive ele-

ments can be sustained, staff acknowledge a num-ber of problems. Math department resistance todetracking is clearly one. Another is the lack ofenough hours in the school day to offer back-up

classes so successful where they've been usedin all core academic subjects. Several teachers saythat the need is particularly acute in social studies.Some faculty also worry about the very small groupof students who are failing the school's academiccurriculum. They wonder if it would be wise at this

age to begin providing some non-academic alter-natives.

But the biggest challenge may stem from thevicissitudes of the Board of Education. In its eight

Years as a detracked school, Willard has witnessedchanges in board proclivities. Despite state leveladvocacy of heterogeneous grouping, Willard can


never be certain that the board will continue tosupport or even tolerate Willard's commit-ment to it. Indeed, there have been several recentoccasions when Willard staff and students have feltconcerned enough about board leanings that they'veattended meetings to testify to the benefits of theirheterogeneous classes.

22

IJust a few of the words and phrases Shakespeare used:

suspicious

gloomy

critic

dwindle

exposure

recall

misplace

impartial

catching a cold

elbow room

hurry

bump

fretful

courtship

assassination

monumental

distrustful

lair play

mind's eye

lonely

eventful

disgraceful

countless

inauspicious

dishearten

bare-faced

denote

pomp and circumstance

the King's English

THINGS STUDENTS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT THE PLAY

1 Who were the main characters on each side of the feud?

2. The Prince's edict3 Juliet's relationship with her family, her nurse, and The friar.

4 Romeo's determination to "be in love,' and his haste to act.

5 Friar Lawrence's plan to unite the two feuding families.

6. The reasons for and results 0 Mercutio and Tybalt's deaths

7 The disaster of timing.8 The reconciliation of the families as a result of the lover's deaths

9. Responsibility for trageiy is shared by those involved.

STUDENTS WHO READ TWO YEARS OR MORE BELOW GRADELEVEL

should begin the study of the play a week earlier in the reading support class

should use the maps they develop in the reading support class to help them

in English classroom discussionsshould be expected to know core concepts, mayor characters and the

sequence of events

should be expected to participate in class discussionsshould do all the writings expected of the class to the best of their ability

Vocabulary for Romeo and JulietTheatrkal

;Myact

scene

enter

exit

exuent

folio

prologue

Useful

civil

strife

tray

star-crossed

pernicious

portentous

humor

paradox

impute

garrulous

conjure

by rote

rancor

gross

feign

moderately

holy shrine

Questions using useful vocabulary words for whole class discussion and possible

writing at the end of the unit

In what way did civil blood make civil hands unclean?

2 Because of the strife in Romeo and Juliet "Ali are punished Explain.

3 Why is the families' rancor pernicious?4 In what way can foreshadowing be portentous? Give an example from

Romeo and Juliet.

5 What different meanings of humor can you apply to a discussion ot Romeo

and JulieP

6 What humor is Romeo? Tyball Mercutio?

7 What reasons do you see in Shakespeare's use of the paradoxes in Act I

Scene hines 176,185?

8 What do you find out from the nurse's garrulous chatter?

9. What kind of motives do you impute to Tybalt?

10 Was Romeo's love by rote for Rosahnd, as the friar states? ls Flornebs love

for Juliet by rote?

11. What is gross about the strife in Romeo and Juliet?

12, What reasons do you imagine the families will have tor going out to shrift at

the end of the play?

13 Is it medically possible for someone to feign death and not be discovered?

14 Why drd the friar advise the lovers to approach their love modarately?

24

THE REAL WORLD HERE: MCKINLEY MIDDLE SCHOOL (REDWOOD CITY)

MIMIC St11001 17. in a diverse, thriving community on the San t rinft-Itico peninsula. rhe

Irwin budding, a classic, two-story schoolhouse, dates back to 1930. Flanking that are two separate

and newer one-story wings. Approximately 7.30 seventh and eighth graders auend . Their homes

range trom /uxuru i1011Ses With 13ai View!, to Multl-fattlIlli one room apartments. Nearly halt (49

percent lot the studentsare Hismme, and most ot the rest 145 percent late white, rhe other ?in percent

includes manuditterent ethnic groups. About a Hu rd ot the students tire ulen titled as Limited EI1011

Proticient (UPI, a proportion that mcroises each war. On statewide test s. the school has improved

as relative ranking tor the last three wears in a row. Akkinhle ha !. aho bet.n named a Middle Grad s

Partnership School.

I taes ot Mau 21 and 23, 1'190. Prmotal 6,101 prdm

STEP BY STEP

According to Principal Gary l'rehn,McKinley's detracking progress over the last threeyears has come about beca Use ot superinWndentwith vision and an educated Board ot Education."These kaders, he says, conducted their own studyot ability grouping, then recommended its gradualdisbanding. MI this, he notes, occurred a couple otyears before CauOt in the Middle was published.

Faculty at McKinley largely favored thechange, even though, Mr. Prehn notes, "we went alittle backwards with the process." Because it origi-nak.d with the board, teachers didn't have as muchtime as they would have liked to be involved andprep-Iv-ea Several fought the change "tooth andnail, and the issue nudged a couple ot them toretire. Still, Mr. Prehn reports, most teachers had

come to recognize that the tracks created troublingkinds of segregation. "We were putting all thestudents with behavior problems together, and weweren't getting a socioeconomic or cultural mix ofkids. We really needed some of those kids to be inclasses with good role models,"

The problem was exacerbated by the natureof the elementary schools feeding into McKinley:"We bring kids in from two schools that are prob-ably 98 percent Hispanic, from another school that's


qt0.9 percent white, and from a couple that are fairlymixed. Dunng their two years here, we want to getthose kids together, understanding and appreciat-ing each other. Being able to work together and notalways he with the little clique you've been with forthe last six years is important."

McKinley has core classes in seventh andeighth grade. In seventh grade, the three-periodcore encompasses language arts, literature, and.social studies; in eighth grad.., the two-period corecovers la nguage arts a nd literature. Before the tran-sition to heterogeneous grouping began, core classesand math had been taught in the traditional threetracks: a lower "skills" track, a regular track, and anadvanced "honors" track. During the first year ofthe transition, the school eliminated the honorslevel for eighth grade social studies. The next yearbrought a more dramatic step: elimination ot the"skills" track in the seventh and eighth grade core.This year, the seventh grade "skills" math groupwas minimized, with half thestudents being placedin the regular track. This lays the groundwork fortotally eliminating the "skills" math track next yearat both grades, leaving each with regular and ad-vanced math classes.

In essence, then, the school has nearly accom-plished the disbanding of its lower "skills" track.Seventh and eighth grade science and eighth grade

2 5

social studies are totally heterogeneous. All butabout 50 "honors" students contribute to the stu-dent mix in core classes.

Today, says Mr. Prehn, teachers who previ-ously taught classes in the "skills" level track arethe first to say, "It's a lot more work, but it's alsobetter for kids," Throughout the school, teachersare seeing kids who were not succeeding in a"laned" setting doing well now that they are het-erogeneously grouped. Still, the idea of dissolvingthe "honors" core and advanced math classes re-mains controversial among the staff; resolutiondoesn't appear close at hand.

COPING INSTRUCTKINALLY

Despite general teacher enthusiasm, hetero-geneous grouping is far from easy to implement."Our t challenge is preparing teachers tocope with the difficulties of teaching such a widerange of kids," says Mr. Prehn. To meet this chal-lenge, teachers report using a variety of techniques.While some of these bear personal flourishes, allrevolve around a few common concepts:

Individualize. This, say teacheis, is perhapsmost important. Student assignments should haveenough latitude to permit each student to workaccording to his or her own level and ability. Onecore teacher does very purptiseful "overplanning"so that she always has several layers of assign-ments to give out. Her goal may be to get the wholeclass through her stage 1 assignments. But if shesees a group of students doing particularly well,she will move them along to stage 2. Another coreteacher sometimes gives her higher ability stu-dents additional and more complex humework. Ifthey are studying medieval times, for example, shemight ask the advanced group to research andreport on how medieval Europe contrasts withmedieval Japan. She also noted that some situa-tions, such as computer labs, lend themselves morenaturally to tailored assignments.

Be sure all students experience success, nomatter what their level. This concept is closelyrelated to individualizing. One teacher tries to giveassignments involving a breadth of proiects (oftenwith students working in groups) and allowing fordifferent learning styles or drawing on a variety ofskills such as oral presentation, writing, and art.This way, she says, "all kids have a chance to shine

at something. Some will g.-A A's for the tirst time.and it really raises their self-esteem." Several teach-ers reported that they grade student work largelyon relative standards that give importance tel indi-vidual effort and improvement. In one teacher'',core classes, for example, student skills in readingcomprehension and writing mechanics range fromthe second to the 13th grade level. Her approach tograding takes this range into account: "I won't gweA's to kids who write with errors, hut I also won'ttail kids if they try."

The idea of dissolving the"honors" core andadvanced math classesremains controversialamong McKinley's staff.

Use cooperative learning. Nearlv all teachersinterviewed made some reference to usmg coop-erative learning techniques. Twentv-seven ot theschool's 42 teachers learned the basics ot thesetechniques at a district inservice workshop a Loupleof years ago, and continuing support is availablefrom the district cooperative learning specialistwho is housed at McKinley. At the least formalextreme, some teachers regularly seat student!, inclusters to set a norm of peer assistance. But moreformal cooperative tasks also seem commonplace.One seventh grade core teacher UK'S cooperativetechniques in a social studies unit on the MiddleAges: students do some of their work in groups.they're rewarded with "serf money," and the classkeeps track of which group has acquired the mo..tmoney. Another core teacher whohas ex perimentedwith various cooperative learning configurationshas come to favor an unusual one: she has studentschoose their own group members for about two-thirds of their cooperative tasks. This approach.she says, leads to more success and less fnistration."I see no reason whv kids can't be inspired by thoseof their own level."

Keep class sizes small. McKinley teachersbelieve that relatively small classes make it easier titteach heterogeneous groups because they permit

26 Chapter One: Heterogeneous Grouping 17

individual attention. In the current teacher con-tract, teachers can teach a cap of 170 students perday in six periods plus an advisory. In practice,thisworks particularly well for core teachers, becausein core the same students are counted over againfor each period. One seventh grade coreteacher hastwo sections of three-period core with a total of 45students. This, she said, makes it possible to workwith a very diverse group.

Make sure that content engages students ofall levels. McKinley's teachers are committed tomaking instruction interesting and relevant. Thiscomes across even when teachers employ tradi-tional teaching techniques such as recitation andnd i v id ualized sea twork.

A STORY OF PREJUDICE

This lesson illustrates selection of a topic thathas a lot of relevance to all the students, anassignment designed to build on their personalexperiences, and good participation across classmake-up (primarily white and Hispanic).

On this Monday in eighth grade core, Ms.

C is passing out photocopies of a story theywill finish reading today. The story, "Prot-estants Cry Too," tells of a Catholicfamily'sreaction to the news that their oldest sonintends to marry a Protestant girl. TheCatholic father is deeply prejudiced againstProtestants. After his first meeting withthe girl, he feels he has successfully "ex-posed her." He finds her unemotional;be-sides that, she is a Republican, the daugh-ter of a bank worker, and a tennis player.The story ends poignantly, with the fatherrealizing that the girl has great love for hisson, which she openly expresses.

Ms. C begins the lesson by directing a well-paced reading of the conclusion. She startsthe reading herself, then calLs on studentsto read different paragraphs. The readinggoes smoothly, with nearly all studentsconcentrating. At pauses, Ms. C interjectsquestions to test students' comprehensionand interpretation of the stoiy.These ques-tions increase in breadth and intensity oncethe reading is finished.


After several "summing up" questions.Ms. C invites students to relate what they'vemad to their own experiences: "Think aboutpeople of different religions, races, sexes.What things do all people have in com-mon?' As students volunteer responses,Ms. C lists them on the chalkboard: feel-ings; human beings can be hurt; opinions;sports; compassion; thoughts; family; love.Ms. C commends the list, and then pressesforward: "I want you to think about yourprejudices. How many of you think youare prejudiced in some small way?" Asprinkling of hands goes up. "I would saythat in some small way, everyone is preju-diced. Let me give you an example of myown."

Recently at a train station, she says, twomen stood on either side of her, onewhiteand one black. Initially, she felt nervousabout the black man for no other reasonthan prejudice. Her nervousness quicklydisappeared once they struck up a conver-sation, and she felt ashamed for her mo-ment of doubt. Ms. C then gives a defini-tion of prejudice: "Prejudices are lies thatyou believe. For example, 'All blacks aredangerous.' These lies usually start withthe word 'all." A couple of students thenvolunteer examples of groups that pro-mote prejudice. One Hispanic boy cites theKu Klux Klan. A girl mentions Skinheads.

Twenty minutes into the discussion, theclass is still attentive and inquisitive. Ms. Chands out a folder to each student contain-ing the writing assignments for the week.A cover sheet entitled "Experiences ofPrejudice" lists six assignments:

Monday: #1 A personal experience withprejudice

Tuesday: #2 A classmate's experience withprejudice

Wednesday: #3 A student's Ifrom anotherclass) experience with prejudice

27

Thursday and Friday: #4, 5 and 6 Rewritesof #11 2, and 3.

The teacher emphasizes that the secondand third assignments will require inter-viewing others. She also states that all thework will be due on Friday. She then refersto the chalkboard, where she has put uptwo guides.

On the left is a guide for the first assignment:

A Personal Experience of Prejudice

Tell about a specific time when you expe-rienced prejudice. Either

you were prejudicedorsomeone was prejudiced toward vou

Tell in detail what happened and how youfelt about it.

Use quotes.

Tell your main point at the end.

On the right is a guide for all the urek'sassignments:

Experiences of Prejudice

Each experience should fill one pageand:

1. Tell about the experience in enoughdetail that the people reading it feellike they were there themselves.

2. Include exact quotes of the peopleinvolved.

3. Make a point about prejudice (writeit in parentheses at the end).

Ms. C goes over these directions. She thengives students the rest of the period towoik on the first assignment. "If you finishit, you won't have any homework."

2 S

THE "HONORS" HINDERANCE

One issue that stirs strong teeling at McKinleyis the possible elimination of "honors" core classes.Nearly all faculty favor the change. With just onehonors class in each of the two grades, only a smallgroup of students are being "siphoned off," somepoint out. Others believe the problems created bYthe classes outweigh their benefits. One problem isthat at present, the honors classes are predomi-nantly white. "Honors kids really are a separategroup here at the school," said one core teacher."They have a distorted experience because theyonly see white kids like themselves." Another prob-lem is the detriment to non-honors students. "Stu-dents who are motivated in mv regular classes feelit's a real stigma to be here and not in honors," saida core teacher (who in fact teaches an honors classand loves it). "They are always asking me, 'Whatare the honors kids doing?"

Even though she would disband honorsclasses in favor ot heterogeneous grouping, thiss.1111e teacher is wary of the often-repeated ratio-nale that honors students will serve as great rolemodels. She points out that a group of predomi-nantly white students is not Iikelv to be looked upto by non-whites. Nor do the honors students carrythe prestige ot being the most popular kids.

Yet another .:ore teacher explained that shesupports a total move to heterogeneous groupingbecause she has now had the experience of seeingher lower students (in mixed classes) doing chal-lenging work by mid-year. "I have taught giftedclasses in the past, and I find I am able to try thesame things with my regular kids. I pretend in mymind that they're all gifted."

The seeming unanimity among faculty foreliminating honors is not shared bv other constitu-ents. While the faculty had anticipated Board otEducation approval to disolve honors for the corn-ing school year, the board instead voted to main-tain the status quo. Because of divided board opin-ion about whether or not the school needs an hon-ors program, reports Mr. Prehn, the board hasappointed a committee to study GATE.

To McKinley staff, the board division reflectsa similar lack of agreement among parents, withmany of the wealthier, white parents exerting pres-sure to keep GATE. Some parents are very con-


cerned that their children get assigned to and stayin the honors program. One teacher explained thatparents can get frustrated even with the currentsystem because there usually are more childrenidentified as "gifted" than there are spaces in thehonors class. Teachers feel that often the parentswho exert the most pressure prevail.

A small group of parents actively lobbies theboard to maintain the honors program. "For some,"said Mr. Prehn, "there's a fear of the unknownfear of their kids being with Hispanics." Mr. Prehnbelieves that the parents' real issue is wanting theirkids to feel challenged, and these parentsneed to beconvinced that challenging all kids is what he andhis staff are committed to do. They believe thatthrough heterogeneously grouped classes, they cannot only achieve that goal but do so in a way thathelps prepare kids for their future in society. "Thisis the real world here, you know. It's not all whiteor all Hispanic or all black."

2920 instructional Challenge

Coop . . BETTER .. BEST: SEQUOIA MIDDLE SCHOOL (REDDING)

S,quoia Middle School is located ia a middle class suburban area of Redding. Within the last five years

the student population has doubled to the current 1,008 sixth. seventh and eighth graders.

Lumbering, once the predominant industry, has declined in recent years. Most occupations are

.4ervice or trades. Sequoia's stmknt population is primarily Caucasian, with 7.5 percent Asian, one

percent black, and less than one percent Hispanic. School pertOrmanee on statewide assessment tests

is average. Sequoia has been sekcted as a Middle Grades Partnership School and also received the

CalitOrnia Distinguished Sclwol Award in 1990.

Oates ot Visit: Mau 2-. , 1990, Principal: Ron Ramseu (Acting).

ir CAN BE DONE SUCCESSFULLY

"It takes some work, but with teachers andparents behind it, the transition to academicallyheterogeneous grouping of students can be done.,uccessfullv," commented Sequoia's acting princi-pal Ron Ramsey. Having been Dean of Students atSequoia for several years before becoming actingprincipal in October, he has seen the school shiftfrom a heavily tracked schedule to the current onewhere few classes are organired around academicability. "We've always had a good school," saidMr. Ramsey. "but we're better now than ever atmaking sure our instruction meets the needs of ourstudents. Heterogeneous grouping has improvedour test scores, students are busy and occupiedwhen I walk into classrooms, it's a happy campus.and students are more self-confident." Mr. Ramseybelieves that when people teachers or students

feel they are the 'best,' they produce accord-ingly. "Our philosophy at Sequoia is that we're alla team: students, teachers, administrators, par-ents," he said. "We all feel good about what we'redoing. That's why we're successful; that's whvwe're the best."

Former principal Jim Weaver, now superin-tendent of an adjoining K-8 district, recalled corn-Mg to Sequoia six years ago when most classeswere tracked largely, he found, becaus- insis-tence on grouping math classes by ability created

3 0

scheduling problems that worked against mixingability levels in other classes.

During that first year he focused staff devel-opment on cooprative learning, which entailedrethinking class grouping. " It's hard to do coopera-twe learning if you don't have a range of studentabilities," he says. "Actually, one teacher was re-ally the impetus; he told me that he could docooperative learning in science, but not in mathbecause he had no 'top' students who would moti-vate the slower ones and act as role models."

Mr. Weaver began talking with the staff aboutcreating more heterogeneous classes, especially inmath. At first teachers were reluctant to make anychanges. Said one, "I felt everything was fine theway it was." Ultimately, .Mr. Weaver made anadministrative decision, announcing that changeswould be made. "Most of the staff believed thatremedial classes weren't particularly effective, butmany felt the regular classes were," he recalls."That was the only time I implemented a programwithout buy-in from the staff. It was not an easydecision, but I felt it was the only way to avoid a lotof wavering back and forth and bickering. Even so,it was a big fight."

Mr. Weaver viewed the initial schedulingchange as an experiment. Only one upper-leveleighth grade algebra class was retained. The restwere rearranged to create more heterogeneity.


Numerous release days wew provided forthe mathteachers. Mr. Weaver remembers his statf's atti-tude as. "Well, if this is what You're going to do,then okay." They agreed to trv it for a year. Atyear's end, the staff and principal evaluated theprogram and determined that upper-level mathclasses were needed in three grades, rather thanjust eighth, These classes were scheduled kir thefollowing -year and remain today.

Mr. Weaver a ttributes the success of the sched-ul ing changes to the teachers. "Their willingness togo along with me was critical, especially in over-coming parental fears and concerns," he sa ys. "We'd

established a trustworthy reputation with the par-ents. Because they trusted us they too were willing

"What a differencedetracking has made. Inever sense resignationfrom the lower studentsany more."

Sequoia teacher

to try something new, particularly once they un-der:Aood that the program would be evaluated at; he ..!Q of the trial period. After the first year, onlya tew parents were still concerned. It was amazinghow quickly people grasped what we were tryingto accomplish."

"The only other issue tor our parents was the;ATE classes,- recalls Mr. Ramsey. "We really

wrestled with this one." GATE classes have beenretained, but drastically modified. From the sev-enth and eighth grades only 80 students were ad-mitted to the program. Classes are held in themorningsduring zero hour before theregular sched-ule starts In class, students work on major projects.For example, they are currently creating an entirecity, complete with currency, jobs, and city offi-cials. As the teacher explained, "Their city can beany way they want it. They can eliminate crime,disease, whatever. At the conclusion of the project,they will analyze their creation." The teacher knows


that the zero hour class was designed as a responseto parental desires to retain GATE: "Some days Iquestion the validity of bringing these studentstogether like this, but mostly I think it serves a need,allowing these kids to express themselves fully.They can be as 'nerdy' as they want to and it'sokay." Meanwhile, the size of the sixth grade GATEprogram was reduced, and it now operates as aonce weekly two-hour pull-out.

Parents a re comforta ble with the revised mathand GATE schedules, Mr. Weaver says. "Theyreally appreciate that we went out of our way toaccommodate their wishes a nd integrate them withvhat we wanted to accomplish."

Other than sixth grade GATE, the entire pull-out program has been eliminated. The resourceprogram has been consolidated and given far lessspace, thus torcing students and twchers to get outand around campus. Studen ts are in regulardasses,and the teacher and aide get out and work with a

ariety ot teachers.

SUPPORT IS ESSENTIAL

Once the scheduling had been changed. staffdevelopment activities accelerated. In addition tosigning his teachers up tor workshops, Mr. Weavermade a point of having them observe in each other'sclassrooms as well as in other schools. A peer tutoringprogram was implemented and student study teamsestablished. "I felt it was important to provide a lot ofsupport and assistance so teachers wouldn't feeloverwhelmed and alone," he said. He aLso structuredthe counselor's Sib differently, eliminating responsi-bility for testing, ad ministra tion, and scheduling, andmaking sure her tasks were student-centered andproactive. "The counselor is a change agent," he said."I told her to go ou t there and make this a better placetor kids, to look for opportunities where she can havemaximum impact with the maximum number ofstudents. Students need assistance with things hap-pening in their lives."

When he created the new schedule, he paidspecial attention to the specific strengths of eachteacher, matching students and teachers who wouldwork well together, even in the few upper-level mathclasses. "lie approached each as a piece ot a puz2le,each having differing abilitief, and strengths," saysone teacher. lie put us where we would have themost impact, where we could make t heschool a better

place. With 40 different people, there are 40 differentpaths. It one piece is gone, then the puzzle is incom-plete. We can't aftOrd to leave anyone out."

Mr. Weaver also spent a lot ot time in class-rooms to positively reinforce teachers. I le wouldhope to catch teachers doing something he wantedthem to do. "Then I would comment on it and theywould do it even more. Teachers are like everyoneelse when supported, they grow." Teachersgenerally a ppreciawd the principal's classroom in-volvement because, says one, -I iv would see whatwas working as we went through change. I le knewwhich lessons trom workshops were being utthzedlw which teachers, and he saw how students ofdifferent abilities worked together_"

ROLE OF COOPERATIVL LEARNING

Many teachers emphasize the unique needsot middle school students. As one says, It wasreally Our mutual commitment to providing thebest tor these students that prompted me to giveheterogeneous grouping a try." For the same rea-son staff explored cooperative lea rnMg.

No one is really sure which came tirst; coop-erative learning or Iwterogencaus grouping. Butmost bdieve vou can't have one without the other.-They go together," said one teacher. -I don't knowhow you could deal with a wide range of abilitylevels without cooperative learning. At the sametime, you can't do cooperative learning in a homo-wneous classro, )m. I tried cooperative learning myfirst Year in this school in a homogeneous class. Itdidn't work at all beca use there were no role models."

Sequoia teachers employ a variety ot teachingstrategies, many prompted by the change in class

structure. kls. C, tor example. Lliwilvs pairs herstudents, matching a high-achieving student with alow-achieving one. She distinguishes betweenachievement and ability and avoids pairing based onthe latter -The one with the highest ability is notalways the highest achiever," she says. She encour-ages students to teach their partners, the class, andeven their parents. She finds that having to teachtethers spurs even low achievers to greater heights:"They learn so much more when they have to teachothers. It surprises even me."

Ms. C uses a variety of different techniques in

her class, including discovery and inquiry meth-

'12

Otis as well as pushing students to hypothesize. Shealso assigns projects that require students to applyknowledge in order to achieve a particular endproduct; and she encourages them to brainstorm asa class. "I seldom use the text," she says, -but whenI do. I use a scavenger hunt approach, which isreally more of the 'discovery' method." I- Iowever,she's not averse to using direct instruction whenappropriate. -I wouldn't want to be restricted toone teaching technique," she concludes.

SIXTH GRADE SCIENCE

The filliowing classroom d...scription t:hows howMs. C. combines various teaching strategies inher class of 34 students.

Students sit in pairs at 17 tables, all facingforward. Ms. C tells each pair to selectsomeone to be -the recorder" and do theactual writing. She then reviews the stepsthey will take to complete a lab on thespectrum. One student is called up to readthe lab sheet, which says: "When you gooutside, one of you will be looking throughthe prism and one through the spectro-scope. Do vou think the spectrum you seetoday will be the same as the other people'sspectrum?" Ms. C commends the studentand has him sit down. After Ms. C repeatsthe question from the lab sheet, she calls onanother student to read more: "Do youthink the spectrum you see through theprism will be the same as the one you'll seethrough the spectroscope?" Ms. C com-mends this student, and then repeats thequestion.

The students are now told to work withtheir partners to review the two lab ques-tions "so you're very clear about what youhave to do when we go outside." Aftertelling them that she will be calling onepair to come to the front of the room toreview the lab questions, Ms. C gives themten minutes to answer the questions. Asstudents work together, Ms. C passes backgraded papers from a previous assign-ment and periodically tells them how muchtime they have left.


At the conclusion of ten minutes, Ms. Ccompliments her students, noting that a lothad been examining their instruments and"had some really good questions aboutwhat you're going to be doing."

Ms. C calls on one pair to share their an-swers. One of the students says, "We thinkdifferent people will see different thingsbecause of the way they conduct their ex-periment." "Very interesting answer," saysMs. C. She calls on another pair, and thespokesperson says, "We think the way youhold the prism will determine how thelight is broken up and what you will see."Ms. C responds, "Very good," and calls ona third pair. "We think the way you posi-tion yourself in the light of the sun willdetermine what you see," says this stu-dent. Ms. C comments, "Interesting. You' resaying basically the same thing everyoneelse is saying, but you also think where youare in relation to the sun's light will makea difference in what you see. Is there any-one who said, 'Yes, wewill all see the samething?' No one raises a hand. Now shereviews what they learned yesterdayaboutthe electromagnetic spectrum. "Remem-ber how I said that light is magic and weeach got a spectroscope and you went outin the halls with your partner and hadsome fun looking at the white light comingthrough your spectroscope from the sun.You saw a spectrum inside your spectro-scope. Let's pretend that you're at homelooking through your spectroscope, andyour little sister comes along."

She calls a student to the front of the roomand asks him to role-play with her. "Whatare you doing?" Ms. C asks, playing therole of the little sister. "I'm looking at aspectrum," the student replies. "What's aspectrum?" asks Ms. C.

The student sits down and Ms. C explainsto the students that she is going to callvarious pairs to the front of the room andthey are to role-play this same situation,


explaining to their "little sister" what theyare doing, and what they expect to see.

The first pair comes up and Ms. C remindsthem to bring all their materials, which shechecks. She then positions the two stu-dents and points out where the light iscoming from. One student takes her prismand holds it in front of the sun. "Good,good," responds Ms. C. "Now what areyou doing?" she asks the other student.This one gets out the paper, puts it on herbook, and puts it down on the ground."Great!" says Ms. C. "Now come on. Whereis it that you need to be holding the prismrShe asks the student holding the instil:-ment. "Of course, you have tohave it wherethe light shines onto the paper. How elsecan you draw what you see?" The studentadjusts her positioning so the light hits thepaper on the floor.

After going through this exercise four timeswith different pairs of students, Ms. Cinstructs the students to get ready to gooutside. She has them get their materialsand line up at the door, checkiiig eachstudent to make sure they have all neces-sary supplies before leading them out tothe athletic field.

Students immediately disperse over thefield and begin holding prisms and spec-troscopes up to the light. The wind isblow-ing and some students have trouble keep-ing their papers stationary on the ground.Ms. C goes from group to group. Stoppingat one pair, she takes the students' prismand repositions it, then calls out to the restof the class: "Hey you guys! We've got agreat one over here. Come over here andsee it." She hands the prism back to thestudent as several others come to look. Ms.C continues to monitor the activity, mak-ing similar announcements as she discov-ers something worth noting. For example,at one point she calls out, "This pair got sixcolors over here!" The students work forapproximately 15 minutes before Ms. Ctakes the class inside.

33

When students are seated Ms. C tells says"talk to your neighbors," which they doquite loudly. After two minutes, she turnsoff the lights to get their attention and tellsthem, "When I turn the lights back on, facethe front quietly and I'll ask you to tell usthe order of the colors in your spectrum. Iwant you to share what you saw, not whatyou think you were supposed to see." Shecalls on four different students who sharetheir observations . She writes the responseson the board, then shows an overheadtransparency of the electromagnetic spec-trum, taken from Critical Thinking SkiMTransparencies (Prentice Hall). "Okay guys,"she says, "I want you to turn your paperover and copy what you see up here. I wantyou to draw the spectrum that scientistssay we should see when we break up lightinto its different parts. I'd like you to makea little chart, just like this one up here, thenwrite in the colors as they are supposed tocome in the spectnim. Red will come first,then orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,and violet."

Ms. C monitors students' progress. As theyfinish, she says, "Okay now, I'm going toask you a real brain-teasing question. Whydo you think I put a circle around indigo?"she asks, pointing to the overhead trans-parency where she has indeed circled theword "indigo."One student says that shedid not see indigo in her spectrum. "That'sexactly right," replies Ms. C. "No one herehas mentioned seeing indigo. And do youknow what? I have never seen indigo. Whatdid I tell you yesterday about the numbersix and number seven spectrum?" "Thatmost scientists only list six colors in thespectrum," responds one student. "Sowhich one do you think some scientists leaveout of the spectrum?" the teacher continues."Indigo," responds the whole class.

Now Ms. C asks if anyone knows whatcolor indigo is. One student describes it as"a real deep, coarse purple." Ms. C com-mends the student and directs class atten-tion to their books, asking what color is

34

missing in the spectrum shown in the text.It's indigo again. Ms. C runs through thesix colors shown in the textbook: "Okay,we have red at one end, and violet at theother end. Now remember all the differentkinds of light energy we talked about whenwe first learned about light? How manyhave heard about ultra-violet light?" Al-most every hand goes up. "Ultra-violetlight does what to your skin?" the teacherasks. "It sunburns you," says one student."Right," Ms. C responds. "Ultra-violetmeans on the other side of violet."

Pointing to the overhead, she continues."We cannot see ultra-violet because it ispast the viokt end of the spectrum. Now,infra-red. Remember how we talked aboutinfra-red rays? Infra-red means less thanred. It is on the other side ot the spectrumfor red, which is the first color that we cansee. So infra-red rays go over here wherewe can't see them." She points off the leftend of the chart. "Now I want You to lookup here. I expect you to remember this forthe test. If we go from red to violet whathappens to the wave-length? What is thedistance between the cracks in the wave-length?" It decreases, says a student. "Yes,"replies Ms. C, "it decreases! It gets smaller.So violet has smaller, more squished-to-gether waves. You can see right here thatthe wave-lengths are much smaller. Whathappens to the energy of the photons whenwe go from red to violet?" "It increases,"responds another student. "Right," saysthe teacher. "It increases. So violet light hasa lot more energy than red light."

The students are silent. Ms. C pauses forapproximately 30 seconds, then tells themto "write these facts down. I want You todraw an arrow that says decreasing wave-length and another that says increasingphoton energy." As students follow thetransparency to draw their arrows, Ms. Cmonitors. Now she notes that it is time toclean up. As the bell rings, the studentsremain seated in their chairs until dismissedbY Ms. C.


SOCIAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT IS NECESSARY

Sequoia teachers believe that improving stu-dents' social skills is essential to improving aca-

demic achievement. One teacher said she takes the"Belly-Button-Out" approach with her students:"You start with the basics, learning about yourselffirst, then moving out to include otheis." Regard-less of the strategy used to nurture them, socialskills and trust are critical in creating an environ-ment where students can work together harmoni-ously toward common goals. One teacher pointsout, "If you're going to mix a wide variety ofstudents together, you've got to establish a climate

of cooperation and responsibility. That means teach-ing them how to do it." Another teacher describeshis classes over time: "At thebeginning ot the year,

I have a lot of Individuals' in my classes. By the end

ot the year they're cohesive, working together.That doesn't happen without a lot of social skill-building." And that always comes hack to theteacher. Explains one, "I always create a comtortlevel in the classroom. Thestudents have to learn to

trust me, then they'll believe. me; then they can trust

and believe one another."

IT TAKES PATIENCE

All this hard work is paving off. Talking toteachers, you'd think classes had been heteroge-neous tor much longer than tour Years. They cite

imprtwed test scores, greater student motivation,and a willingness among students to work withone another. "Students wouldn't have it any other

way now," says one teacher. "They are disap-pointed when they can't work with their group ortheir partner." Another says he has observed a lotmore care and consideration among students tor

their peers : it's almost like the students havelearned that today's world necessitates helping one

nother, waiting for each other." Cooperation hasresulted in better work, adds a colleague. "Stu-dents really are more creative and prolific whenthey exchange ideas with one another and work

together."

Although a few students periodically com-plain about wanting to work alone, these samestudents have also learned how to include others,to slow down, and to accept the fact that finished

products may not look the way they were firstenvisioned. "Students really have to becomplimented for their remarkable ability to ad-


just," Says one teacher. "For some it has been reallyhard, especially the older ones who had alwaysbeen in tracked groups before."

Teachers have seen student growth at all

levels. "I have seen remarkable growth in the RSPand Chapter 1 students." says a core teacher, add-ing that "the top-end students are not limited ei-ther; they can push anything to its limits. For ex-ample, I have two GATE students in one class thatI call the 'pendragons' because they had turned in28 proiects by the end of the semester."

Another teacher recalls that under the oldsystem, "I used to have kids come up to me all thetime and say things like, 'I'm in the low classes.'They telt bad about themselves and looked forhelp. I cannot emphasize enough what a differencedetracking has made. I never sense resignationfrom the lower students any more." However, hedoes occasionally hear some sixth grader GATEstudents, bragging about being "the top." "Theyhave an 'elite' attitude problem," he says. "Otherkids hear them and are aware that some studentsstill get special treatment." He believes that allstudents should be mixed together without anylabels and would like to see the GATE distinctioneliminated. This remains a controversial issue, es-pecially for some parents, and is not likely to beresolved in the near future.

Recent turnover in Sequoia's administrativepersonnel and uncertainty about who will be thenew principal have necessitated a "time out" pe-riod. A lot of changes have occurred over the pastlour years, and teachers continue to adjust theirteaching styles to accommodate them. In the pro-cess they've only gotten better. Asked what he feltneeded to be accomplished next at Sequoia, Mr.Weaver says it depends on the new principal. Buthe expresses confidence that whichever direction anew principal might choose, the staff would becooperative.

A sign at the front of a classroom says it most

clearly:

35

"Good , . . Better . . . Best,Don't let it restUntil the good is betterand the better is best!"

MORE THAN JUST MAKING A DECISION:

TALBERT MIDDLE SCHOOL (FOUNTAIN VALLEY)

Talbert Middle' Seluitil is located in Fountain Va !ley, a bedroom community in Orange County.

Currently. the school serves 5.3u sixth, seventh and eighth graders in a district with an openenrollment policy. Distrkt enrollment is iust now leVt'ling off atter a several-yea r decline: today there

are 5.850 in I I schools. ounpared with 11 .b00 in l chools in I97.3. Fountain Valley is considered

built out- : there is virtually niP room tor growth. Property .iNdues in Talbert's enrollment area range

from extremely high to low. Numerous students come trom single-parent tainilies at the low end.

Thlbert's achievement levels are diverse. but have Ivor improving steadily over tl..te .ast six wears.

Approximately 77 percent ot Ow student population is Caucasian, Itt percent Asian. and theremaining I .3 percent Hispanic and black. Teaclwrs teach a full seven periods each day, many in teams

ot two or tour.

Pates ot Visit: March 1..2. 1090. Priut !pal: Marc I her.

HETEROGENEOUSLY GROUPED EXCEPT IN MATH

Talbert Middle School has been heteroge-neously grouped for the last two years except torsome of its math classes. "Math is the hardestsubject area to schedule students into without con-sidering their ability levels," says Assistant Princi-pal Paul Kkmpner. "We also teed into a highschool that tracks the students, so we feel we needto prepare them for that experience."

In eighth grade, students are placed into oneof four math levels. Advanced algebra (one class),for top achievers, is a fast-pace course where stu-dents work toward taking a final test to qualify foradvanced high school math classes. Basic algebra(one class), for students just below the advancedgroup, is a solid, evenly-paced algebra class wherethe goal is fur every student to be successful. Pre-algebra (one class) is for students who will eventu-ally move through the algebra and geometry track.Finally, general math (three classes) is for the rest ofthe eighth grade students. Students in the upperma th classes are heterogeneously grouped for theirother classes.

36

Seventh grade has two non-heterogeneousmath classes, both pre-algebra. The top 70 mathstudents are placed here. "These students can thenbe directed into the best math placement in theeighth grade, based upon their readiness, their per-tormance, and their determination," says Mr.Klempner. The seventh grade math teacher makesthese recommendations.

Sixth grade students are assigned to tour-teacher teams (except for one group of studentsassigned to a pair of teachers). They receive mathinstruction as part of their team coursework. Thestudents are with these instructors tor most of theday, going out only for PE and exploratory. "Essen-tially, content is the same for all kveIs, regardless ofsubject," says one teacher. "But of course, somestudents will excel and we try to give them addi-tional work that challenges them."

THE SWITCH FROM TRACKING: SLOW AND

LABORIOUS

Paul Klempner believes that the school hascome a long way from ifs once heavily trackedprogram, "but it has been a fairly slow, laboriousprocess." Seven years ago when Talbert was a K-8

Chapter One: Heterogenetno Grouping 27

elementary school the district began feeling theeffects 01 declining enrollment. To deal with this,Talbert's then principal initiated the change to a h-

middle school. For its first three years, TalbertMiddle School was tracked: students traveled fromclass to class with the same group throughout theday.

Four Years ago, a new principal was hired.Thoroughly rooted in elementary and middle schoolphilosophy, he began making some changes. Forone, he started core classes in the sixth grade so asto limit the number of teachers students had andpromote the idea of a "school within a school." Tofurther ease the transition from the elementary"one-teacher-all-day" model to middle school sixth

grade teachers were assigned to a teacher partner.Fach partnership was then paired with another,making a total of four teachers responsible tor ablock of students aP day (except for PE and explor-atory). "The principal wanted teachers to have a'buddy,'" says Mr. Klempner. "lie hoped that astrong relationship would develop between thepartners, then extend out to the larger team ot tour.So tar, it seems to be working quite well."

The principal next sent several teachers to aworkshop on the state frameworks, and they camehack with information to sharewith their colleagues."liowever, this didn't address how we were to goabout detracking. All it emphasized was the needto he concerned about our tracking."

When caught in tin' Middle was published,spelling out its child-centered philosophy of middleschools, the need for detracking became very ap-parent to the staff, Interest in heterogeneous group-ing ran high. At that time even Talbert's sixth gradecore classes were often ability grouped. "simplybecause of the way we did our scheduling," saysMr. Klempner. We recognized that we needed tobegin addressing this issue seriously."

The next step was to break up the time sched-

ules of the "higher achievement" classes. Severalsuch classes, especially in math, were scheduled atthe same time. The result was that at all levels,groups of 60 kids would go through their schedules"in lockstep together," says one teacher. By stag-gering the higher achievement classes, all levelscould be scheduled in a way that avoided tracking.But this required a dramatic shift in the way themaster schedule was built as well as some trial and


error. Though today only tracked in math, "we'restill trying to limit the driving effect that mathscheduling can have on the rest of the schedule,"says the teacher.

To make the changes palatable to parents,Talbert did a fact-finding survey, held meetings,and extended invitations for parents to come visitclasses. "This seemed to alleviate a lot ot initialconcerns," says Mr. Klempner. Most such concernstocused on math. "This is why we ha ve gone slowerwith math classes and why we are still ability-levelgrouped in math."

Throughout the process, one ot the greatestbenetits to teachers has been administrative sup-port for attending workshops and conterencesandvisiting other schools. Several teachers say theywould like to do much more. Says one: "1 love to getout and visit other schools and teachers. Some-times the smallest thing I see can give me an ideathat develops into something big and useful,"

NEW PRINCIPAL ENSURES CONTINUITY

Marc Ecker was hired as principal this year,bringing a strong background in middle schoolreform. At his previous school he made the shift toheterogeneous grouping in 1984, and he stronglybelieves in supporting teachers with the resoercesthey need to teach. "You have to 'enable' teachersto have them be most effective," he says. 1 ie hasmaintained the practice of getting teachers out tosee what others are doing. He also provides manydemonstration lessons on campus.

"When kids were ability-placed, they had nomotivation to stretch themselves. They had nomodels to encourage them to stretch. We did sucha disservice to students before we got smart andstarted mixing them together." When asked howhe felt about the tracked math classes. Mr. Eckerexpressed the need to provide opportunities forthose who want to be ready for the most challeng-ing high school math. "liciwever," he stated, "wealso need to allow others into these classes besidesjust the brightest and the best. There's no black andwhite to things. Somehow we need to be able tolook at the grays and find ways to mix and matchwithout losing any of the advantages. This is thepart that challenges us as educators."

37

His dream is to eventually reorganize theschool to have open classrooms with more inquiry-approach learning, more focus on process, andmore connection with real-world experiences. Inmath, he would like to see no classes iower thanpre-algebra, with all students by eighth grade ableto complete that class successfully. He believes itcan be done, "but it's going to take somehard workand a very strong commitment from all of us."

ADOPTING NEW INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

"Cooperative learning goes hand-in-handwith heterogeneous grouping," says Mr. Eckel..Mr. Klempner agrees and credits the teachers' skillsin cooperative techniques as the major reasonTalbert has been able to progress so far in detracking.

Teachers knew that once the school beganmixing students, they would have to alter theirteaching so as to address a range of needs. Early on,a group of teachers attended a workshop on coop-erative learning. Over time, they've learned to usea variety of other strategies as well. "Some do`collaboiative learaing,' where students work to-gether collectively on projects," says Mr. Ecker."Others do a lot of simulations and role-playing,and several have used some of the 'Interact' strat-egies developed in San Diego."

One eighth grade teacher reports that sheadjusts assignments for differing abilities, modi-fies the amount of work for each, changes testquestions, and uses "learning hanks" where stu-dents individually target what they will learn andcontract with the teacher to do so She has alsofound paraphrasing from books to be very effec-tive: "We read from the book, then lestate what wehave just read. We also do a lot of talking after therestating, so everyone understands what is meant,and then we write. We really are working on twomajor modes of learning this way the talking/writing, and the reading/restating." Throughoutall activities, she includes much cooperative group-ing. "I've taught both the highs and the lows in mycareer, and it is so much easier for both sets ofstudents to learn cooperatively. It's easier for metoo, but also much more frustrating because somekids simply don't like cooperative learning. Theywant to work on their own, at their own pace. Youreally have to be willing to train them in a wholedifferent approach, not only toward learning buttoward life."

One sixth grade man/ woman team (that team-teaches sixth grade students five periods per dayand independently teach two periods in othergrades) has found that cooperative learning groupsare very successful when created by mixing organi-zational rather than cognitiveabilities. "Manygifted students don't have the organizational skillsto allow them to do their best," says one of theteachers "The really organized students are notnecessarily the brightest, though they're often 'A'students." If the brightest students can't "pull ittogether and organize it," she adds, they miss a lot.So they need to be taught organizational skills. Herpartner agreed, noting that the range in studentabilities doesn't appear so great when you thinkabout them in this way.

"You have to be willing totrain students in a wholedifferent approach, notonly toward learning buttoward life."

Talbert teacher

To help students be as organized as possible,these teachers work hard to be organized them-selves. They put all student lesson s, homeworkassignments, and grades on their computer eachday a practice that benefits parents as well asstudents. "All we have to do when a student isabsent is pull the entire day's work off the printerand send it home." This teaching team also requiresstudents to keep assignment calendars. And they'veinstituted a "study buddy" program that pairs anorganized student with one who is less so. Theorganized buddy makes sure that the other gets theassignment sheet filled out correctly each day, thathomework assistance is found if needed, and thatwork is ready to hand in when due. "We're alwaystrying to find ways to help sixth graders study anddo their work better," said one teacher. "The 'studybuddy' program really makes a difference, espe-cially for the 'C' student who can get grades raisedto B's or A's."


The partners also feel that they model well torthe students. They started teaming together threeyears ago when principals changed and find thatthis has created a strong sense of "family" thatstudents relate to in a positive way. "We really givetwo sides to almost every issue, and students alsoget to see the interaction between masculine andfeminine. Our diversity makes it okay for differ-ences to exist between them."

Although heterogeneous grouping is one of

the most sensible teaching models this team hasseen, they say what's usually missing is adequateadult assistance to take cooperative learning "tothe max." Each semester they've requested andgotten a student teacher, and they also frequentivuse the resource aide. These two extra adults in theclassroom make it possible tor them to group stu-dents according to ability level for math instruc-tion. (They try to form groups according to abilityto handle abstraction. One prtner teaches the lowergroup in a very concrete way, while the otherteaches the same lesson to the higher group moreabstractly. The higher group gets different. ratherthan additional work.)

Even more adult assistance is needed, em-phasizes this team and not just tor academics."We need a counselor, for example, to deal withabused children. We need someone to listen topersonal problems and give advice about drugs,goa 1-setting, .ind the realities of Wafter school. Wehave such super kids that it's a shame we can' t give

them all the help they need."

They also emphasize the need to equipschoolsproperly. Regardless of how students are groupedor what teaching strategies are used, they note,teachers can only do so much in a limited environ-ment. "For example," said one, "we don't have anylabs for science. We have no equipment. Nothing.I did a dissection unit for the eighth grade scienceclass. I have no demonstration table, so 1 sat down

on the floor in my dress and pumps and did it in themiddle of the floor. Students stood on chairs andtables above me so they could see. We don't reallyhave facilities here to accommodate a true middleschool."


IN THE CLASSROOM

On observation days , classroom situations thatbest demonstrated heterogeneous grouping atTalbert tended to be those where teachers wereeffectively using cooperative learning. The fol-lowing two examples portray staff commit-ment to cooperative learning as a means tosuccessful debarking. They show the relativeease with which all students can take part inclassroom work.

Eighth Grade Social Studies:Constitutional Convention

Students enter the room and rit in theirassigned groups of four. (There are ninesuch groups.) The teacher begins: "You area delegate from your home state, and youhave come to meet with other delegates todiscuss six major issues: representation,slavery, western lands, the money system,states' rights, and choosing a chief execu-tive." The issues are written on the board.The teacher mentions that it is very hot inthe delegation room and throughout thecity, and there is no air conditioning.

The teacher assigns each student to be adelegate from a particular state, then hasthem change tables to sit with fellow del-egates from the same state. (Each tableholds a large, hand-lettered card, bearing astate's name.) The students make the shiftwith a minimum of effort. "I'll give yousome time to meet with the other del-egates," the teacher says. "Keep your meet-ing in order," she reminds them as theybegin discussion. On each table are quota-tions from the various delegates whoseidentities students are assuming. Theteacher gives them 15 minutes to discussand prepare themselves for the large groupsession to follow.

At the conclusion of the allotted time, theteacher requests attention from the studentsand assigns one to the front of the room toadas chair, reminding them of the importanceof keeping order in their meeting.

39

The chair opens discussion trom the del-egates by pointing to "slavery" on the black-board. "Let's begin with slavery," she says."What is it that you want to see accom-plishedr Hands go up, and the chair callson a delegate. "Our group feels that smallerstates should be allowed to have slaves,whereas larger states should not." Imme-diately, another delegate responds, "Noone should be allowed to have slaves."Another says, "We should all be allowed tohave slaves." A short discussion ensues,then the chair asks for a motion. The firstmotion is to allow smaller but not largerstates to have slaves; it is defeated by vote.The second is to ban slavery in all states; ittoo is defeated by vote. At this point, theteacher steps in and informs the delegatesthat at the original delegation meeting norecommendation on slavery was passedfor inclusion into the Constitution. Shepoints out similarities between today's dis-cussion and the original.

The chair continues to work through thevarious issues, finishing all but two whenthe teacher stops the class just prior to thebell. "We will complete this activity tomor-row," she says. "In the meantime, I wantyou to look back over your experiencetoday and think about how this mightreally have been." Students are dismissedas the bell rings.

Eighth Grade Core

Thirty-two students are in two rooms sepa-rated by a partially open sliding door. Thereare two teachers, each of their desks situ-ated so they can see both spaces simulta-neously. These teachers frequently teamteach all 32 students together. But on thisparticular day the students have been sepa-rated, and eoch teacher is teaching a sepa-rate activity. Students are seated at eighttables, four students per table.

One teacher begins by reminding studentsto settle down after their recent field trip toCatalina Island. Using assertive discipline

4 0

techniques, the teacher writes two students'names on the board, which has the imme-diate effect of quieting the students. As thestudents give the teacher their attention,she says they will be doing a "quick-write"to get ready for the discussion to follow.She gives them instructions to indepen-dently write what they liked about the trip,then what they didn't like. "You will havefour minutes," she says. Students immedi-ately begin making lists, some dividingtheir papers in ha lf, others iust listing what-ever comes to their minds with no attemptto categorize.

At the conclusion a the four minutes, theteacher stops the students and says, "Shaneat your tables now, Your best and yourworst. Come up with the 'best of the best'and the 'worst of the worst.' You will havetwo minutes to get a consensus at yourtable. Get ready. Now, go!"

Students share for five minutes. Then theteacher calls their attention to the front otthe room. "I'm going to go around thetables now. You will need a spokespersonto share what your group determined asthe Ivst and the worst." She calls on eachtable and one student stands up to reporton the group's decisions. One table, forexample, felt the worst was the food andthe cabins; the best was the night hike.Another group felt the worst was bath-room duty while the best was lab activities.When all groups have shared, the teacherthrows out a question: "If you could havechanged the trip, what would you havechanged?" In a brainstorm tormat, stu-dents come up with ideas and the teacherputs them on the board. When they finish,the following items are listed: warmerwater, better food, longer time on the trip,a day off following the trip, more sleep, noloss of points if you don't dive, McDonald'sfood for dinner, and more lab activities.

Students maw talk in their groups aboutwhat they felt could have been handleddifferently about the trip, with the teacher


directing them to look at thing ;.. that arerealistic "We want to make thu trip thebest trip ever for next you'sstudents." Thebell rings appmximately two minutes later,and students are dismissed.

IT APPEARS TO MAKE A POSITIVE DIFFERENCE

When interviewed about working in groupswith different ability levels, studentswereextremelypositive. They like the exposure to many view-points and ideas and the chance to learn fromhelping others, which for some is a brand newexperience. One says, "I give help sometimes, I gethelp sometimes, and I particularly like that westudy for tests together." Another speaks of "thereally fun activities we get to do as a group. It's somuch better than just writing out answers to ques-

tions from page one to page six." One student tellsof being sekcted as computer lab assistant: "Eachsix weeks we have three helpers who get to goaround and work with students when they needhelp. I worked really hard so I could do this. It's avery important job because you can't help themwithout being able to work with them. You have toknow your way around computers and know howto get along with people."

Several eighth grade students say they gainedmuch from their leadership program. "We go outand help sixth and seventh graders in PE," saysone. "I always Jr:urn a lot from this. I was surprisedhow much I had forgotten since I was in thoseclasses." Another notes: "Somestudents have goodleadership skills, which helps us get the task done;others have good ideas and can give good input. Ireally understand more when I work in a group of

different students."

Students do mention some drawbacks of co-operative learning groups. It's easy to get dis-tracted and end up talking to friends, they say.There can sometimes be a lotof waiting until every-one knows the answers. And everyone doesn'talways pull his or her fair share of the work. Onbalance, however, they feel they come out ahead.One describes the experience this way: "I lovebeing independent and working on my own. 1 getlots more work done. Sometimes, when we'regrouped, I say to myself, 'Oh no! I won't get mywork done.' But then I always get more ideas this

way. I really do think I end up learning more."

32 Instructional Challenge41

COOPERATIVELEARNING

. 42

N the last chapter we addressed coop-

erative learning for its value in teach-

ing heterogeneously grouped classes. This chapter

focuses on its potential to enhance learning whether

or not a school is detracked. Three of the four

schools portrayed here are tracked, and their teach-

ers are strong proponents of cooperative learning

strategies.

Cooperative learning is the popular term en-

compassing most forms of peer-based instruction

in which students work in groups. Well over two

dozen cooperative learning approaches

3Chapter Two: Cooperative Learning 33

have been articuhited. Some, such as Learning To-

gether lw the brothers David and Roger Johnson,apply to all grade levels and subjects. Others targetspecific ages and subject matter for example, Team

Accelerated Instruction, developed by Robert Slavinand colleagues, for math instruction in grades 3-6.

The primary aim of cooperative learning is to

promote collaborative, responsible, and facilitative

behavior in other words, to engender "truly coop-erative behavior" among students. "The essential in-gredient of cooperative behavior is the attempt of each

cooperator 1 student within a groupi to facilitate thetask performance or goal attainment of his or herfellow cooperators," writes Slavin ( 1983). This ahnOSt

always requires coordination and communication be-

tween cooperators, Slavin notes, but simply assigningstudents to work in groups does not assure coopera-tive behavior. Success depends on a number of factors,

including the nature of the learning task t he incentives

provided, and students' social skills.

Research has shown that cooperative, peer-based classroom activity can be superior to moretraditional teacher recitation and student seatworkarrangements, both in terms ot student learning andsocial skill development. This evidence doubtlesshelps explain why cooperative learning has receivedsteadily increasing attention from school practitio-ners over the last 13 years. Caught in the Middle, for

example, endorses the concept: "With the rapidgrowth of peer influence during early adolescencecomes the potential (or middle grade students tobenefit from school practices which are organizedaround peer-based learning activities" (p.

Caught in the Middle outlines three reasoms why

such activ ities can benefit student learning. First, when

the classroom is organized in peer groups, studentshave more opportunities to actively participate in the

learning process. Thus, the potential exists for increas-

ing "time on task," especially for those students whotypically withdraw from academic work. Second, shi-

dents in peer groups are likely to receive more kvd-back. Learning is enhanced if peers explain their rea-soning to one another as opposed to simply givinganswers. Third, since peer interaction is in tune withadolescent preferences, group work can lead to more

positive attitudes toward learning.

There are important potential social benefits as

welt According to Cohen (1986). student groupworkis likely to promote positive intergroup relations if


members of different racial, ethnic, or socioeconomicidentities work together. Groupwork is also superiorto individual work for teachingstudents to take controlof their own Itv ming, thereby socializing them for theirfuture roles as adult decision-makers and citizens.

This chapter portrays schools where coopera-tive learning is a well-established instructionalmethod, where staffs know that it means more thanjust putting students in groups, and where class-room conditions maximize chances of success. Thecases illustrate how different faculties use coopera-tive learning to meet school needs as well as theirown instructional purposes.

CoNTRAS11NG THE CASES

Fable 2 contrasts the four cases both organiza-tionally and instructionally, showing similarities aswell as important distinctions among them. The fol-lowing observations and questions aim to stimulateideas that will help both fledgling and experiencedpractitioners reflect on their instructional practices:

Observation: In all four schools, a small groupot two or three teachers initiated cooperative learn-ing atter becoming aware of it through their ownprofessional development activities. Events at threeot the schools, however, prompted the interest ofother teachers (e.g., change in school philosophy atLa V ina ; focus on improving instructional strategiesat Piedmont and Turlock).

Do vou think teachers are more motivated toi m plement cooperati ve lea rning when they see

it as an attractive instructional alternative in itsown right or when they see it as a means toaccomplish other, more global objectives (e.g.,bilingualism, heterogeneous grouping)?Why ?

In your school, what would strongly motivatet.2achers to empkw cooperative learning?

Observation: In schools with heterogeneousgrouping (for example, La Vina), cooperative learn-ing almost always finds its way into teachers' in-structional repertoire as an effective kvi for dealingwith heterogeneity. However, many schools thatretain some tracked classes are also attracted tousing cooperative learning.

In classes grouped homogeneously, whatproblems might teachers encounter whenemploying cooperative learning? How might

41

Table 2: Comparison of Cooperative Learning Among the Four Schools

PIEDMONT

OrNanizationaI Attributes

BENICIA

Teacher-driven innovation with strong administrativeand district support

TURLOCK

Site-driven innovation inresponse to teacher goal-setting; strong district,county, and localuniversity support

LA VINA

Site-driven innovationprompted by newprincipal; maim- school goalof bilingualism; strongdistrict support

Small cadre of teachers inspires and acts as resource forothersNo teachers with "expert"status; all trainedsimultaneously

Initial training trom outsideexperts; some teachers notyet trained

All teachers have formaltraining from outside andinside sources

Initial training fromoutside experts; someteachers not yet trained

All teachers have formaltraining from outsideexperts

Continued formal and informal training available to teachers throughout school year

Outside demand for expertise ot cooperative learning cadre


Backup classes in reading,math for lower achievers

Smaller class sizes andextended core periods

Use of core periods andsixth grade teacher teams

Support from adult and peertutors, homework center

Support from peer tutorsand study teams

High level of teachercoordination and controlover curriculum

Teachers "over plan"curriculum toaccommodate higherachievers

Teachers create moreflexible assignments

Conscious use of techniques to motivate and involve students, especially cooperative learning

45Chapter Two: Cooperatiue Learning 35

these differ according to the predominantachievement level of the class (high, middle,or low)?

Observatiom In three of the schools, the initialadvocates forcooperative learning disseminated theirpractitioner knowledge to colleagues and eventuallyachieved the status of "resident experts." Some ofthese same teachers came to be recognized as expertsoutside their schools as well, teaching classes and/orconducting workshops for other school staffs.

What are the advantages and disadvan-tages of having designated "expert" teach-ers at the school site? Since some teacherswill inevitably become stronger advocatesfor an innovation than others, how can aschool maximize this naturally developedresource? What are the implications for aschool of having one or more of its teachersregularly training teachers at other sites?What measures might be undertaken toensure that this practice is perceived aspi.itive and beneficial to the school?

At the three schools with "resident experts,"negative sentiments toward these teachersappear minimal. Contrast this with how"experts" in other innovations might beperceived (see, for example, the chapter onInterdisciplinary Instruction).

Observation: Despite attempts to train allfaculty members at the four schools, a certain num-ber resist regularly using cooperative learning orrefuse even to trv the techniques. While it's ac-cepted that some faculty members will remainnim-u sets, advocates feel it is important to continu-ously encourage these teachers to participate.

What would be your expectation for teacherparticipation if cooperative learning wereadopted at vour school? Are there any advan-tages or di.sadvantages to having the entirestaff subscribing tocooperative learning? Howmight you motivate less eager teachers? Withturnover in staff, how could you ensure thatteachers new to the school are trained? Whatare the implications of having continuous"on-line" resources available?

Observation: After becoming familiar withformal cooperative learning techniques and ex-

perimenting with them in their classrooms, teach-ers at all four schools eel comfortable developingtheir own cooperative methods. These methodsgenerally blend various models. In some instances,they are unique to a teacher's own needs.

Program quality is often measured by ad-herence to models. When teachers use bitsand pieces from research-based models todevelop their own, what new complexitiesare introduced in thinking about measur-able success? In your school, would it beadvantageous to define some common andmeasurable indicators of success for coop-erative group work? If so, how might thisgoal-setting be accomplished?

Observation: Staffs at all four schools recog-nize and emphasize that cooperative learning isnot an instructional panacea; they use it as one toolto achieve specific instructional goals. Most teach-ers report using it less than 50 percent of the time.

What goals and tasks might be most appro-priate for cooperative learning? Would theydiffer from classroom to classroom? Severalteachers experimented with using a muchexpanded format, then pulled back. Whatmight be an appropriate path of experimen-tation for teachers at your school? Why?

Observation: In cooperative learning litera-ture, some models focus on social skills, whileothers also encompass academic skills. The latter

" models assume that academic goals cannot beachieved without a strong interpersonal founda-tion. In all four cases, experienced teachers said itwas necessary to provide students with a rationalefor cooperation and to train them in needed socialskills. Teachers use a number of approaches toaccomplish these goals, ranging from informal talkto more formally developed lessons. Several buildevaluations of social skills into group accountability.

What are the ramifications when teachershave to take time away from their curriculato teach the social skills of cooperative learn-ing? In what ways does the critical role ofsocial skills in cooperative learning directlyaffect the formal goals of the teacher andschool? Which school constituents need tobe included in this change process, and howbest might the school include thk n?

PRODUCTIVE SOCIAL ENERGY: PIEDMONT MIDDLE SCHOOL (SAN JOSE)

Piedmont Middle School is in a middle class suburban arm of San lose, flanked to the east b rolling

hills. Approximately 970 sixth, seventh, and eighth graders attend , nwluding Asians (37 percent),

Caucasians (37 percent ), Hispanics (18 percent). and blacks (eight percent 0. Some (20 students.

primarily Asian. Ore identified as ESL. The great mawrity of classes areheterogeneously assigned.

Exceptions are One -honors" language arts class at each grade level and advanced placement of fop

math students to *her grade level or high sclwol classes. SChthil performance on statewide

ssessments is above average (60th percentile) and has been steadily improving in retrnt years,

Dates ot Visit: March 2b 28. 199(1. Principal: Patricia Stelwagon.

TEACHERS FIRST

Cooperative learning is a common instruc-tional approach at Piedmont Middle School, thanksto the interest and efforts of several teachers. WhenPrincipal Patricia Stelwagon assumed her positionseven years ago, the faculty had identified "in-structional strategies" as one of its highest priori-ties for expansion and improvement. Accordingly,Ms. Stelwagon supported teachers' inservice train-ing in this area. Several teachers gravitated towardcooperative learning as an important addition totheir repertoire of instructional techniques. Theseteachers have since formed a cooperative learningresource cadre that encourages and assists otherfaculty members.

Mr. J. a social studies teacher and the mostexperienced member of this cadre, has been veryi nfluentia l in drawing other teachers into the coop-erative learning process. He a t tended his first coop-erative learning workshop six years ago. The nextyear he and three other Piedmont teachers went toanother workshop offered by a local educator. He'shad outside training in specific cooperative tech-niques advocated by the Johnson brothers andRobert Slavin, and recently he and five other staff( including the assistant principal) were trained in adistrict workshop to be trainers in nine differentcooperative techniques, including "iigsaw," "groupinvestigation," "team writing using peer editing,"and "readers' theater." As part of this training-of-trainers program, the six got release time during

4 7

the school year for peer observation and coaching.Mr. J, meanwhile, also conducts cooperative learn-ing workshops for teachers at other schools.

At Piedmont, teachers are encouraged andotfered several methods to improve their coopera-tive teaching skills. A teacher may request that Mr.I observe a cooperative learning activity so he cangenerate solutions to a particular classroom prob-lem. To free Mr. J , the assistant principal substitutesin his class. Ms. Stelwagon also models cooperativelearning in individual classrooms. Finally, depart-ment and school-wide faculty meetings are oftenused as forums for discussing cooperative tech-niques. Meetings may offer presentations on topicssuch as how to build heterogeneous student groupsor enhance students' group social skills. Meetinggoals may be accomplished by grouping the teach-ers cooperatively (e.g., in jigsaw or "job alike"groups), or the agenda may include a report frommembers of the cooperative learning cadre on newor different things they are trying individually intheir classrooms.

The principal and assistant principal estimatethat approximately 50 to b0 percent of the teacherscurrently use cooperative learning on a regularbasis. All math teachers use the approach to somedegree. But cooperative learning is not promotedas an all-purpose instructional approach. "I do notbelieve in doing cooperative learning for its ownsake," says Ms. Stelwagon. "It's a tool to use for


teaching a curriculum, but not always the best tool.It has to be used intelligently. The first questionshould be, 'What's the learning goal?"

Among teachers, even cooperative learning'sstrongest advocates say it isn't Piedmont's domi-nant teaching approach. Asked how much timestudents spend in cooperative groups, teachersrefer to their accountability system. Mr. J, for ex-ample, says that students' grades are based on fourfactors, each accounting for 25 percent: academicwork carried out in cooperative groups; other in-class work; evaluation; and homework. "I triedusing cooperative group work for 50 percent of thegrades, but it didn't work," he said. "Kids becametoo dependent." One math teacher estimated thatcooperative group grades would be at most 20percent of a student's math grade, the rest based onindividual assignments, quizzes, and tests.

No SINGLE MODEL

Piedmont teachers, who are well versed indifferent cooperative learning techniques, unani-mously agree that teachers must ultimately use apersonalized approach. "The models are a nicecrutch in the beginning," explains Mr. 3, "but thenyou have to develop what works for you andthat can be a blend of different models." He, forexample, ends up adapting his own materials: "Ihave looked at Stavin's United States history mate-rials, and they don't really match what I have tocover. So I will take one of my activities and figureout how to teach it cooperatively."

The following three examples capture thevariety of ways in which teachers apply coopera-tive learning at Piedmont.

SOCIAL STUDIES

At the beginning of the year, Mr. I sets upcooperative teams to last three to fourweeks lAter in the year, teams stay intactfor about six weeks. Mr) selects the teammembers. In forming groups of four, hetries to mix high, middle, and low achiev-ers while balandng for gender.

One of the first activities assigned to newlyformed groups is designing a team logo.

31 instructional Challenge48

Mr. J emphasizes that team members can-not choose a name for themselves untilthey devote time specifically to finding outabout cate another. He says that this is oneof the things about the groups that kidslove the most.

In one of his Bith grade classes, inavidualstudent desks already are clustered ingroups of four. Mr. J explains to his stu-dents that they will be doing a team activ-ity based on emir reading of a portion of AGatherin of Days, a novel about Americ nlife in the 1830s. He says that the assign-ment requires them to find specific ex-amples in their reading. He tells students:"Each team will need to choose a recorderand a time monitor. You win need to writeyour team name on the directions sheet."

Once he signals that they begin, studentsrotate their desks so that two students facethe other two. Mr. J hands out one sheet ofdirections to each team (see attachment).The directions ask students to write downat least one example to support each ofnine statements (e.g., "Sayings were usedas a means of teaching lessons"). Mr. Jimmediately begins to circulate among thegroups. After several questions from stu-dents, he calls for class attention and givesthem an example of an answer for the firststatement. Then he resumes monitoring.When he sees a student working on othermaterials, he says, "You are supposed tobe contributing to your group." When heobserves appropriate behavior (e.g., atten-tive listening to other group members), heinitials the teams' recording sheet. Theseinitials later translate into extra points forgrading the assignment.

Approximately 12 minutes into the activ-ity, one team has fmished its work Theteacher approves transition to an exten-sion activity: designing a patchwork quilt.(At the other extreme, one group still isstruggling with writing down an examplefor the second statement.) By the end of the

period, two other groups have also startedthe patchwork quilt.

When Mr. J grades the assignment later,every student receives the score from thegroup product. This, he notes, is one ot thebest ways to prevent having "hitchhikers"in the group. In rare cases where more thanone student in a group resistscontributing,Mr. J only gives the earned score to thegroup's working members.

MATHEMATICS

Ms. P assigns her students to new coopera-tive learning groups every two weeks. Shecharacterizes her assignment of four stu-dent to each group as "random and hetero-geneous."

Ms. P is conducting a recitation on sub-trading integers. She uses an overheadprojector to write out the notation tor aseries of word problems. The problems areabout "Sam the Postman" delivering orpicking up positiN e amounts of money(e.g., "Sam brought a bill for $4 and tookaway a bill for $6").

With about 15 minutes left in the period,Ms. P starts a transition. Students alreadyare seated in their groups of four. Ms. Pannounces that she will be handing outworksheets with eight of the statementsshe has been going over. Their job will be towritedown the numeric equivalent of eachverbal statement. She then hands out twosheets to each group. This reflects her rou-tine of having students work primarily inpairs, although it is understood that thepairs also can choose to interact.

As soon as students receive theirworksheets, discussions begin. Amid thelow-level hum, all students appear task-oriented. Ms. P rotates among the groupsconstantly, responding to student ques-tions. As the period draws to a dose, shepraises the class. "I was pleased with theamount of discussion going on. I like to

.4 9

hear arguing it helps make sure you'regetting the right answer. Now please bringme the papers."

After class, Ms. P explains that she will notbe grading the papers. Instead, when theclass next meets, she will hand papers backto the groups so they can identify whichanswers they disagree on and resolve thosedisagreements. She says she will put thecorrect number statements up on t he chalk-board . From this, she will ask studentgroups to generate some "rules?' that ap-ply to subtracting integers.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Over the last decade, Ms. M has discov-ered that cooperative learning is "a realnatural for Pl." At the start of each new',port (e.g., volleyball, basketball, track) shesets up groups of four students that arealways balanced for gender (Le., two malesand two females). She then allows thegroups to play together for a few days sothat she can determine the relative levels ofskills within each group. With this infor-mation, she designates a leader tor eachgroup. This leader is then responsible forseeing that all his or her group memberslearn the mechanics of the particular sport.Mechanics mastered, the group can gradu-ate to team playing.

Ms. M finds it necessary to directly addressstudents' social perceptions about sports.She sets the rule that "no put downs" areallowed. She notes that perceptions aboutgender differences are especially strong insports, and she works hard to impart theidea that boys and girls are equally tal-ented. Also, she says she sometimes has todeal with leaders who dread having anunathletic student in their groups. "Theseleaders get turned around though," shesays. "They end up being proud thatthey've been able to teach someone."


SOCIAL SKILLS AND STAMINA

Piedmont teachers feel their cooperative

groups run quite smoothly by this time of year.

They emphasizethat the dynamics are not as"natu-

ral" as they mightappear. Both students and teach-

ers first have to learn what to expect.

Accumulated wisdom at Piedmont suggests

that student social skills are a vital first step to

cooperative learning endeavors. The Piedmont

cadre has developed a handout listing seven criti-

cal social skilLs that shouldbe exhibitedby students

in their groups:

I. Eye Contact2. Positil-e Comments (Manners)

3. Compliments4. Listen to Others5. Be Helpful (Assist Others)

6. Share Ideas and Materials

7. Take Turns

This handout iswell-known and widely used,

though according to Ms. Stelwagon, it took teach-

ers three years to "buy into" the idea that these

social skills arepivotal to the successof cooperative

groups. Typically, a teacher will address the skills

one lesson at a time at the beginning of the year.

Thereafter, a teacher may call attention to a particu-

lar skill for a given cooperative activity (e.g.. give

extra points if the group is doing well at listening to

each other). By slowly cementing these social be-

haviors, teachers are , ble to shift students' focus

away from group dynamics and onto content.

One mathteacher described in detail howshe

does this. "Especially with incoming sixth grad-

ers," she noted, "you don't expect cooperative

groups to work during the first two months. Kids

don't know how to talk to one another." Infor-

mally, she helps students along: "I will talk about

consideration of other people and the importance

of sharing. I also stress things like 'sharing your

thinking.' I tell them that how you're thinkingof a

problem is often moreimportant than the answer."

Though it takes time away from her curriculum,

this teacher also works on team building. "Other-

wise, the teams would fall apart." Finally, she has

found it helpful to refer students to her own set of

rules about group work:

40 Instructional Challenge50

I. You are all responsible for your own be-

havior.

2. You areall responsible for your own learn-

ing.

3. You have to be willing to help anyone in

your group who asks for help.

4. You all have to agree on the question be-

fore you call on me.

Experienced cooperative learning teachers at

Piedmont also recognize that some of their col-

leagues may give up on theapproach becausethey

have unrealistic expectations for the ease of their

own transition. Success, they say, requires certain

things of teachers. "First, you need a tolerance for

noise," explains one math teacher. "Second, you

need to have enthusiasm because the kids won't

buy into it unless you do. Third, you need aconsis-

tent classroom management program that works

for both traditional and ( Terative setups. Fourth,

you have to come up wi,a a good evaluation sys-

tem to hold students accountable for what they do

in groups. Finally, you need stamina!" Several

teachers also mentioned how difficult it is to con-

stantly, actively monitor the groups.

SCHOOL RATIONALE; IMPACT ON STUDENTS

Ms. Stelwagon gives several reasons why

cooperative learning makes sense for Piedmont.

"First, in today's world you need this technique for

success in the work place. Second, cooperative

learning is a good fit for this age group. The kids

like each other there is physical and social inter-

action and affection. And third, it gets diverse

students working well together in heterogeneous

groups." Theassistant principaladds that for all its

help with heterogeneity, thecooperative approach

is also a boon in fairly homogeneous settings. In

honors language arts andalgebra, for example, the

teacher uses it "as a way to get students to share

their problem-solving processes it's a

metacognitive goal."

Teachers cite their own reasons for liking

cooperative learning. Says Mr. J: "It puts kids'

energies to gotxi use. Also, kids like having some-

one to help them, to ask questions of." A math

teacher notes, "Kids can be more specific about

their difficulties when working in a group theycan go beyond *I don't get it.'"

After several years of observing the social andacademic dynamics of many groups, some Pied-mont teachers speak of seeing unanticipated stu-dent benefits. One math teacher, for example, findsthat higher achievers learn how and why to helpothers succeed. Parents of top students often saythat because their child is bright, he should haveenriching activities, not waste his time helping oth-ers. "This type of comment says a lot about what'swrong with our society today," says the teacher.

Students often echo this attitude, asking, "Whydo I need to share?" So the teacher explains her viewthat the cooperative learning experience will paydividends in the world of work: "I tell them aboutbeing the boss. I ask them, 'How are you going to getothers to do their work?' I want my top students torealize that they've got to get their groups to func-tion." By contrast, this teacher reports that lowerachievers orient very well to cooperative learning,particularly if the class is truly heterogeneous. "Peerpressure motivates them. They want the same ku-dos and attention from peers that everyone elsegets."

Mr. J reports a mixed reaction from his higherachievers. After awhile though, "most of them gen-erally like to help out. It improves their social statusbecause the other students want to he on their teamsand get help from them rather than make tun ofthem for being smart."

In general Piedmont students have becomeacclimated to cooperative learning, say the teachers."The kids' expectations are different," says Mr. J."They actually will ask you, 'Is this going to be anindividual activity or a cooperative learning activ-ity?" Another teacher said that she can always tellwhich kids have had cooperative experience be-cause right away they will say things in their groupslike, "You've done a good job." She has also hadstudents complain that they don't learn anything intraditional settings and much prefer the cooperativeapproach.

PERSUADING RELUCTANT FACULTY

Administrators and key staff are proud that alarge number of teachers are dedicated to coopera-tive learning and use it regularly. Though frustrated

that some still resist, they accept that a few willnever be won over. Meanwhile, they see that theschool's climate of support for teacher sharing andcollaboration is stirring mild enthusiasm in someof the reluctant teachers. Such support will beimportant for this middle group as each finds his orher way through the long and largely self-directedprocess of understanding cooperative learning andincorporating it into instructional practice.


PIEDMONT: ATTACHMENTA GATHERING OF DAYS

Team Members

As a team, select examples from the pages you were assigned to read last night which will support the

following statements. A minimum of one example per statement is required. If you can find more than one

example, your team will receive extra points.

You will need a recorder for the team. You should also select a time monitor. The ending timefor this activity

will be posted on the board. I will be looking for evidence of listening skills. Remember, you are expected to

be both mentally and physically focused on your team's effort.

I. Medicine, as practiced in the journal, was primitive by our standards.

2. Savings were used as a means of teaching lessons.

3. Children entertained themselves differently in 1831 than they do today.

4. There are similarities in the way the 4th of July wascelebrated in 1831 and the way we celebrate today.

5. The way people obtained food was different from the way we get our food today.

6. Farmers were as dependent on nature as they a re today.

7. Children enjoyed hearing stories.

8. In order to survive, one had to know how to take care of one's family in an emergency.

9. The new Mrs. Hall (Daniers mother) comes to be more accepted by Matty and Catherine.

Extension: Begin to design a patchwork quilt. Each team member should make a design on an 8" x 11" sheet

of construction paper. Tape the sheets together. If other teams finish early, they may add their sections to

yours.

52

42 Instructional Chalknge

Ws ALL ABOUT PROCESS: BENICIA MIDDLE SCHOOL (BENICIA)

Benicia Middle School is located nest north of San Francisco in a small. quaint "village" at llie end

ora finger peninsula in the Bay. Set in a nei ghborhood of nice homes, the school is a series of box-like

portable structure's connected by outdoor cement uvilkways. The grounds are fenced with access

through a front courtyard paralleling the main office area. Over 930 students are' enrolled this year,

with growth expected over the' next several years. Most students come fromhouseholds with above-

average incomes, a nd most are Caucasia n though there is soine ethnic diversity. Test scores generally

retkct higher-than-average achievement . There are 49 teachers, two assistant principals. and three

eounselors.

fates ot ViAt: Matt 14 e.;y 15.1990. Principal: Carole Hiltman.

WE HAVE A DREAM

"Our dream is to create an ideal environmentacademically, emotionally, physically, and sociallytor our students," says Assistant Principal MarkStephenson. And to many of the school's teachers,one strategy that addresses all four of these areaswell is cooperative learning.

Over several years, all Benicia teachers havehad some training in cooperative learning. Somehave taken outside workshops. And a number tookad vantageof inservice instruction provided by thedistrict three years ago (eight sessions were of-fered, or about 18 hours). By now well over half thestaff frequently use cooperative learning in oneform or another. Teachers acknowledge that theshift has taken a long time. "This is a big changefrom the way we had been teaching," said one. Notall teachers use cooperative learning at the samelevel. "There are also those traditional teachershere who don't feel 'that style' is for them," notesMr. Stephenson. "That's okay. There's a need for

every style."

Nonetheless, Mr. Stephenson is a strong ad-vocate of cooperative learning. He has an extensivebackground in the technique and in fact, teaches itat St. Mary's College. "I've always taught in agroup mode," he says. "It's natural that I wantothers to experience the same successful and posi-

rJ

live response that I get trom kids. The more you getstudents interacting with one another, th,- Lietter offyou are in terms of their learning."

NEW APPROACHES FOR NEW STAFF MEMBERS

Since Benicia is a growing school frequentlyhiring new staff members, Mr. Stephenson andseveral mentor teachers have started a teacher sup-port group. Each new teacher is also assigned to amentor teacher for support and assistance. Coop-erative learning techniques are shared, and thementors provide lots of opportunities for new teach-ers to try out new skills.

Such collegial support of the cooperative ap-proach has taken Benicia a long way toward itsgoals for a strong student learning environment."As I look at each department, there is much moreintegration and interaction than ever before," theassistant principal szy.F.. "Many teachers use simplecooperative learning techniques, such as the 'quick-write' where students write, then turn to theirneighbor and share to magnify and clarify theirideas. Perhaps 40 percent do 'jigsaw' breakoutsfrom time to time."

To Principal Carole Hiltman, hired last year,so much cooperative learning was "a real shock."She had been trained to use direct instnletion and

as a principal to evaluate direct instruction.

Chapter Tuv: Cooperative Learning 43

When she observed what Benicia teachers weredoing in their classrooms, she simply didn'tunder-

stand it. "I wasn't sure what to do, but I knew

needed to learn everythingalxnit cooperative learn-

ing as fast as I could."

With guidance from staff members, a lot of

reading, and some workshop training, Ms. Hiltman

buoyed up her skills. In light of her new insights,

she reports being greatly impressed with what'shappening at Benicia, particularly in such simula-

tion proIects as "Wagon Train Journey" where

students cooperatively mak-, decisions about their

travel routes, work on a point system, and integrate

a great deal of writing. But her biggest surprise has

been the way cooperative learning has prompted a

shift her in own focus: "I used to be interested in the

final product as evidence of learning. Now I recog-

nize that a good deal of the learning takes place in

the process. So today I advocate that we work on

the process and let the actual finish 1 product take

a back seat sometimes."

DEMONSTRATING PROCESS: SOCIAL

STUDIES/ENGLISH

Ms. J. an eighth gradesocial studies teacher,

and Ms. K, an English teacher, have formed

a team to practice what they advocate:

working cooperatively. Ms. 5 has been in

the school since 1980; Ms. K came morerecently. "We found that our styles werecompatible," says Ms. J. "We each havedifferent strengths that we found workedwell together. I guess you could say that

we gelled. It's been a wonderful partner-ship." Each year the hvo plan together and

create instructionalunits that utilize lotsof

cooperative learningstrategies. Their most

recent one is on the Civil War.

The goal of the Civil War project is toresearch and develop a news broadcast of

an importantCivil War event. Themes in-

clude slavery, Civil War South, famouspeople, abolitionists, eventsthat led to war,

Civil War North, and Abraham Lincoln.The two classes are combined, and the 50-

some students break into self-selectedgroups of six or seven. "We'll often assignstudents to their groups, but this time we

54


wanted to let them select their own," saysMs. J. Students are given a teacher-madepacket of materials on the first day thatoutlines objectives, groupresponsibilities,the order of activities, and a listing of pos-sible topics under each major theme (seeattachment). Each student is to assume a

role from those listed, includinganchorperson, weatherperson,man-in-the-street, field reporter, and social commen-tator.

"We're interested in the process that oc-curs as students work together to createtheir broadcast," said Ms. J. "Cooperativelearning teaches societal skills that need tobe taught. We try to create a link betweenour students and the material they arelearning. When we can do this, it makesthem better citizens and better people,which is far more important than knowingevery Civil War battle."

Day One: Towards the latter part of theperiod, Ms. J passes out the packets ofinformation while Ms. K puts the follow-

ing information on the board:

SlaveryHistory of slavery in AmericaLife of a slaveEconomic rationale - King CottonInterview with a slaveNorthern opposition to slaveryDid slavery destzoy the black family?End of slavery - benefits/problems

As each topic is written on the board, theteachers take turns explaining it and offer-

ing possible resources. As they concludethe list, Ms. 5 gives each group anotherfolder containing research material anddata. Students are given six minutes toreview their packets and determine theirtopics and student roles. Both teachersmonitor the groups by walking aroundand talking to them.

The students are quiet while they lookthrough their packets. They then become

noisy as they begin discussing what theywant to do. Ms. K stops the discussions byflipping the lights off and on. She tellsstudents they need to be sure to considerthe cardinal rules of note taking: get thewho, what, where, when, and why. Sonieparts of the assignment will be done inde-pendently, some pa rts as a group, she says.She also informs the students that a groupof high school students will be comingnext week to film each of the broadcasts.The packets are collected and students dis-missed as the bell rings.

Day Two: The students sit in their groupsas the teachers set up the television moni-tor and VCR. The teachers place the televi-sion in the center of the room and explair.that they are going to show some newsclipsto illustrate the various roles they expectstudents to assume. They comment on eachclip, explaining the various roles and ap-proaches: the man-on the street who is outwhere the action is, does the interviewing,and is seldom seen; the anchorperson whogoes out to the field reporter sometimes,and alternates between being on-screenand off; the theme-based approach in whichseveral stories focus on a single topic; theformai interview, which can be impromptuor structured; and the investigative report,which is an in-depth expose of a topic.They also point out the difference betweennational, state, and local news. Then theyshow an Andy Rooney clip to demonstratesocial commentary. Students ask questions,and a fairly lengthy discussion follows.Ms. J concludes the discussion by stating,"You get a feel now for the way news getsdone."

Students are then instructed to continueworking in groups to get their informationtogether. One student from each groupcomes to the front of the room to collect thepacket and other resource materials thatthe k :chers have laid out according totopics. Most groups begin creating a chartthat lists students' names in one column,their roles in another, and their areas of

55

study in another. The students work welltogether, and frequently assist one another.Most students are on-task and intent ontheir research, culling through their folderof resource materials. The teachers circu-late throughout the classroom with addi-tional resource books and materials, stop-ping at various groups. Five minutes priorto the bell, they stop the students, gathermaterials, and remind them that notes aredue in draft form at the conclusion oftomorrow's period. Students are dismissed.

Day Ths .74" MS. J goes over additional in-formation with the students regarding tieirbroadcasts and puts the following on theboard:

Broadcast Priorities1. Access all information from the text2. Cover all factual information notes3. Add interesting/unusual details: 0 -

pts4. Begin your script5. Script is due EOP: 0 50 pts. Staple to

notes.

She explains each item and emphasizesthat at least one student in each groupmust use an actual quote. Students are toldto get to work, and the teachers continuemonitoring and acting as facilitators. Twostudents come to the front of the room.tape up butcher paper on the blackboard,then use the overhead projector to projecta map of the states onto their paper. Theyuse the projection to replicate several statesas well.

The group members covering famouspeople discuss each participant's role andthe information each has gathered so far.One student says he is doing his report onWilliam Still, who ran the undergroundrailroad. Another says she will be talkingabout Frederick Douglass because he did alot for the women's movement: "I'm reallybig on this; it's my mission in life." Anotherindicates he will do a social commentaryon General Grant: "He had a major flaw -


he drank!" Others are doing reports onEdward Everett and Generals Mead and

Lee.

The group members take turns readingtheir draft scripts to one another. One stu-

dent says he ishaving trouble completing

his script Others in his group him

help and suggestions. The stud, oegins

writing. Ms. K comes by and encouragesShe listens to him, then tells him he

has a lot of good ideas. Ms. J goys at this

group and talks to them about tying their

broadcast together. "Your group is differ-

ent anyway. All the other groups are tied

together by a thematic stnicture. Yours is

much looser. Asanchor person, you could

tie these together by using such things as

the qualiOes that make people famous.

You couklintroduceeick then couple them

together maybe even using a Johnny

Carson format, where you have an assem-

blage of the famous people and bring them

on, dem interview them."

Students discuss the various ideas, then

decide on their format. One student sug-

gests that she could bring coasters from

home depicting the Civil War. Another felt

they needed to make some posters. Ms. K

stops by with a poem by Douglass. An-

other student suggests that having pro-

gram sponsors would be nice ("What do

you need when you want a letter deliv-

ered? Send it PonyExpress!"). One student

offers to write two or three commercialsand bring them, even suggesting using"Young Riders" as the background. One of

the teachers comes by and offers butcher

paper for visuals. She asks if they are get-

ting their scriptsdone, reminding them the

scripts areworth 50 points each. One stu-

dent comments, "There should have been

a category on major battles. I can't believe

that wasn't a topic." Mother adds, "Or

Gettysburg. There should have been agroup '.opic on that too."

Ms. K discusses the impromptu nature of

news coverage with another group, using


the recent earthquake as an example. "An

earthquake happensinstantly, on-the-spotThe nelvs people wereputting their broad-

cast together as it happened. That's partof

the flavor and the joy of their work. It's one

of the reasons for our pressure in here, our

short timeline."

Fifteen minutes before the bell rings, Ms.K

turns off the lights to get students' atten-

tion, then reminds them "to use sixvoices"

theirbroadcastStudentscontinuework-

ing in their groups, gathering their notes

together, completing their scripts, and as-signing tasks. The fitmorts people group ne-

gotiates with the teacher to turn in notes in

the morning and arranges to come in early

to finish their work. Students return their

materials, turn in their scripts and notes,

and are dismissed.

Note: The teachers have allotted twoaddi-

tional two-period days to practice and

ready the broadcastsprior to filming.They

expect to see students in costumes, usingprops, etc. At the conclusion of the filming,

they will show thefmished segments to the

entire group (both classes) for critiquing.

Student Comments: Students commentedfreely about working in cooperativegroups, learning together, and about their

teachers:

"We do lots of working together. I

like it. But we usually have only threeor four to a group. I like that better."

"I like small groupsbetter, because in

a large group ifs too hard to satisfy

everyone. I just don't work well in

big groups. But I need to learn how,because I know that's what happensout in the business world, in real

life."

"I like working in groups because

you get everyone's input. In these

two classes, for the most part we all

want to be here and want to learn.

56

We're not working to socialize likeI've seen in some classes, but to turnout a quality project. That makes abig difference."

"There actually shouldn't be anyteachers, because when one peer un-derstands it and explains it to others,they learn it so much better."

"Our textbook is awful! The vocabu-lary is so complex and technical. Itreally helps when we can explain it toone another in plain English, in a waythat makes sense."

'Our teacher is a real person. She'snot this entity that stands above usand tells us what to do. She lets uslearn for ourselves. She understandsus."

Teachers' Reflections: Both teachers ex-pressed some trepidation about the broad-cast project. 'This is the first time we'vedone this," said one. "It took a long time tolay this out, and we have no idea how itwill work. We'll see . . it's scary!" Butbeing nervous about the outcomes doesnot stop this pair from pushing on. "Wehave to try something in order to learnfrom it. If we don't make mistakes, then wecan't make corrections and do a better jobthe next time around."

Both teachers were pleased with the gmupsstudents formed. Although the two classeshave been combined for various projectsthroughout the year, the students have notbeen willing to mix together a lot. "I saw alot of mixing for this project," said Ms. J."My class is gifted; the other is heteroge-neously grouped. My students have tendedto stay together because they didn't wantto give up that much control. I was pleasedto see them mixing more. Maybe it's justbecause they feel more comfortable afterhaving been together several times now."

57

The teachers designed this project as anend-of-the-year activity to create high in-terest. "Students need something that willkind of perk them up," said one. They alsospent a lot of time planning and preparingthe project before introducing it to stu-dents. "The biggest issue in good coopera-tive learning activities is the pre-think-ing," said Ms. J. "We spend hours andhours getting something ready before wehand it out. For example, we spent a lot oftime brainstorming ideas for the packets,then creating the materials that we put intothem." The teachers also look for activitiesthat will produce results beyond just theactual learning of information. E,r ex-ample, they are hoping to see studentsdevelop compassion for reporters and thework they do. They also want to see posi-tive interdependence. Ms. J commented,"After we introduced the project, one ofthe students said he was going home towatch the news tonight. This is what wewant to achieve. I don't think any of thesestudents will watch the news again with-out being more astute aboo productionand story-making."

The two teachers chafe at time constraintsas they develop projects. "There just isn'tenough time to spend getting things ready.And we have so much material to cover inclass that sometimes it makes it hard to dothese expanded projects. Working togethertakes time There's a processing that needsto take 1.,1, ,.ind vou can't do it in a shorttime frame. We set tremendous goals forourselves. Sometimes we may not meet thegoal, but we're always pushing for it."

Both Ms. J and Ms. K emphasized the im-portance of training students about coop-erative learning early in the year. "Weteach them the rules, the objectives, thegoals, etc." They then establish a class en-vironment where each student works to-ward a shared learning experience. "Welet them know that we're learners also andset up the class so we're all teachers; welearn from them all the time. We tell them.

Chapter Two: Cooperative Ixarning 47

'You are each others' most valuable re-source."They really take it to heart." Theteachers also allow for different learningstyles: "We don't do cooperative learningall the time," said Ms. J. 'Students need toown their own things sometimes, so weprovide for independent work. Sometimeskids crave time to work cm their own.Sometimes we do partner work. If I had todetermine how much time we spend oncooperative learning I would say Ws about60 percent."

The teachers also talk to the students aboutsuch things as what good teaching is, whathelps learning, and Bloom's Taxonomy."There cue many ways to learn. We justhappen to think that cooperative learningis one of the better techniques."

Ms. and Ms. k have the students evaluatethe class each trimester. It's important tohave students working at the top level ofBloom's Taxonomy," stated Ms. J. "Hav-ing the students evaluatP the class givesthem input into the learning process. Itmakes them feel important. It also makesthe class more interesting. I think theylearn more. It allows them to feel success-fuL They have a real experience of workingtogether as a class, which is what I call'confluent education' or caring for whatyou learn."

DEMONSTRATING PROCESS: MATE.

The bell rings and sixth-grade studentstake their assigned seats around seven rect-angular tables, each seating four. Agendafolders are on each table; students taketheir agendas out. The teacher reviews theagenda with the students, then puts a trans-parency on the overhead projector. Shedraws the following:

"Let's pretend I have a candy bar," shestates. "I divide it in half, Oving Lisa half,"

5S:

111.148 Instructional Challenge

She points to the colored section. °Mariosays that's not fair. Lisa agrees and saysshe'll give Mario half of her half. If I writethe problem, it will look like this:"

1/2x 1/2

She then reviews multiplication verballywith the students: two times four, fourtimes eight, six times four, and six timessix. "What happens?" she asks. "Is theanswer getting larger or smaller?" The stu-dents respond in unison that it is gettinglarger. She then poses the question, "Whyis my answer up here getting smaller?" Shedirects the students to discuss this ques-tion in their groups for one minute. Stu-dents do so, then respond. 'You're notreally multiplying; you're dividing," statedone. "When you do fractions, the largerthe bottom number, the smaller the por-tion," said another. The teacher, delightedwith the responses, does another exampleto make sure all students understand;

IMMOPINE

And another

1/3 x 1/4=1/12

EIT11,2.3,4.3,8

The teacher now talks about the distinc-tion between numerators and denomina-tors, using pizzas as an analogy. She passesout assignment sheets with similar prob-lems as those on the board and instructsthe students to use their group members asresources. She eves them 15 minutes, andmost students use the full time.

The teacher asks the students to put theirpapers into their binders and "get ready"for a new activity. When she has theirattention, she says, "I've got a game here."She passes out small rectangular shapes ofpaper with clues on them, three clues pergroup (from Project EQUALS). Each clue

challenges the students to design one geo-metric figure (e.g., "There are six sticks inthe triangle. Make the figurer). She has thestudents review their dues and ask aboutany vocabulary they maybeundearabout.Most of the students appear to understandthe words. The teacher then instructs themto use the toothpkks fnun their baskets (oneach table is a basket of supplies, includingtoothpicks, markers, glue, sdssors, etc.).She tells the students, In the time left,you're going to build geometric figures."She puts several examples on the board,including the following:

I

N 1/\how mansticks?

She defines the figures as geometric fig-ures, and points to the first one, asking thestudents, "How many sticks were used?"She then says she will give treats to thosegroups that are able to build the shapes.Students immediately begin worldng oneach of the dues. In some groups the stu-dents each take a clue and work indepen-dently. In others they work together oneach clue. After eight minutes the bell rings,but students continue to work. The teachermoves to the doorway and passes out treatsas t tudents finish and leavethe nxmt (Moststudents were finished after 10 minutes.)The teacher says she normally likes to talkabout the problems with students afterthey finish, but because of time couldn't doit today.

THE FUTURE

With a new principal, two new assistant prin-cipals, and several new staff members, Benicia'sstaff is in a phase of learning to work togethertoward common goals. The cooperation promotedin classrooms is mirrored by staff and administra-tion who have followed the principal's lead inadopting a "process school" philosophy. "Our staffis very pro-students and pro-middle school, usingCaught in the Middle as our guide," says Ms. Hiltman.

5 9

"The teachers here believe in change, but moreimportantly, they believe in processing change."

The school's recent Program Quality Reviewemphasized several areas for improvement, shereports. "The important one, I believe, was theneed for better communication. I think we canachieve anything with good communication. Wejust have to remember that it is all about process.Our teachers want to be involved in what is hap-pening, they want to do it themselves. They want tohave enough time to do whatever they take on. Thebest administration can do is allow them that andprovide the support they need."

Benicia's staff and administration are lookingenthusiastically toward what they will tackle next

and their list is not small. For starters, they aretalking about interdisciplinary instruction, teamteaching, and advisory. "We've been laying thegroundwork with cooperative learning," says Mr.Stephenson, who sees increased levels of teachercamaraderie and collaboration as the key to a con-tinually improving student environment. "Our vi-sion is really to do much more of what we nowalready have,"


BENICIA: ATTACHMENT

BROADCAST NEWS - CII/IL WAR

Goal: To research and develop a newsbroadcast of

an important event or events involving the themeof the Civil War.

I . Work co-operatively in a group of five to six

members.

2. When reporting on your topic, you will be-come the expert. Your news teams will be able

to provide information about your topic (forexample, Lincoln) while giving other detailsabout the time and place such as a "man on thestreet" interview offering reactions to Lincoln'sdecision at Fort Sumter or Lincoln's death.

3. Requirement: A quote from a document thatwill be thematically developed during thebroadcast. The quote will be used severaltimes throughout the brmdcast to supportstatements and opinions.

4. Requirement: Completed news script. Thiscounts towards grades in English and history.listorical evidence and accuracywill be worth

150 points, while writing style and use ofdialogue to develop theme will be worth 130points in English.

5. Requirement: Complete a videotaped newsbroadcast for final grade evaluation! Every

person must have a speaking part! Costumesor hats of some kind must be used! Writtenscript must be completed before signing upfor taping.

Minimum: One large isual, e.g., map or picture.

50 Instructional Challenge 6

CONTINUED ASSIGNMENT:GROUP RESPONSIBILITIES

Make sure that every person in your group has arole.

Anchorperson #1: This person will make a state-ment about the major stories of your event. He willexpress his own opinions and those of the groupabout the significance of the story.

Anchorperson #2: This person will cover relatednews issues happening simultaneously. An ex-ample: War in the South group may discuss whatwomen and children are doing while men are atwar.

Weatherperson: This person would be giving aweather/climate forecast by checking what theweather is like at this time of year in the particulargeographic area covered. A visual would be help-ful to show the geography of the area. Explain thatgeography and how it might determine certainactivities, e.g., Lee kept his troops tothe West of theAllegheny Mountains because it was harder todetect his movements! (Extra Person)

Man in the Street: This person would be respon-sible for updated reForting of the event or eventsfrom the viewpoint of everyday people. Stage aninterview with someone who may be affected by adecision but is not a famous person.

Field Reporter This person would report from a

particular location Lincoln's home, for example,describing where he grew up as a child and whatthe area is like.

Field Reporter: This feature reporter would pickone particular issue to report on from the scenean actual "slave revolt," for example, describingwhat happened, when, where, how, and v* hy.

Social Commentor This "60 minutes"-style re-porter takes the time to analyze the effects of anevent. Why is a particular person or event signifi-cant? What future effects might there be? Mightthings have been different? In developing yourbroadcast, you have "creative license" to changethe format or follow traditional news reportingstyle.

ONE THING LEADS TO ANOTHER: TURLOCK JUNIOR HIGH (TURLOCK)

Turlock lumor High School is in a modest neighborhood about 90 miles north of Fresno and 10 miles

south of Modesto. The only middle grades school in the district, Turlock serves 1260 seventh and

eighth graders, predominantly Caucasian. Enrollment in ESL classes fluctuates yearly. ranging

from 45 to 2(X) students. Achievement test scores average in the middle to upper range. Although

Turlock is predominantly an agricultural community, proximity to neightvring large cities and to

Stanislaus makes access to services easy.

Pates of Visit: April 25-26 1990. Principal: Tom Hoy.

TRAINING Is IMPORTANT

A focus on cooperative learning began at'Turlock five years ago after the district surveyedteachers to determine their areas of concern. "Manyof Turlock's teachers identified instructional deliv-ery methods as something they wanted to becomemore involved with," says Principal Tom Hoy."Our major goal was, and continues to be, to im-prove instruction."

Two teachers had already been trained incoop n-atiye learning and had been sharing theirinformation with the rest of the staff. Meanwhile,Stanislaus County Office of Education had sug-gested a grassroots movement in cooperative learn-ing. "We were ripe for it," said a Turlock teacher.The school brought in cooperative learning expertsJohnson and Johnson to provide extensive inser-vice at the school, and many teachers were trained.Today the county r 'thee conducts an ongoing train-ing program, not o.,1 y at Turlock, but district-wide.

An agenda from the county office lists nu-merous sessions offered each quarter. One entitled"Cooperative Learning: TGIF (together in fun)" isoffered early in the quarter. Another two-day ses-sion "for school teams already committed to imple-menting cooperative learning strategies" is sched-uled the following month. Four consecutive ses-sions will focus on "TRIBES: A Process for SocialDevelopment and Cooperative Learning," and aone-semester unit course teaches the "Johnson/Johnson Model."

6 1

Such an agenda helps support Mr. Hoy'sphilosophy that "training equals success." Groupwork, he strongly believes, does not "cut it" unlessteachers follow research-identified techniques thatdifferentiate traditional grouping from true coop-erative learning.

By now, over half of Turlock's staff has beenformally trained in cooperative learning techniques.Two of the teachers, Ms. J and Mr. Q, are consideredleaders. They conduct workshops both in-houseand statewide. Mr. Hoy describes their abilitiesand commitment as "phenomenal" and readilygives other teachers release time to visit their class-rooms. At Turlock one day last month, for example,the two led a support group meeting where teach-ers using the cooperative approach could shareexperiences and concerns, discuss ways to imple-ment the new structure, get peer support, and seea demonstration of a cooperative technique knownas PAIRS. The most recently trained teachers wereespecially urged to attend.

Mr. I toy supports the teachers' efforts in ev-ery way he can. "This isn't something that can justbe picked up in a minute," he notes. "It takes a lotof hard work. There are also a lot of risks that haveto be taken, and that makes it doubly hard." Hisgoal is to eliminate much of the extraneous "stuff"teachers have to deal with, such as paperwork andclass interruptions. "I want to encourage my teach-ers to venture out. I'm willing to let them do asmuch as they can, see as much as po5sible, attendworkshops, get county assistance, spend time with


our two 'experts, and try strategies out in theirclasses. I try to clear the way so they can focus onwhat it is they want to achieve."

IN THE CLASSROOM

Turlock teachers te,-. a wide variety ot coop-erative learning strategies, including jigsaw, read-arounds, numbered heads, brainstorming, TRIBES,PAIRS, peer editing, pre-wntes, paper checks, cor-ners, metaphors, round table, desert survival, teamstudy, and class meetings. "There are so manyoptions," said one teacher. "I never feel like I'mconfined or using something over and over again.Sometimes I even design my OW11 approaches."

Turlock teachers are seeing hignerstudent motivation, self-esteem,confidence, and competence.

Ways to form student gnmps vary as well.(;roups may consist of four, three, or two students,and the configuration may change, depending onthe activity. Teachers make the decision based onwhat they teel will best help them achieve theirinstructional goals. One teacher, who favors three-st udent groups explained, "I feel I get more partici-pation this way. Four creates pairing off. Two is toosocial and doesn't allow as much flexibility inactivities." Most teachers, however, use groups offour. Some keep the same groups for the entireyear; others re-mix students each semester; andsome simply change when they sense change isneeded.

All agree with Ms. I that good cooperativestructures create "built in" student accountability.For example, Ms. J says, jigsawing requires eachstudent in a group to become an expert on a portionof the information. Each member must contributehis/ her portion in order for the rest of the group tocomplete the project or activity. Most teachers useboth group and individual grades.

These teachers believe it's best to establishclassroom and group rules right at the beginning.For example, one teacher team has four simple


rules for working in TRIBES: active listening, noput-downs, right-to-pass, and confidentiality. Sev-eral noted the importance of preparing students forthe social aspect of cooperative learning. Otherssaid it's critical to create a classroom environmentthat's supportive and comfortable. "A lot of stu-dents haven't been challenged in ordinary instruc-tion to participate," said one. "They haven't beenwilling to take risks. When they start, they need tofeel that it's safe."

EIGHTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES

Students are seated in nine groups of three,reading the instructions on the blackboard:

1. Get folders.

1. Get one handout per group.

3. Student #1 read directions aloud.

4. Pass paper around to read statementsand record group answers.

5. You have 10 minutes.

Students follow instructions and collecthandouts from the front of the room aboutillegal and foreign farm workers (see at-tachment 1). The teacher says, "Raise yourhands if you don't understand what todo." Each group begins reading. One stu-dent raises his hand, and the teacher askshis two other group members if they un-derstand. Both nod yes, and the teachertells them, "You explain it to your groupmember then." She tells the student whodidn't understand to be sure to get thenecessary information from his group.

In one group, student #1 (numbers wereassigned when groups were formed) readsthe instructions, then re- reads them whenthe other two are not clear what to do.When everyone understands the task, stu-dents take turns passing the paper around,each reading one statement aloud. Thenthe other two students decide if the state-ment opposes or supports using foreign/illegal workers. For example, one student

82

reads, "The price of farm products willstay low." The other two immediately re-spond, "Supportive." The reader thenwrites "S" next to that statement. In severalinstances, they stop and talk about thestatement prior to determining whether itis supportive or wt. When they completeall of the statements, they go back to deter-mine who might have made such a state-ment. In the example above, the studentsdecided that it was made by an illegalworker.

The teacher asks for attention at the front ofthe room and says, "Would all #2's standup." The #2 students in each group stand."Now I'm going to have you take turns.Simply pick one of the statements, tell uswhether it was supportive or not and whomight have said it." The students volun-teer until all statements have been com-pleted. As each student speaks, the teachergives points to his or her group on a chartwhich she has on the overhead (each groupis listed with space for points to be markedand tabulated; points are given for stand-ing, for giving the answer, and for groupattention). The teacher asks each respon-dent why his or her group answered theway they did. For example, the first stu-dent reads "We need to feed our families.'This is supportive of using illegal workers,and was probably said by an illegal orforeign worker." The teacher asks, "Why?"and the student answers, "Because thesepeople have families they need to feed andif we don't allow them to work, then theirchildren will starve. This statement couldalso have been made by a farmer whoneeds work, but can't afford to work in thefields for the low wages that are being paidto the illegals and foreigners." The teachercommends the student and puts downthree points for group #4.

When all statements have been completed,the teacher directs the students to opentheir atlases to page 13. "Every group canearn a point if they can find these threecountries and have their fingers on them."

3

She writes on the overhead: Guatemala, ElSalvador, and Haiti. She monitors progressby walking around from group to woupand checking where their fingers are.Groups 4, 7, 8, and 9 gain the extra point

The teacher instructs students to keep theirfingers on these three tor a minute. Shepoints to Guatemala and El Salvadcw andsays, "What country are they near?" Sev-eral students reply, "Mexico." The teacheragrees. "So what these people from thesecountries do is come up to the UnitedStates through Mexico. This is no smalltrip, and they're illegal in Mexico too. TheHaitiansare onan island, so irsever harder.In.the case of El Salvador and Guatemala,there are a lot of people coming in here.What I want you to do now is look up herefor a minute at these slides and then you'llbetter understand why they want to cometo the United States." (The slides weretaken by the teacher on a hip.)

The first slide shows a very poorly dressedfamily, standing in front of several shacks,with large, contemporary high-rise build-ings in the immediate background. "Whatyou see is the contrast between the wealthyand the poor in some of these CentralAmerican countries. In the United States,we have poor and wealthy, but also a lot ofpeople in the middle. In a lot of thesecountries, they don't have a mi.;dle class.Most of the people are workers on otherpeople's land. They figure they'll go to theStates where they can get an education, ajob, and eventually get out of poverty. Thispicture shows how their houses are oftenmade of cardboard, paper, or pieces ofmetal they find lying about"

The second slide is one of a very small,very shabby tin house. "This is the besthouse of the village," says the teacher."There is no sanitation and no runningwater, so the level of disease is very high.A lot of people get hookworm."

Chapter Two: Coopenttive Learning 53

The third slide is of a grmy area, and theteacher explains that this is where peoplego to do their washing. "Because there isno running water, people have to washtheir clothes in some way. They come hereto do that. All of the women come here.Because there is no sa nita tion, nowhere forthe water to go, what do you think hap-pens to itr No hands go up, so the teachercontinues. "It runs down the hillside andinto the river. This is the water they drink,so you can imagine what the water is likeafter awhile."

The teacher shows additional slides, thenasks the question, "Who do you think hasthe responsibility to make the rules, thelaws, in this countryr A student responds,"Congress." The teacher agrees, and di-rects the students to start thinking aboutthe kinds of laws that need to be passed toaddress the problems of the influx of allthese people to the United States. She thenpasses out a page of instructions to eachgroup (see attachment 2), reads the in-structions aloud, then tells the students tobegin discussing the issues. "Your groupneeds to deal with each of these issues,then come up with a plan to deal with eachof the worker groups. It isn't going to beeasy. Your plan must be fair to all in-volved. And remember, it must be realis-tic. You may have a plan that works, butisn't realistic. You've also got to be fairandrecognize that all the groups are humanbeings. The bell is going to ring in fiveminutes. so I just want you to begin yourdiscussion today. Perhaps jot down somekey ideas on the bottoms or backs of yourpapers, and we will continue tomorrow."Students comply and begin talking in theirgroups about the first two or three issueson their handouts.

MANY ADVANTAGES; FEW DRAWBACKS

"One of the most important things we real-ized early on is that cooperative learning reallymoved ihe focus from teacher to student," said oneteacher. Almost all her colleagues expressed thesame sentiment. Said one: "Cooperative learningreally is student centered. It makes me respect and


value the importance of allowing students to pro-cess information." Another added: "I'm much morecognizant tif students and what skills they need tolearn. I don't see them as these empty heads wait-ing for me to put in information."

Most teachers also felt that students are nowmore sensitive to each other's needs. "After usingcooperative learning in my classes forsome time, Inoticed that students became more observant ofthemselves and others. Theywere much more will-ing to work with others, especially students theynormally didn't associate with. And they becameprotective of other students in their group, exhibit-ing a trust of one another and me that I hadn'texperienced before." She cited an example whereher class was doing an activity and two studentswere reluctant to join in. "The other students in thegroup pulled them in and encouraged them toparticipate. These students just needed a little nudg-ing and an affirmation that they were wanted andincluded."

Another teacher added, "It not only bringsstudents together, but teachers as well. Society hascreated greater and greater isolation, and we allneed to learn how to respect one another in order todeal with today's problems. I think cooperativelearning does that."

ieightened student motivation, even amonggood eudents, is one advantage cited by Ms. J. "Itallows them the opportunity to explain informa-tion to others, which builds self-esteem, compe-tence, and confidence. When they have to gothrough the steps first to get the information, thenexplain it to someone else, it strengthens their ownlearning. They go way beyond intuitive learning."Meanwhile, other students are helped. "I don't getit when you explain it," one student told her, "butwhen my neighbor tells me, I do."

For the most part. teachers are pleased withstudent accomplishments and achievements. Theyalso like the student products being cooperativelyproduced. Said one teacher of an activity she and acolleague had students do the previous day, "Wewere just amazed at what they came up with. It wasbeyond our expectations."

Student comments showed them equally en-thusiastic. Some examples: "My other classes areboring"; "In regular classes, I don't get to know

64

very many of the students at all"; "The recognition haneement of all three. It's hard to separate themI get when I work in groups means more to me than when you really start looking at good teaching andany prizes or rewards"; "It's fun to work and learn meeting middle students' needs."and even take tests together sometimes"; "It's easierwhen I work with a group we all have differentstudy habits an I learn extra techniques"; "I neverliked history before, but this year it doesn't seem ashard. It's fun."

Despite all this praise, Mr. Hoy does see someproblems. "As with any learning modality, therewill be abuses," he said. "Without proper planningand knowledge, it's easy for teachers to set upgroups where the bulk of the work is shunted off tothe smartest and the brightest." As an administra-tor, he also has had some difficulties with parents."Many parents don't understand cooperative learn-ing. They think their child is going to be held upintellectually, become bored, or get bogged downwith doing everybody else's work. A big part of myjob is training parents and helping them under-stand." On balance, however, he unquestionablyagrees with the assessment of one of the teachers:"When you see what cooperative learning can do,it blows you away. When you realize its power, youjust can't do anything else."

IT CAN ONLY GET HEITER

The assista nt principal sees coopera tive learn-ing as the spark that's launching more extensivereforms at Turlock. "It's interesting how you startone thing here, and it leads to another over thereand that leads to another," she said. "Since westarted using cooperative learning, we're muchmore aware of how students think. We're con-cerned that they be active rather than passive learn-ers, and we are paying attention to critical tf. inkingskills."

Mr. Hoy agrees. He wants teachers to becomeinvolved in interdisciplinary instruction (IDI) next.He's willing to wait, however, until teachers re-quest it. "I'll provide the modeling and ask forvolunteers, but I'm not going to force it on anyone.I want teachers to come to me and ask for more.When you force people, it takes five yc to re-cover." He sees IDI as a natural outgrowth ofcooperative learning. "Actually, cooperative learn-ing has promoted the start of peer coaching here.As there is more involvement in both cooperativelearning and peer coaching, I see a natural expan-sion into interdisciplinary instruction and an en-

85Chapter Two: Coomative Learning 55

TURLOCK.: MTACHMENTS

ArrciiILLEGAL AND FOREIGN FARM WORKERS

People have different points of view concerningthe issue of illegal and foreign farm workers.

Read each statement below, discuss in your group,and decide whether it expresses support or oppo-sition to the use of foreign or illegal workers.

Label the statement "S" for support or "0" foroppcsition.

Be prepared to explain why you made each choke!

I. "It is a basic human right to find work."

2. "We need to feed our families ."

3. "We were here first. We deserve the jobs."

4. "The price of farm products will stay low."

5. "We are trying to live better, like otherAmericans."

6. "American workers can't make a decentliving on such low pay."

7. "There aren't enough American workersavailable to do the work."

8. "Profits of big farmers are rising. Let thempay more and have a smaller profit."

9. "We will work even for low wages. That isbetter than nothing."

Now go back and write after each statement whoyour group thinks would be most likely to say it(American migrant worker, farmer, foreign worker,etc.).


Anal 2PROBLEM SOLVING; You HAVE ME POWER

Imagine you are a member of Congress whose jobit is to fmd a solution to the migrant farm workers'problems of:

a) lower wages now than 25 years ago

b) competition with illegal aliens

c) HZA "temporary foreign worker" pro-gram

d) poor working conditions

Discuss in your group how to deal with each ofthese issues, and then come up with a realistic, fair,and humane plan. REMEMBER! Your plan must befair to all the people involved: American migrantfarmers, foreign workers, and farmers. (This won'tbe easy, but that's the way things are in politics.)

Write your plan here and on the back:

66

GOOD THINGS COME IN SMALL PACKAGES: LA VINA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (MADERA)

La V Ma Elementary School is located approximately 30 miles north of Fresno and 10 miles southwest

of Madera . The school is a series of one-story.,boxlike structures, parallel to one another and connected

with walkways. It is surroundai by acres of grapevines, alfalfa, and grazing cattle. Some 310

preschool thrvugh eighth grade students attend About 90 percent are Hispanic with as many as 210

qualifying as LES (Limited English Speaking). Nine of the 11 teachers are certified for bilingual

instruction. Each grade level has at least one bilingual teacker, and every classroom has a bilingual

aide. Almost 90 percent of the parmts are employed in agriculture, most of them seasonal farm

laborers. About 65 percent of thestudents meet the criteria .for participation in the Migrant Education

program. La Vina also receives funding from Chapter 1, SIP, and the Emergency Immigrant Act.

Students are considered "high risk," due to multiple alert factors including economic deprivation

(most families earn $5 .000-$10 ,000 a year), continued interruptions in schooling, limited English

speaking skills, and limited formal education among parents. La Vina was selected as a California

Distinguished School in 1987 and as a Middle Grades Partnership School in 1988. Many parrnts are

actively involved in the school.

Date of Visit: April 4-5, 1990, Principal: Betty Scahse.

A LITTLE 'TWIST' WITH A BIG DIFFERENCE

La Vina has taken a very simple, but extraor-dinary, approach to instruction. It hasn't done whatmost schools with large Hispanic populations do,namely coalesce resources to maximize Englishinstruction. Instead, it lids adopted a philosophywhereby every student on campus, regardless ofethnic origin, will become proficient in two lan-guages their native one and either English orSpanish. This shift in approach has had far-reach-ing effects, apparent even to the unsuspecting visi-tor.

The first indication that something unusualhappens here comes from two signs posted side-by-. ide at the entrance walkway. The first reads,"WeImme to Our School," the second, "Bienvenidoa Nuestra Escuela." If you miss these signs, otherclues about the school's philosophy abound. Al-most all adults on campus are fluently bilingual.All printed materials sent home are produced intwo languages, including homework assignmentsand the principal's newsletter. Inside the class-rooms, teachers daily take an unusual approach toinstruction not only in language, but in the

predominant teaching strategy used to assist stu-dent acquisition of a second language.

ONCE UPON A TIME . . .

Four years ago, when Ms. Scalise was hired,most Caucasian students were transferring toschools with fewer migrant, Spanish-speaking stu-dents. "There was a lot of 'white flight,' one teacherremembers. "Some parents didn't think their stu-dents would get a good education here." The bilin-gual Ms. Scalise (who learned Spanish in collegeand served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Colom-bia) introduced the two-language philosophy thathas not only achieved the goal of stopping transfersout, but today has parents transferring their chil-dren into the school. It is now formally stated aspart of the school's Mission Statement: "We arecommitted to the value of understanding, speak-ing, reading, and writing well in two languages.We believe that the ability to communicate in morethan one language is of great importance in themulti-cultural, pluralistic world that our childrenwill live and work in as adults."


The program has been carefully designed topromote fluency in two languages for all studenb."A student who enters our school in kindergartenand stars should be bilingual bY thefourth grade,"Sdys Ms. Scalise, making it dear that La Vim doesn'trequire that newcomers be kindergarteners. "Wetake students at any age."

Hispanic students find it naturaland easy to work together becausetheir heritage is one ofcooperation.

Most ot the staff (principal, teachers, aides,clerical) speak both languages fluently. LimitedEnglish speakers attend intensive ESL (English as a

Second Language) classes. Those who speak Span-ish hut never learned to read or write it attend SSI.(Spanish as a Second Language) and SSS (Spi-inish

literacy skills) classes. Bilingual instructors offer acomprehensive curriculum in math, social studies,science, health, fine arts, physical education, read-ing, and language arts. "If you want students tolearn another language, you have to model it andset up bilingualism as a desirable achievement,"says Ms. Scalise, "Because of this shift in our focus,we aren't emphasizing one language to the detri-nwnt ot another. We aren't givingall our attention to

One population. Wehave the same expectation for all

our students."

How COOPERATIVE LEARNING HELPS

After much trial and errir, teachers havefound that using cooperative learning groups inclasses facilitates their bilingual approach. "It re-ally makes sense, when you think about it," saidone. "When you're doing what we're doing, it'ssmart to use all the resources you have to reocheach and every student. You can teach your heIrtout, and still a student needs more than you cangive. By using groups, You can makes° much moreavailable and accessible to the students," Anotherteacher agreed: "It is very important because itemphasizes peer tutoring. Students help one an-other in a way that 1 can' t." One teacher noted thatthe discussion required by group work enhances

58 Instructional CliaIlenge

bilingual instruction. "It allows students to hearwhat others have to say. Students need to hearlanguage to learn it."

The statt at La Vina became aware ot coopera-tive learning after two teachers attended a work-shop in 1988. Their enthusiasm about what they'dlearned led to severa 1 formal staff discussions aboutthe technique's potential for the school. "Becauseof this interest and because we saw examples otcooperative learning in our Partnership visits, wedecided to hold a training at our school," said Ms.Scalise. Last summer, teachers were given a sti-pend to go to a one-day cooperative kammg work-shop the Saturday before school started. All buttwo teachers attended, and most found it veryworthwhile. "I don't think you can measure thevalue," was a typical comment. "It changed theway I teach. Now no., role is secondary and thestudents are responsible kir their learning them-selves."

The principal wit+ not surprised at this re-sponse. Iler staff, she says, is congenial, compat-ible, and eager to try new things. "It was interestingto watch them in the staff room. I'd hear things like,'Did You do it yet?' Each is very interested in whatt he others are doing. They couldn't wait to SW whatsuccesses or failures were happening. Cooperativelearning was on practically everyone's lips therefor awhile. And as more and more teachers became'fluent' in their use ot it, others became more will-

ing to try it."

To Ms. Scalise, the primary value of coopera-tive learning is "the way it combines studentstogether in language, with no one lett out.'' Coop-erative groups, she savsilso demand participa-tion from everyone. Hispanic students hnd it quitenatural and easy to work together because theirheritage is one ot cooperation, "Its a cultural thing.Their families work together all the time. They allrick into the same basket Most of them know howto work together."

Teachers use cooperative learning in varyingwars and for varying time frames. None ad vocatedit as an exclusive strategy or even as a predominantteaching mode. "It won't work tor every situation,"noted one teacher. "You have to determine whenit's appropriate and be very sure about what Youvant to accomplish." For example, a lot ot basicinstruction or basic information about a particular

88

concept ca nnot be given in a cooperatively-groupedstructure. "This is a time when I need to be incontrd ot the information because so much elsewill build on it," commented one of the instructors.Teachers also pointed out that the new mindsetcooperative learning requires goes beyond changedroles for both teacher and students. You also needto be well organized, they said, and willing to letthe students be noisier than usual.

The principal and teachers report that coop-erative lee .ng is now used from kindergartenthrough eighth grade. "Our reform has spreadacross a II grade levels." said Ms. Scalise. -We` re toosmall to be able to do something just within certaingrades.

The following example illustrates how groupwork ca engage students. regardless ot their na-tive language or the classroom's predominant lan-guage. It shows how one teacher's approach incor-porates both the school philosophy and her re-cently acquired skills in cooperative learning.

FIFTH GRADE MATH

Students enter the room and are seated ina 'LJ1 with the teacher at the apex. Theteacher informs them first in English, thenin Spanish that they are going to be work-ing in groups. She calls out each student'sname and the aide takes a set of two flash-cards to the student. One card is in English,the other in Spanish. They indicate thestudent's task in the group today. Thereare four tasks:

LectorApuntadorResolvedorReportero

ReaderRecorderSolverReporter

The cards are in different colors, so stu-dents know in which group they belong.They quickly rearrange their desks fromthe 'TY shape into six groups of four (onegroup has three). After the groups areformed, the teacher asks the recorders tocome and pick up materials. Each recorderpicks up instructions in English and inSpanish (see attachment), and 27 one-inch-

square white cubes. The teacher says, "Ev-eryone should begin working now. Youneed to work as a group. Be sure, reader,that you read everything on the paper."Some of the readers read the Spanish in-struction sheet, others read the Englishone. Both the teacher and the aide movefrom group to group, stopping and pro-viding input as necessary. The resourceteacher enters the room and joins in, mov-ing from group to group. The studentsarrange and rearrange the cubes, countingas they do, to determine the answers to 14questions. One group has put their cubestogether in two rows of 12 each and onerow with three. The aide stops and tellsthem in Spanish, "You need to look at thepicture, then coLnt the cubes so you willknow how to arrange them." The studentsstill do not understand how to arrange thecubes, so the aide does the first row forthem. The students grasp the idea andcomplete their cube. A migrant aide comesinto the room and begins working withstudents, joining the teacher, the aide, andthe resource teacher.

One student gets very frustrated with hergroup. She feels she has the answer, but theother students are not listening to her. Shespeaks very loudly in Spanish, stands up,gesticulates with her arms, takes several ofthe cubes and moves them around, thenfinally collapses on her desk in exaspera-tion. Then she reaches over, takes therecorder's paper away from her,and writesthe answers on it herself. The teacher comesover to this group and counsels them aboutworking together. She then looks at herwatch and announces, "It's time to stopworking. Would the reporters bring theirpapers to me. I want the solvers to collectthe task cards from your group and bringthem up front. I want the readers to collectthe cubes and put them back in my bucket."

The teacher now has the reporters come tothe front one at a time and read their an-swers, explaining how they solved theproblems. Some students report in English,


some in Spanish. They rotate through thegroups until each has had a turn. The stu-dents are attentive and interested. Mostare Juicking their own answers againstthose of other groups. The ben rings farlunch, but students continue working un-til the teacher tells them, 'Wel do prob-lems sbc, seven and eight tomorrow.Now,getrindyforyourawardeTheaklepassesout 'gummy dinosaurs' to each student,thanking them in both Spanish and En-glish for doing such a good job and work-ings° welltogether. Studentsaredismissedand leave for huu:h. The studentwho hadbeen frustrated stays behind and begins tocry. The aide sitsdown and talks with her,comforting and encouraging her to con-tinue working with luir group eventhoughthey seem to work slower than she does.It's not how fast you solve the problem,"she says. It's that you can all work to-gether to get the answers."

PROBLEMS YET TO RESOLVE

T'achers do not see cooperative learning asthe only way of teaching, but as a valuable part oftheir repertoire of strategies. They are also quick toacknowledge that it has its problems. Some stu-dents are reluctant to work in groups. Frustrationwhen others in the group aren'tworking fast enough

is not uncommon, and some students don't want tohave to wait or to explain to the others how to dosomething or why they got a certain answer. "It'sdifficult for many students to move from being anindependent learner to a cooperative learner," said

one teacher. "It takes a lot of perseverance andpatience on the part of the teacher and a great dealof courage on the part of the student."

Some teachers, too, are reluctant to make theshift. They are comfortable with the way they'vetaught for years, and they like being in charge intheir classrooms. "I didn't go to the workshop,"one said without hesitation. "I won't go to any ofthe workshops. How can anyone mandate that I

use cooperative learning? Besides, it doesn't workanyway. Classes arenoisy to begin with. In groupsstudents just become noisier and more off-task.And they will cheat One person will end up doing

all the work."

Yet those teachers who have chosen to usecooperative learning strategies are enthusiasticabout the results. "I've found that itworks with mystudents, and I've seen tremendous growth as aresult of using it," said one. "There are exceptions,but I'm not willing to make a decision based on theexception and see a lot of wasted value." Of theteacher so vocally opposed, a colleague said, "We'llhave him doing cooperative learning before long.He likes to complain and resist, so we let him untilhe runs out of steam. Then we give him a nudge inthe right direction and he does it. It just takes himlonger than most of us."

SMALL, Eta SIGNIFICANT

It's clear that La Vina has a tightly knit familyof teachers who are committr o their students.With some guidance an..! a Audge in the rightdirection" from their ,..: ncipal, th have under-taken a purney into elicharted tf' tory with noreal model to follow. i havi ven willing toadopt an entirely new teachingapproach to achievetheir vision of students fluent in two languages.Their belief thai it will happen is captured in thefinal words of their mission statement:

"At La Vina we truly believe that

Yo puedo! I can do it!Tu puedes! You can do it!

Juntos, podemos todos!Together, we all can do it!"

ACTIVERNING

71,, BEST CRY MAILABLE

CTIVE learning is a purposely broad

term, encompassing a wide range of both

learning and instructional strategies. Almost a third of

Caught in the Middle is devoted to advocating various

active learning strategies for students and teachers.

One of its recommendations is that students "de-

velop the capacities for critical thought and effective

communication" (p. 13). For this to happen, teachers

need to de-emphasize rote tasks, promote project-

oriented assignments that integrate knowledge and

higher-order skills, and use questioning strategies

that lead to higher-level thinking.

72 Chapter Three: Active Learning 61

Another recommendation is thatstudents "de-

velop a repertoire of learning strategies and studyskills which emphasizes reflective thought andsystematic progression toward the goal of inde-pendent learning" (p. 24). To help students accom-plish this, teachers should usecooperative learninggroups and other peer-based learning activities,provide instruction in how tostudy and learn, andcreate homework assignments that are meaningfulextensions of new understandings and skills firstprompted in the classroom. All of these specifica-tions for active learning aim to enable students tobecome more responsible for and aware of theirown learning processes.

In seeking schools that consciously foster ac-

tive learning, we looked for classroom examplesthat would portray the many strategies that pro-mote it. We found that the schools we surveyed hadchosen not to try to implement every possiblestrategy, but instead tofocus on teaching subsets ofrelated skills. We identified three strands: studyskills, thinking skills, and student-directed tasks.

Study skills can best be understood as "theeffective use of appropriate techniques for com-pleting a learning task" (Gall, Gall, Jacobsen &Bullock, 1990, p. 10). Study skills programs focuson improving students' generic self-managementstrategies (e.g., how to set goals, organize work,take notes, and set aside time for studying). The lastdecade has seen a burgeoning of resources andtraining materials specifically targeting study skills

(see, for example, Gall, et al., 1990; Gall & Gall, 1987;

Thomas & Strage, 1988).

Thinking skills are the complex and higher-level cognitive processes for manipulating infor-mation (e.g., recognizing patterns, extrapolatingfrom evidence, identifying bias, reasoning by anal-ogy). Both study skills and thinking skills pro-grams often include explicit attention to student

meta-cognition that is, helping students reflect

on their own thinking and actions. Numerous re-sources for both skills are available to teachers (see

Brandt, 1988; Chance, 1986; Sternberg, 1983).

Student-directed tasks encourage studentsto select and /or complete tasks on their own ratherthan just carry out tasks chosen by the teacher. Incurricula promoting student directed tasks, stu-dents often do their own or joint projects, work in

groups or pairs (thus engaging in peer instruction


and evaluation), and share instructional manage-ment responsibilities with the teacher. Elements ofstudy skills and thinking skills programs are oftenincorporated.

It's clear that active learning involves muchmore for teachers than just teaching an extra set ofthinking strategies to students; it actually chal-lenges some time-honored conditions of teaching.Besides shifting to more cognitively demandingtasks, teachers need to give students "progres-sively more personal responsibility and account-ability for organizing and completing their work"(Middle Grade Task Force, 1987, p. 44). Also, teach-ers' "current emphasis on coverage of a large quan-tity of information must yield to an emphasis ondepth or quality of the student's understanding"(Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development,1989, p. 43). The cases in this chapter illustrateseveral ways in which the staffs at five schools areimplementing active learning.


Table 3 contrasts the five cases both organiza-tionally and instructionally. One way to analyzethe schools' similarities and differences is to con-sider each strand (study skills, thinking skills, stu-dent-directed tasks) separately. But it's even morevaluable to look for commonalities and distinc-tions among the three strands, particularly sincethese are only three of many ways to implementactive learning. The following observations andquestions should help.

Observation: In all five cases, the job of actu-ally creating an active learning curriculum andaccompanying instructional methods rests withteachers. In the three cases with specific study andthinking skills programs, the newly developed cur-riculum came about after a small group of teacheradvocates assumed responsibility. Inthe two caseswhere schools emphasized student-directed tasks,the principal played an especially strong advocaterole, but the major responsibility for developinglessons fell to the teachers. This suggests thatwhether the impetus for active learning is internalor external, there must be 1) school site advocacy,and 2) teachers willing and able to take on the job ofidentifying and developing ways to extend andenrich existing curricula.

73

Table 3: Comparison of Active Learning Among the Five Schools

BEN FRANKLIN BURLINGAME


Focus on study skills as relevant to entirecurriculum

MARGARITA

Focus on higher-orderthinking skills asrelevant to entirecurriculum

DE ANZA HEWES

Focus on student-directed tasks embedded inentire curriculum; inclusion of somethinking and study skills activities

Initially district-driveninnovation via outsideconsultant (thatfailed); group ofteachers assumedresponsibility

Site-driven innovationfueled by group ofinterested teachers

Site-driven innovationresulting from SIPprocess; math teachersassumed initialresponsibility

Principal-driven innovation

Fairly prescriptiveprogram with manuallessons and formalevaluations

Guided, but not highlyprescriptive program;informal evaluations

Prescriptive programavailable, but teacherde riations allowed;informal evaluations

Principal-mandatedphilosophy;evaluations viafrequent principalvisits to classroomsand principal team-taught lessons

Principal-directedphilosophy; informalevaluations

Some on-site teacher training; materials basedpartly on outside resources

Teachers attendworkshops,conferences; activitiesdrawn from outsideresources; prindpaldistributes andemphasizes research

Principal inservices allnew teachers;numerous on-siteworkshops forcommonunderstanding

Teachers attendworkshops; half-daywork sessionsprovided for teachers

Teacher groupreceived stipend todevelop manual

Teacher dutiesrearranged to createdevelopment time

Principal allocatesmany resources andtakes over classes soteachers can observeothers and/or preparelessons


Taught as wtegratedskills in all academicsubjects (divide upresponsibilities)

Taught as separate andtaught as integratedskills in core

Taught as separatecourse two days perweek with all facultysharingrespomibilities

Infused in all classes; teachers shape curriculumaccording to school guidelines

Students accountable for organized notebooks. Students completemaintaining schedule of assignments short, non-graded

problem exercises

Students accountable for individual and groupproiects, peer-assisted tasks and evaluations

74Chapter Three: Active Learning 63

Initial advocacy for active learning gener-ally comes from a small group or singleperson at the school site. Who at yourschool would be the likely advocates? Howdo you identify and empower these people?Once an active learning program has beenimplemented, how dependent is it on thepresence of the initial advocates? Howcould you establish a broader base of sup-port?

Think about the various ways that sup-port, training, and time were created ineach of the five cases so that teachers couldimplement active learning. Which wouldbe most easily accommodated at yourschool site? Why? Since teachers ultimatelymust develop lessons and materials,wouldthis help be adequate for them? If not, howmight sources of help be expanded andbetter facilitated?

Observation: In all five cases, teachers' initialexposure to active learning came via pre-packagedmaterials and expert training. As teachers becomemore involved in implementation, they tend not toadopt intact programs but instead to develop theirown by borrowing from, synthesizing, and ex-panding existing sources.

Given that teachers have limited resources(e.g., time, access to peers), why do youthink they choose to develop their ownmaterials? What are the implications ofthis approach in terms of quality of mate-rials and acceptance by peers? Is a teacl,er -developed active learning program a -1-able option at your school? Why?

Observation: All five schools have given con-siderable thought to how active learning can bestbe incorporated into the students' daily program.The study and thinking skills programs have beenimplemented through short, separate units addedto the existing curriculum, with teachers encour-aged to reinforce concepts in all academic classes.Thanks to the commitment of their teachers, thetwo schools that have taken a student-directedtasks approach have been able to implement theprogram as a major component of every class.

The decision to implement active learningeither as an "add on" to the curriculum


or infused across it has significant impli-cations. For teachers, what are the organi-zational and instructional advantages anddisadvantages of each approach? For stu-dent learning and motivation, what are theadvantages and disadvantages of each?Would the strand of active learning beingimplemented necessarily dictate the ap-proach? Why?

Observation: In all five cases, the organiza-tional expectation is that teachers will implementthe chosen strand of active learning. In the studyand thinking skills schools, teachers are expectedto instruct by using a series of fairly prescriptive,teacher-directed lessons in short time blocks. In thestudent-directed tasks schools, teachers are ex-pected to instruct according to a nonprescriptive,diffuse, and all-encompassing philosophy involv-ing many simultaneous goals.

In the study and thinking skills schools,how would you reconcile the seeming con-tradiction between teaching prescriptiveunits and modeling the primary goals ofactive learning (i.e., enabling students tobe more responsible for their own learn-ing)?

The expectations accompanying a prescrip-tive versus a diffuse teaching approach arelikely to produce different comfort levelsfor teachers. What would be the likelyoutcomes in terms of buy-in, motivation,and ultimate :ess, for teachers and stu-dents? Which approach might work bestfor your school? Why? Might there be ad-vantages to using a combination of the twoapproaches? Would this be a realistic con-sideration at your school? Why?

75

A SENSE OF ORDER: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL (COLMA)

Rmamin Franklin is a one-story c(mplex located in a lower-middle income area south ot San

Francisco. The surroundings consist of a fairly even mix of closely-placed, single-family houses and

apartment complexes. Approximately 480 seventh andeighth graders attend the school. The student

bodu is very diverse, composed of Hispanics (29 percent), Filipinos (24 perceno, Caucasians (21

peirent), Asians (12 percent), blacks (10 percent ). Pacific Islanders (3 percent), and American

Indians (1 percent ). These different etlmkities co-exist at the school with an absence of intergroup

antagonism and gang activau. The school takes pride in last year's CAP writing score, which Mis

in the uOth percentik statewide. An important current goal is raising the other CAP scores to at least

the 50th percentile.

)ates of Visa; March t, "r 1990. Principal: Tom /adz.

GETTING STARTED ON STUDY SKILLS

Perhaps the most visible evidence of BenFranklin's emphasis on study skills is each teacher'sbright blue binder containing the new study skillsmanual used school-wide beginning this year. De-veloped by three of the teachers, the manual and itsenthusiastic reception represent how far the schoolhas progressed over the past five years.

Five years ago, a newly-hired superintendentassigned Tom Zach as Ben Franklin's new princi-pal. A study skills program was an early priority,!..ince the superintendent had received a grant tooffer inservice instruction in that area to languagearts teachers. So the superintendent brought in awell-known consultant who demonstrated studyskills lessons and put together a book of lessonideas. The faculty, however, didn't adopt them.

Why? Upon reflection, Mr. Zach decided thatthe "top-down" approach of bringing in an outsideconsultant was partly at fault. He sensed that theteachers also viewed the lessons as simplisticnothing beyond some basic study skills instructionthey were already doing. Though he thought thatsome "delusions of familiarity," common amongeducators, might be coming into play, he believedthat the teachers' criticisms certainly reflected theirlack of ownership.

Mr. Zach decided to back up and put highestpriority in his first two years on "a safe and orderlyenvironment" and "building a positive climate."Atter that, he would turn to more purely academicgoals, including study skills. Meanwhile, theconsultant's inservice had focused new attentionon study skills, and some of the teachers werecommitted to teaching them. But the consensuswas that developing a school-wide study skillsemphasis was a long-term goal that would takeseveral Years.

Thus, the past three years at Ben Franklinhave been a time of building momentum tor studyskills. Mr. Zach believed it critical to first develop aknowledge base. He began to compile his ownnotebook of resources on study skills based onERIC literature searches and his own reading otprofessional journals and other borrowed and pur-chased mater:als. Several key teachers also col-lected resource materials. Principal and teachersgradually began to agree on some common ap-proaches. At the same time, the state'sCaught in theMiddle and Program Quality Review helped rein-force teachers' determination to develop a studyskills program. Both emphasize the importance of"learning to learn." All Ben Franklin teachers, saysMr. Zach, were given copies of Caught in the Middleand had time t.) discuss it during tacultv meetings.


After a year of such preparation, three teach-ers began writing the school's own study skillsmanual. Paid a total of $1,250, they each devotedfive intense half-days to getting most of the writingand organizing of the manual done. "We wrote ourhearts out," said one. They borrowed liberally frommany sources to develop a significant number oflessons, but also created many of the lessons them-selves, along with a plan for each. Subsequently,they used personal time to see production throughto the distribution stage. The authors view themanual as a working document that they intend torefine and update over time.

A TWO-PRONGED APPROACH

Stuiy Skills Manual. The resultant bluebinder contains a hefty number of color-codedpages, organized into seven study skills topics:(1) use of textbooks, (2) study habi%, (3) organiza-tional skills, (4) goal setting, (5) listening skills,(6) notetaking, outlining, and summarizing skills,and (7) test taking skills. There are 55 lessons in thebook, with each topic section containing four to 14.

Even if students flunk thetests, they don't get a failinggrade so long as they handin an organized notebook.

For each lesson the authors include an objec-tive, an "anticipatory set," and an activity. Someinvolve handouts and/or teacher information suchas surveys or even complete (but very short) lec-tures. Nothing in the manual should take morethan 20 minutes, say the authors, who deliberatelyaimed for "short bits." "Nobody wants an extraprep," one explained. "Many of our teachers aredelighted to find that this is user-friendly They canjust go right into the manual, grab a lest an and doit." The book includes an introductory section de-scribing a rationale, student pre- and post-tests,and teacher checklists for recording when particu-lar lessons are covered. At the back is a shortglossary, a list of textbook sections that reinfoxespecific study skills, and a bibliography.


At this year's first faculty meeting, everyteacher received a copy of the manual, and theauthors explained its use. Responsibility for cover-ing study skills was assigned at random among theacademic departments. All departments were askedto address the first study skills area, use of text-books. The math department was assigned majorresponsibility for covering study habits and goalsetting; the language arts department for listeningand notetaking skills; the science department fororganizational skills; and the social science depart-ment for test taking skills. Each department wasrequired to cover assigned areas during the firstquarter, providing follow-up and review throughthe rest of the school year. Any study skills area orlesson could fall within the purview of any facultymember who viewed it as important and helpfulfor his or her students.

Student Notebooks. Described in the organi-zational skills section of the study skills manual isa student notebook system in all academic subjects.Under it, students are required to keep a separatenotebook for recording and organizing their work ineach subject. This system evolved from the efforts of"early crusaders" on the faculty and was well-devel-oped and practiced several years before the advent ofthe manual. Besides the manual itself, it is the oneother pervasive means by which study skills areencouraged among Ben Franklin students.

The first lesson from the organizational skillssection reads as follows:

"All teachers will be asked to design a systemthat allows for a small part of each student's evalu-ation or grade to be his progress with maintainingthe notebooks and assignment page. This will meansome final checking of the notebooks as well asseveral spot checks throughout the quarter or se-mester. Again, the systems for the percentage to beaccounted for by the notebooks will be the respon-sibility of individual teachers and their programs.

"Each teacher will develop a plan to instructthe students about the use of the notebook for thatparticular class. The first page in each notebook ornotebook section should be an assignment page. Itwill be critical for students to record the date of theassignment, a due date, the nature of the assign-ment and other special notes. It is assumed thatthere will be a variety of systems due to teacherchoices."

77

Most of the teachers employ a simple, com-mon format for the assignment sheet, with left-hand columns for the assignment dates and a right-hand column for the nature of the assignment(typically, a set of page or problem numbers). Apopular alternative format is a block calendar sheetwhere students record the assignment in the ap-propriate square. The rest of a student notebookconsists of student work organized and partitionedby a set of notebook dividers with labeled tabs.Here again, each teacher exercises discretion. Onelanguage arts teacher, for example, mandates threedividers labeled "spelling," "notes," and "tests."Another language arts teacher has four dividerslabeled "journal," "handouts," "notes," and "returnedassignments." A math teacher has three dividerslabeled "drills," "assignments," and "notesand tests."

Another element of the notebook system isthat teachers are encouraged to keep the assign-ment sheets for each of their classes permanentlyposted in the classroom. This way, students cantake responsibility for double-checking an assign-ment or making up for missed work. Finally, asindicated in the manual, teachers collect and check!.;tudent notebooks near the end of each term so asto base part of a student's grade on it. Severalteachers expressed the view that this system endsup helping lower achievers in particular. As oneteacher says, "Even if students do all their prob-lems wrong and flunk the tests, they won't get atailing grade if they hand in an organized note-book." Conversely, many teachers seem to agreethat students should flunk a course if they do nothave a notebook. A couple of teachers estimated,however, that only one to seven percent of studentsmeet this fate.

A LISTENING SKILLS LESSON

Today Ms. I, a language arts teacher, isreviewing two lessons from the listeningskills section of the manual. Her seventhgraders are energetic and social. The ma-jority begin to focus attentively as theteacher writes five letters vertically on anoverhead transparency: "LINKS."

"What do these letters stand for?," sheasks. Many hands go up. By calling on

78

various volunteers, the teacher fleshes outthe acronym:

ListenIdentifyNotesKey wordsSummarize

"When do you use 'L1NKS'?," she asks.

-When you listen to the teacher talk," astudent answers.

Ms. I then asks what kinds of cues helpwhen listening to the teacher. Without wait-ing for answers, she puts a second list upon the overhead:

Cues

EmphasiswvbanizationContentManner

She asks for examples of each kind of cue,and students oblige. Under "content," forexample, a student says you can pay atten-tion to the "what, where, and when."

Turning to the second exercise, Ms. I an-nounces that she will read through a shortparagraph about Abraham Lincoln andthat they should listen and try to identifyexamples of the four cues just discussed.She reads from the manual:

"Abraham Lincoln was elected to two termsas president, but he did not live to serve hissecond term. While at the theater with hiswife, on the night of April 14, 1865, he wasshot by John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln diedthe next morning in the house across thestreet from the theater where he had beentaken after being shot. Booth was reporteddead a few days later. The exact cause ofdeath is still uncertain."


She reads with animation, emphasizingseveral phrases. When she's done, shepauses and asks studenb to volunteer anycues they found. Onestudent suggests thatthe organizational dues included the dateand phrase, "next morning." A couple ofstudents identify the teadwr's voice andgestures as cues of emphasis and manner.Several students in unison say that thecontent cues are the names of Lincoln andBooth. The teacher /many sums up: "Youcan use these tools of LINKS and cues toincrease what you can remember from alecture." The class continues with theteacher assigning students to read a sec-tion from their textbook.

A NOTETAKING LESSON

In Ms. Vs 8th grade social science class, theentire period is devoted to a lesson onnotetaking, adapted from several lessonsin the manual's notetaking, outlining, andsummarizing skills section. Ms. L is one ofthe manual's co-authors. The lesson startsand develops at a brisk pace, indicating theteacher's fluency with the material.

Ms. L tells students to get out a sheet ofpaper and label it properly with name,date, subject, and period; they will be do-ing a "mini-project" on notetaking anopportunity for them to earn 50 extra"project points." What she is about to cover,she says, is a review.

To begin, Ms. L reads an excerpt from themanual:

"The purpose of taking notes is to help youlearn. Your notes help you learn when youfirst write them down; taking notes helpsyou figure out what's important in whatyou're reading or hearing. Also, takingnotes gives you a record of what you needto lutow for the future. You can use yournotes to study for tests.

"Think of your notes as a map. What youshould write down as notes are wordsand

7.)68 Instructional Challenge

phrases that will help you to remember themain ideas of what's been said or whatyou've read. Just as a map leaves out a lotof detail, so can your notes. Also, alwayswrite your notes in your own words.

"This unit will show you two effectiveways of taking notes: outlining and map-ping. Try using both of them and discoverhow well they work for you."

Ms. L then announces, "We'll now workon two ways to capture what I've justread." She puts a notetaking template onthe overhead projector. It appears as awheel with four spokes labeled: (1) pur-pose, (2) type, (3) map, and (4) rewrite. Anumber of blank, horizontal lines stemfrom the spokes. Ms. L solicits suggestionson how to fill in the blanks (seeattachment1), referring back to the initial paragraphsas necessary. She instructsstudents to copythe map, and she emphasizes that usingthe skeleton of one's notes to summarizetext is preferable to copying directly fromthe text.

Ms. L switches quickly to a new overhead.This one is the template for a standardoutline, written in black felt pen. She tellsstudents they should be able to fill in mostof the outline based on the other map theyhave just completed. The only new part isa section labeled "outline." A standardoutline, she explains, consists of main ideasand details. She will denote these withblack and green ink, respectively. Withmany student volunteers, she rapidly fillsin the details of the outline with her greenfelt pen. (See attachment 2.)

As students are copying the outline ontheir papers, Ms. L adds a third componentto the lesson: "I want you to turn yournotes the map or the outline into yourown written paragraphs. There are fivemain ideas, so it makes sense to have fiveparagraphs. Remember that a paragraphcan be one sentence long." She tells stu-dents to start their first paragraph with a

"grabber" sentence and asks for an ex-ample. A boy volunteers: "One way togather information is to take notes." Theteacher commends his suggestion andwrites it on the overhead. The bell rings.Ms. L announces that students shouldfinish this assignment as homework.

A GOOD RECEPTION

The manual's authors estimate that approxi-mately half the faculty now teach study skillslessons on a regular basis. Since this is the manual'sfirst year, this level of "buy-in" is considered aready reception.

One reason for such strong early acceptance,says the principal, is that teachers believe theirstudents need the study skills program. "Teachersfeel that today's students don't come to school aswell prepared. Many are not organizeti, and par-ents are not incukating the same values they usedto." The manual itself had a ready audience sinceit captures much of the teaching already beingdone bY a core ot teachers. It serves to encourage acimsistent program that a larger number ot teach-ers could follow.

The program also has the strong mark ofschool ownership. Authors say they telt compelledto develop their own manual because "nothing wecould find was directed toward the middle school."Mr. Zach adds that even if a school adopts a pre-packaged program, it's important to "massage" or"filter" it through t he school's own process. "Therecould be substantially one source or another thatpredominates, but teachers have to take it overand 'make it ours. lie further noted that most otthe packaged study skills programs he's seen ei-ther were not relevant to what teachers really do inclassrooms or were too complicated to suit teach-ers' limited time.

As tor funding, Mr. Zach says, "If you havecategorical funding, you can do a study skillsprogram." However, he adds, the funding willonly be put to good use if you start from a know-ledge base and have a skilled staff, Further, teach-ers have to experimmt with the program in theirclasses and the schot to be willing to "give itseveral years."

How have Ben Franklin students respondedto the program? "It's important to them," said oneteacher. 'They'll often give me reminders like, "Weforgot to do the calendar." One boy said of hismath teacher's approach: "We learn strategies, howto work out a problem, how to eliminate possibili-ties you can use that for everything, you know."

THINGS TO WORK OUT

While generally positive, teachers are quickto offer suggestions on how to improve the pro-gram and teacher implementation. For starters, themanual's authors recommend further editing andupdating of the manual, incorporating suggestionsfrom all teachers who've been using it. For ex-ample, one teacher urged changing some lessonsbecause they take longer than the manual says.This teacher also stressed the value of teacherscritiquing the manual together so that they canshare their experiences with it and lointly reflect onwhat they would change.

Several teachers also agreed that their intro-duction to the manual at the beginning of the Yearwas too brief. They spoke of wanting more time forinservice training, including the presentation ofmodel lessons for a better understanding of thematerials and how to use them. They felt suchtraining would also encourage as vet reluctantteachers to more actively promote the study skillsprogram.

Other teachers spoke of the difficulty of inte-grating parts of the program into some sublectareas, particularly math. One math teacher foundthe lessons on the textbook, notebook organiza-tion, test-taking and goal setting useful but hadproblems with the section on notetaking: "Takingnotes in math isn't the same as in language arts orsocial studies."

All teachers contacted agreed that the studentnotebook system is helpful and worth keeping. Acouple suggested that the system might be easierfor students to manage if they could keep all theirsubject work in one larger notebook. Students,when interviewed, concurred.

Finally, teachers raised some critical ques-tions about how and when study skills should betaught. The manual's authors expressed the viewthat their book was not intended as the syllabus for

SChapter Three: Active Learning 69

a separate course, but rather as a resource thatworks best when integrated into existing contentlessons where students can immediately see theusefulness of the skills. However, they concededthat the program might be launched more success-fully in each content class if the first week of schoolwere devoted almost entirely to study skills (asopposed to allowing teachers a month to covertheir sections).

Though the authors believe that a separatestudy skills course should be considered only forat-risk students, not all their colleagues agreed.One language arts teacher felt that a separate coursewould ensure that all students get the necessaryskills. A math teacher expressed frustration thatshe had to "suspend regular teaching" to coversome of the study skills material.

AN IDENTITY FOR THE So toot?

The principal's biggest concern about the fu-ture of study skills at Ben Franklin is whether theprogram can continue in the spotlight, given lim-ited resources and competing priorities such asimproving the school's CAP scores. "I feel theteachers are torn between covering the broad scopeof their subiect areas and adding a study skillselement," he said. There is also a desire to imple-ment additional middle grade teforms. For ex-ample, this is the first year that interdisciplinaryteams of teachers have begun to meet. The school isalso considering instituting an advisement pro-gram but this, says Mr. Zach, might actually bea vehicle for covering some study skills.

just how to carry on the study skills programwill be decided among school administrators andfaculty in the spring as part of a self-review process.Mr. Zach's own view is that the decision should bemade with an eye on Ben Franklin's future. If thedistrict should move toward open enrollment, thisprogram that helps students create order in theirschoolwork may be a critical factor in "selling theschool" to parents, thus keeping its enrollmentstrong.


BEN FRANKLIN: ATTACHMENTS

ATTCHNOTETAKING TEMPLATE

1. Purposeto learn

2. Type

Outline (Topic)

ATI-CH 2STANDARD OUTLINE

3. Map

+ ords/phrases

in ideas

not enough details

"in your Own words"

4. Rewrite

L Purpose HI. Mapping1. to learn 1. words/ phrases2. what's important 2. main ideas3. future 3. not enough details4. retain information5. test IV. Outline

11. TypeI. mapping2. outline

1. main ideas2. details

V. Rewrite1. "in your own words"

S2Chapter Three: Active Ltarning 71

No MORE ALIBIS: BURLINGAME INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL (BURLINGAME)

Burlingame Intermediate School serves over 600 students in gnsdes six, seven, and eight. Seventy-

three percent of the studentmulation is white , with the remainderconsisting of Asians (18 percent),

Hispanics (seven percent), and blacks (two percent). The school is situated in what is widely

considered one of the most desirableupper-middle class communities on the San Francisco peninsula.

The facility is laid out in several separate one-story wings on ample grounds in a quiet suburban

neighborhood. The longstandingadministration and staf f have been active asmiddle school advocates

for some time. Burlingame Interim:kw is a regional Foundation School.

Dates of Visit: February 20 & 23, 1990. Principal: Robert Welch.

IMPETUS FROM PARENTS

While certain study skills have been taught to

some students at Burlingame Intermediate School(BIS) since'1981, the school currently has a multi-faceted study skills program designed to reach all

students. According to Principal Robert Welch,interest in such a program had been growing among

parents, administrators and teachers. Several years

ago, parentb of fifth grade students began voicingconcerns: "At PIS, the kids will get so much home-

work. Are they going to be able to keep up?" At the

same hme, other parent expressed enthusiasmabout an extra-curricular, 12-hour study skillscourse for junior and senior high school studentsbeing offered by a local educator at the end of each

year a course so popular that beginning-of-the-year sessions were added. Said the vice-principal:"We found outselves telling more and more par-ents about this study skills class for $75 and think-

ing, 'lf there's this much demand, why aren't weoffering it right sitie?" Many teachers concurred,noting a lot of disorganization in students' schoolwork. As one put it, "Anybody who teachesiecog-nizes the need for these kids to have better study

skills."

So three years ago the faculty chose this topic

as the focus of a new sixth gradeexplorative class.

"One of the things we talked about time and tiwie

again was that our kids come to us from small,

contained classrooms where they're not moving

72 Instructional rhalknge

from teacher to teacher," says Mr. Welch. "Theydon't know how to organize a notebook. They'reused to having a desk where they can pile every-thing in and pull it out any time of the day. Theydon't have a sense of taking notes, outlining, orreading in content areas."

Like all exploratives, the study skills classlasts five-and-a-half weeks. AU sixthgraders rotatethrough it during the school year. (Other sixthgrade explorative classes include art, computerscience, drama, homemaking, music, and shop.)Study skills is taught by Ms. S, one of seven teachers

who tea-. ixth grade core a four-period block

encompassing English, reading, social science, andhealth science. Ms. S developed the coursebecauseshe already was recognized among her peers assomeone who used creative strategies to teach vo-cabulary and study skills. (An outline of the studyskills course appears in the attachment.)

63

A VIsrr To 'ME STUDY SKILLS CLASS

It is the second week for this rotation of thestudy skills explorative, but the 27 sixth-graders already seem comfortable in thedass routine, Immediately, they opentheirbinders to practice the four newshorthandsymbols for the day. An overhead offersguidance:

government amount equals I isn't same as

gov amt

Making a column for each shorthand sym-bol, students copy each one 25 times downthe length of the page. As they finish, Ms.5 quickly reviews this and two previoussets of symbo's.

Next she announces they will play a shortgame to test their fluency with the symbolsthey've covered. She asks them to work inpairs. As students shift their desks, shedraws a blank "tic-tac-toe" grid c n theoverhead and asks them to c,,Fy it. I'mnow going to read off the words for the 16symbols you know. The first person towrite down the correct symbol gets to puttheir initial in the grid. How do you knowif you're right or not? You put it down,then look up here and verify it. If you havea dispute, just call it a tie. If at the end ofeight words you have not scored a win, callthe game a draw. I suggest you each writeyour words very closely together so youcan see who's first."

She reads off one set of words, writing eachword and the corresponding shorthandsymbol on the overhead. A iovial hum fillsthe room as student pairs rush to writedown their symbols and compare apeeds.At the end, the teacher says, "The personwho wins gets a point."

Game over, students shuffle papers andreturn to their original positions, Ms Sredirects their attention with a new over-head:

Hint of the Day

1. Never study without a pencil in yourhand and a paper in front of you.Always study in the same place.

2. Always use the same "start" signal.For example, sharpening a pencil,ti wiling off the radio, etc.

Ms. S has added the second hint to her listtoday. She begins an animated presenta-tion of her rationale, feigning a slumpedand agitated sitting posture at a desk infront of the room. "A lot of kids andadults do this," she says. "They sit downand say, 'Well, I'm going to start my home-work any minute now. First maybe I'll justread thecomic books a little bit. You know,I forgot I told what's-her-face I'd call her. Iwonder how many cookies are left in thatjar. I wonder if the dog has enough water.Oh, I'll start in a while. Gee, look at theminute hand on that clock. Doesn't looklike ifs moving, but I bet if I look at it longenough, I can see it move.'

"See how easy it is to put it off and put doffand put it off at the beg*ining? But if youhave a definite start signal and you decidewhat it's going to be, you sharpen a penciland that's it. You turn off the radio andthat's it. Once you turn off that radio, boy,it's down to work. If you can set up a signallike that and stick to it, your concentrationwill be a lot better. Speaking of concentra-tion, you're about to get thin strips of pa-per that will be face down on your desk."

She quickly rotates around the room andputs a slip of paper on each desk. She tellsstudents that at her signal they should turntheir slips over and memorize as much asthey can in two minutes. She warns themnot to write anything down as they memo-rize. At the end of two minutes, she in-structs them to sit on their slips, then takea sheet of paper and "writedown what youremember." After several minutes, she tellsthem to stop. She reads off the words,telling them to give themselves a point forevery word they remembered.

Meanwhile, Ms. S has 7ut a blank sheet upon the overhead. She explains that somestudents received "A" slips while othersgot "B" slips. "A" slips contain 20 words ina random order. "Bs" list the same wordsorganized under four category headings(e.g., under the heading "sports" appear


basketball, long jump, frisbee, tennis, andfootball). She then announcesthat she willtally, average, anii compare the scores of

the "A" versus "B" students. She recordsscores on the overhead, and a couple ofstudents help her average the numberswith their calculators. As expected, thosestudents with "B" lists have au advantageover "A" list students (in this instince, 15.7

versus 14.5 words).

After soliciting several responsesfrom stu-

dents as to why she did this exercise, Ms. Ssummarizes: 'Think of your brain tellingyou that if you have information you'vegot to memorize or study, it wants thatinformation organized in categories. Your

brain can absorb categories much betterthan random information.

"Speaking of categories,would you pleasewrite on a piece of paper the colors of therainbow in order." There is good-naturedgrumbling as students start to write. A few

indicate they are lost, and oneboy says theclue: "ROY G BlV." The teacher writes this

on theoverhead, then quickly reviews two

more mnemonics: "HOMES" for the names

of the Great Lakes, and "Never Eat Shred-ded Wheat" to guidethe proper placementof the four compass points. She then writes

two columns of letters on the overheadand asks students to copy them and guesswhat they representSeveral volunteer that

they are the first letters for the months of

the year. She then asks students to writedown the correct number of days in eachmonth next to the proper letter, announc-ing that next time she will teach them asystem for remembering the number of

days. The bell rings.

Three days later, Ms.S's class again begins

with a shorthand exercise. This time, sev-

eral rounds of the "tic-tac-toe" game areplayed up at the board with two studentschallenging one another. At the end ofeach round, the winner remains up at the

board while the losing student selects the

next opponent. When the game ends, the

teacher gives students a reminder about


keyboarding they should always resttheir fmgers above the middle row andnever cross over. Next she shows them a20-minute film entitled "Researching andWriting a Report." When itends, she passesout small yellow post-its.Ste instructs stu-dents to writedown thepoint from the film

that most impressed them and place it intheir "Binder Reminder" calendars on thespace for today's date.

She spends the last five minutes of class onnotebook checks. Four volunteer studentsjoin her at a table, while the rest are askedto do other class work or 'think." At thetable, she asks students to pass their note-books clockwise so that they can correctone another's work. She Oves four criteriafor the check

1) Ls there a container for pencils andpens with a least two implements init?

7) Do things look organized?

3) Look at the "Binder Reminder" cal-endar for February. Has the studentbeen filling it in?

4) Does this notebook pass the non-vio-lent flutter check? This requires pick-ing up the open notebookby its leavesand shaking it upside down to makesure no papers or materials fall out.

As students conduct the checks, Ms. S pro-

vides more post-its and tells them to insertnotes on any problems and make reward-ing comments as well. Then she takes outher own grading book to record whetherstudents passed the check. With time run-ning short, she turns to the rest of the classand asks them to bring homework for to-morrow so theywill have something to dowhen the notebook checks continue.

PRECURSORS TO THE EXPLORATIVE

It's important to note that BIS developed criti-cal elements of a strong study skills program longbefore the advent of the explorative class. Not onlydid some teachers develop activities on their own,but study skills played a role in two longstandingcourses language skills and the Skills Centerclass, both taught by Ms. C

Language skills, started nine years ago, con-tinues today. It targets remedial students in thiscase the approximately one quarter of the studentpopulation who score below the 40th percentile onver'xil tests. Students attend in lieu of taking aforeign language. The class is organized so thatthey work in three small groups with the teacherand two aides. The groups rotate through fourdifferent centers during the week: literature, read-ing, writing, and skills. Specific topics coveredinclude identifying the main idea, sequencingwithin stories, outlining, differentiating betweenfact and opinion, and reading between the lines. Onthe day this class was obseived, students in thereading group were reading silently at their desks,an aide circulating among them. The writing groupworked with Ms. C on sequencing sentences. Atone point, each student received a small plastic bagcontaining five different slips with sentences. Theywere asked to write down the sentences on aworksheet in the most meaningful sequence. Theskills &map, directed by an aide, worked on a seriesof exercises in which they had to identify whethera sentence expressed fact or opinion. At one point,each student received a packet of approximately If)cards in a small plastic bag. One card read asfollows:

Fly to Florida this summer. Our planesleave New York every hour. In less thanthree hours, you can be in Miami, Florida.

Fact or Opinion?This story states:

A. Fact

B. Opinion

Stutkas went through all the cards and wrotedown "A" or "B" on their accompanying work-sheets. They then graded themselves and went onto complete two more packets. As the period drew

to a dose, t 'm teacher and aides gave each studenta grade for the day, which was recorded in theirprogress folders.

The Skills Center, now defunct, had beenoffered for seven years to seventh and eighth grad-ers one day a week. It was organized so that stu-dents rotated among a set of six stations over thecourse of the school year, with nonredundant ac-tivities from one year to the next. One of thesestations was for study skills. There, students cov-ered such topics as "getting a head start," "testpreparation," and "good reading habits," using awide variety of materials including commercialfilm strip packages and computer software. Theclass was discontinued this year for several rea-sons, including the difficulty of maintaining a hugebank of activities and the school's need for class-room space. But perhaps most important was therealization that BIS had developed other, moreintegrated ways to address study skills. Despite itsdemise, the Skills Center helped foster an aware-ness among faculty of the purpose and nature ofstudy skills activities. Further, until recently it wasthe only formal opportunity for students of allability levels to acquire study skills.

TODAY: MORE THAN A SINGLE COURSE

Today's sixth-grade study skills class is sup-ported at BIS by several other efforts. The school'shead librarian, for example, meets with sixth andseventh graders for several scheduled lessons inthe Media Center where she covers the topics ofreference tools and research skills. And this year,BIS instituted two other vehicles for encouraginggood study habits: first, all core teachers at all threegrade levels now include a two-week introductionto study skills at the beginning of the school year;second, all students use a "Binder Reminder" intheir notebooks.

The introduction to study skills came aboutlargely because parents were very pleased with theexplorative class but concerned that many sixthgrade students had to wait until well into theschool year for their rotation through the explor-afive. The primary purpose of the two-week intro-duction is to get students to organize their workfrom the very beginning. The principal noted thatMs. S was central to the effort; she put together apackage of outlines and worksheets that capsulizewhat she does. Though the content in her classes

56Chapter Three; Active Laming 75

may appear repetitious, faculty and parents feel

that the students need constant reminders.

Core teachers seem unanimous in valuing the

study skills introduction. However, its implemen-

tation probably varied widely this first year. Two

core teachers said they found it difficult to devote

concentrated time io study skills during the"shuffle" of the first couple ofweeks. "Some didn'tpick up on the importance being placed on thiscampaign," said one. "So we had quite a few force-

ful reminders in faculty meetings." Another ex-pressed a preference for integrating study skillsinto his content classes throughout the school year:"I don't make study skills separate from the rest ofschool work. I weave it into what we do."

The "Binder Reminder" is a notebook-sizedbooklet designed to fit into a standard three-ringbinder. The school purchased the booklets from acommercial publisher in California for approxi-mately $1.70 each. The first seven pages are cus-tomized for the school. They include the principal'smessage, general school rules, the bell schedule,and a school map. A short section describes study

skills:

A student who studies well

1. brings notebook, paper, pen or pen-cil, and other materials necessary to

class.

2. is an active participant in the class-room; listens well; takes part in dis-cussions.

3. asks questions if he doesn't under-stand the discussion or if he has aproblem.

4. plans his work and schedules forhomework each day; makes sure heunderstands the assignment beforehe leaves class.

5. uses what he learns; sees how eachsubject applies to the others.

h. strives to do his best, not just get by.

The remainder of the booklet consists of ge-

neric material from the publiiher, including vari-

76 Instrueional Challenge

ous options which a school can choose or adapt.Generally, each page represents a week in theschool calendar. For ea :h day, there is space torstudents to list assignments and priorities. A sec-tion devoted to "decision-making" and "time man-agement" illustrates how best to use the calendar.Other pages in the booklet contain miscellaneousinformation such as a multiplication chart, peri-odic table. U.S. map, and list of US. presidents. Atwo-page "Study Guide" lists over 70 recommen-dations for budgeting time, taking notes,preparingfor tests, etc.

The principal is enthusiastic about the effec-tiveness of the Binder Reminder, pai ticularly as ameans of communicating with parents: "Parentsare saying, 'Now I know there is something that iseasily identifiable a blue book that I can go toand say, 'Hey, let me see your Binder Reminder.'It's a common term now for parentsand kids." Thevice-principal also noted that parents' ability tocheck daily on their children's assignments is a bigimprovement over the previous system of weeklyprogress reports.

Teachers are also positive. One commented:"I do see a change for the better. Kids who normallywouldn't be careful are quite faithful doout usingtheir binders. I usually put the week's assignmentson the board on Monday. Now they write themdown, which they didn't always do before. Morethan anything else, it's doing away with that wide-

eyed ignorance didn't know! You never toldme!" Another teacher pointed out that the BinderReminder also reveals which teachers are orga-nized. "Everyone likes it, but there are some whodon't bring it to the forefront. They need periodicreminders."

As for students, several sixth graders esti-mated that well over half their peers regularly usethe Binder Reminder to !word assignments anestimate in line with the principal's.

WHAT KIND OF CHANGE?

Active discussion at the school focuses on akey question: What student outcomes will be im-proved by BIS's dedication to study skills? Mr.Welch noted that standardized test scores startedimproving quite a few years ago, shortly after theinception of the language skills class and SkillsCenter. He also pointed to day-to-day indicators of

87

behavioral change specifically with reference tothe Binder Reminder. Visiting classrooms, he notonly heard teachers remind students to use it, butsaw assignments jotted down in students' note-books. He especially mentioned one boy, a mostunlikely candidate to be cooperating with studyskills. A spot-check of the bov's Binder Remindershowed that in fact he was writing in it. "Now, Iknow he's been prodded by Directed Study Hall.But if he's doing it, then a heck of a lot of other kidsare too." A couple of teachershave observed changesin student awareness and, to a lesser extent, behav-ior. One commented: "It used to be when I wouldgo to kids and ask, 'What are you going to do tosolve your problem?' they wouldn't know whereto begin. Now they say, 'Well, I can do this andthis.' I now see they know a process for Managingtheir lives whether or not they follow it." An-other teacher noted a different kind of plus: "Ittakes away their alibis.

These teachers agree that ultimately the bestindicators of success would be student behavior.not test scores. (They are reluctant to link studyskills and test performance, noting that too manyother factors can influence test scores.) Like theprincipal, teachers regard student use of the BinderReminder as a behavioral Aiccess. But they hope toeventually see more far-reaching change. Said one:"If I see kids being conscientious about what workis due and when it is due, about their own studyhabits, about management of their own personallives to me that would mean success." Suchbroader indicators, teachers believe, may not benoticeable for a couple of years. They're lookingexpectantly to the time when the current sixthgrade class has progressed to eighth and becomethe first cohort of students to have received theschool's full menu of study skills supports.

WORKING AT GETTING BETTER

BIS's administration and faculty are commit-ted to their focus on study skills, anticipating aneven better program and better student response inthe future. Mr. Welch noted that BIS owes much ofits success to key faculty who were creative andwilling to develop and write the curriculum. Hesupported these faculty efforts by providing somework time (usually as a release from other duties)and materials.

Mr. Welch outlined several kinds of changeshe hopes will occur. First, he would like to adaptthe Binder Reminder so it fits BIS's school calendar,includes each subject area every day, and incorpo-rates a place for parent or teacher initials. Second,he expects that core teachers will develop a stron-ger introAuctory unit to study skills, given re-peated opportunities to do so. Third, he hopes thestudy skills taught in the explorative class could beintegrated into other subject areas "so that as a totalstaff, we will truly be more accountable to reinforc-ing study skills acrass the curriculum." And fourth,he thinks it might be beneficial to reduce the num-ber of students in the language skills class by low-ering the cut-off. This would increase the responsi-bility ot core teachers to cover skills strategies intheir classes.

For others moving toward a study skills fo-cus, Mr. Welch identified some potential obstacles.One is that some teachers may view study skills asan additional preparationi fact that may havecontractual implications. At BIS this wasn't a prob-lem. "Teachers saw the program as a necessaryentity that middle school kids need." A secondobstacle, he said, is the tendency to try to includeskills that the students aren't developmentally readytor extensive notetaking, for example. A thirdproblem may be training of personnel. "As far as Iknow, no one offers inservice on training of studyskills. So staff almost has to be self-trained." He alsourged identifying a curriculum that supports studyskills. And he warned against merely buying theBinder Reminder or other packaged materials andexpecting students to use them without a coursethat explains how and why.

As for teaching study skills in isolation versusintegrating them into other subjects, Mr. Welchfavors doing both. When study skills are relegatedto the core only, he says, you run the risk ot inte-grating too much. "Things get lost." If taught onlyas a separate course, however, study skills might beignored by the rest of the teachers, and studentsmight never really learn how to apply them. Byhaving a specialized course and including studyskills in the core, the school can strike the bestbalance.


BURLINGAME: ATTACHMENT

STUDY SKILLS COURSE OUTLINE

Title: Study SkillsLevel: 6Blief Desaiptian:Study slcillspmvidessixth graders with essential meth-ods of organizing materials, proper study environ-ment guidelines, strategies for mastering information,dictionary, library, and note-taking skills.

Objectives: Students willI. Demonstrate an ability to organize and self-

monitor. Maintain over a five-week period abinder with paper, pens, pencils, and com-pleted assignment sheets.

2. Use simple tricks to help them memorizepoems and facts.

3. Recite the poems and take tests on facts learned.4. Use the SQ3R method,5. Be able to map information culled from an

article.h. Demonstrate an increased awareness of the

necessity of listening skills.7. Show by pre- and post-tests an increased ability

to follow written directionsS. Monitor their daily schedules for self evaluation

of how their time is spent.9. List all homework assignments on a provided

sheet; check items as accomplished.10. Be able to rank their own "things to do" list -

"most-important" to "least-important."11. Make flashcards for "concentration" study

game on foreign countries and capitals.12. Take a pre- and post-test to show increased

knowledge of those capitals.13. Map an oral lecture.14. Improve their dictionary skills.15. Increase their library skills.lb. Use a list of "commonly misspelled words."17. Maintain a list in their binder of the "Study Hint

of the Day."

Course Content1. Binder Requirements

Pens, paper, pencils, plastic bag, homeworkassignment sheetBrought to class dailyMust pass "flutter" test given half-waythrough course and at end of course

2. Memorizing TricksMnemonic devices, both student-created andteacher-providedPoem recitation

Flash cards3. SQ3R Method

Silently readQuestionReviewRecondRecall

4. Mapping both written and oral informationDone as a classDone in groupsDone independently

5. Following DirectionsListening skillsWritten directions

b. SchedulesDaily homework schedulesWeekly schedulesRanking of work from most to least importantTime monitoring

7. Dictionary SkillsPhonetic spelling/ pronunciation / syllabicationFinding correct meaning

S. Library SkillsLocating areas ot our Media CenterUsing card catalogsUsing resource books - almanac, thesaurus

9. Bibliography

Grading: Student will receive points for theirperformance in these areas:1. Daily assignment sheets with check-off2. Organized binder (flutter tests)3. Making and evaluating a goal a week4. Monitoring time sheet5. Ranking of priorities sheet6. Quiz on foreign capitals/poem7. Final binder check at end of course with all

sheets completed

Resources:1. Tony Basques Study Skills Handbook2. "The Write Source"3. "Research Skills A & B"4. Teacher Instruction

Evaluation:I. Daily assignments2. Teacher observation3. Recite the poems and take tests on facts learned.4. Tests


IT HAS TO Fm MARGARITA MIDDLE SCHOOL (TEMECULA)

Margarita Middle School is in the south Riverside area, midway between Orange County and Son

Diego. The school opened three years ago when the district needed more space tar its burgeoning

numbers of students and so moved 19 portable hu ildings tmto a n empty piece ot property. At present,

500 sixth, seventh and eighth graders attend Margarita, but enrollment is growing at a rate of 30 to

40 percent each year as new families move into the area. (Over 1300 new houses are under

construction; new devekpments start dad y.) Permanent buildings are under construction at the site,

expected to he completed and ready tar student Occupancy tor the 1990-91 school var. Students are

from economically diverse backgrounds. Achievement levels tend to be average. Margarita ha:, been

selected as a Middle Grades Partnership School.

Dates ot isit: October 24-25. Pr ncipal: Linnea Htillund.

At 9:30 A.M., Ms. Hedlund, the principal, stoodwatching in the morning sun as PE students playedvolleyball on a hillside court. She was there toobserve two students in particular. They had justregistered at the school, and she wanted to see tromthe outset that they felt accepted and welcomed.Satisfied that the two were involved and includedin the activities, the principal left the hillside smiling.

CREATING A VISION: IT'S LIKE BUILDING A PUZZLE

The principal and staff at Margarita are ex-ceptionally committed to the concept of middleschool as a place that furthers the well-being of itsstudents. This philosophy fosters a willingness tomake change, and many new programs have beentried at Margarita. Some have become successfula fter several modifications. Others wereabandonedwhen it became clear they weren't a good match forMargarita's particular needs. "What we do herehas to fit the unique needs of this staff and thesestudents," explains one teacher.

This kind of thinking has been cultivated bYthe principal, who has worked hard to establish herown middle grades vision. Several years ago, whileprincipal of the only middle school in the district,she attended numerous workshops and confer-ences where ideas for middle school reform werebeginning to take shape. She spoke with conference

leaders and other administrators av.und the coun-try about what these ideas meant o anizationallvand philosophically, read numewus research ar-ticles and materials, and became a member of theNational Middle School Association (NMSA). Bythen she felt conceptually well-grounded, but notvet ready to implement. "All the ideas about whatworks were pieces to an incomplete puzzle."

The missing pieces fell into place when sheattended a state-sponsored, three-year programfor district administrators at the AdministratorTraining Center. During this training, she came tosee the need to unify all that she'd learned. Moreimportant, she saw that implementing her visionrequired sharing it with others and encouragingthem to buy into it. "A leader with no followerscan't lead. I needed to talk to people about myexpectations, then get them to talk to each other."She began talking with board men-hers, districtadministrators, and staff members. "I had to say tomyself, 'Wait a minute! I know this stuff, but theydon't. I started pulling teachers in and sharinginformation with them. It became obvious that weneeded to discuss this information openly at staffmeetings. We had to talk about what it was I

expected a middle school to be." At one such meeting,she had her staff brainstorm a long list of things theybelieved in. From their list, they generated a slogan torally behind: "Making a Run for Excellence."

9 0Chapter Three: Active Learning 79

Two CENTRAL BELIEFS ABOUT CHILDREN

A year later, Margarita Middle School wasestablished. Ms. Hedlund and about half her staffmoved to the new school. Their common, firmlyrooted belief system and commitment to reformcreated an environment that fostered the samethinking in new teachers.

"Whatever we do at Margarita, we do not lose

sight of our two basic beliefs about children." saysMs. Hedlund. Those tenets are that all middleschool students should be genuinely cared for andknow they are cared for, and that all middle schoolstudents should be successful and accepted.

"ision sharing became an ongoing process.The principal duplicated information from NMSApublications and gave it to staff members to in-crease their awareness of what makes middleschools unique. "We didn't read anything outsideof these booklets because we didn't want a differ-ence of opinion. With a common base of informa-

tion, we started jigsawinghistorical information onmiddle schools so the staff could share thoughts on'Old versus new.' They also discussed characteris-tics of middle school students, as delineated in theNMSA's This We Believe. "It really made a differ-ence," said one teacher. "Many of us had thoughtsabout the students we were working with, but Idon't think the majority of us had really looked atall the data on what makes these students so spe-cial, what these characteristics meant to us as teach-

ers, and what we could do to better meet their

needs."

Ms. Hedlund began bringing board mem-bers, staff members, and district administratorswith her to middle school meetings and confer-ences. "This built suj. :t for change, helping ev-eryone to see why we were making some of thesechanges." Basically, she says, we had to moveMargarita away from being a mini high schooland both staff and board needed to see why such a

move was important.

TRANSLATING THE VISION INTO REALM

Once staff members, board members a nd dis-

trict administrators had a common base of under-standing about middle schools and their students,the principal began promotinb group discussions

about what these characteristics meant in terms of


classroom interaction and teaching. "You can un-derstand that a child's bones are growing, but whatdoes that mean in the classroom? How does it affect

what or how you are teaching?" One issue, forexample, is helping students develop social skills."If that's what I want to do," says Ms. Hedlund, "thenI should be doing lots of cooperative learning."

She sent teachers to workshops on specificteaching topics, such as cooperative learning, useof inquiry methods, concept formation, interactivelearning, and cross-curricular teaching. "We neededto look at how to get information across to studentsso that it was more than just a lecture. We wantedto know what else we could do." She stressedplanning as a critical factor in teaching. Planningallows teachers to go beyond giving out informa-tion and expecting students to respond to it.

Changes began. They included going to aseven-period day, using cooperative learning inclassrcvms, having dances after school, startingintramural sports teams, and focusing on higherorder thinking skills.

Today, teachers at Margarita are fully wili ing

to try new th' ngs, be creative, approach informa-tion in a different manner, and adjust teachingstrategies to achieve their goals. "Because we arechild-centered rather than content-centered, weare always looking at what we're doing with thekids and at ways to reach them more effectively."says Ms. Hedlund.

STRONG DISTRICT SUPPORT

Temecula Valley Unified School District iscommitted to educational excellence and has beenvery supportive of Margarita's reform efforts. Each

year, the superintendent uses a symbol to promotea shared district vision of what a school should be.This year it is a diamond: a school focused onstudents and learning is a precious gem. Afteranalyzing and adjusting district goals during athree-day retreat in August, principals open theirschools with a sense of connectedness and team-work. Principals align their school goals with thedistrict's. At Margarita, teachers' evaluation goalsare written in concert with both.

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FOCUSING ON Active LEARNING

One program Margarita has adapted is HigherOrder Thinking Skills (HOTS), a small but impor-tant separate curriculum that originated with theschool impnwement plan(SIP)conunittee threeyearsago. 'The committee wanted all Margarita studentsexposed to higher order thinking skill so a 'special'class was formed," explained one teacher. All stu-dents attended two days a week in the last periodbefore lunch. Every teacher in the school taughtHOTS for two weeks (four lessons), then studentstransferred to another teacher. This way, no oneteacher had to create a year's worth of lessons. Sincethe math teachers developed most of the lessons, theemphasis was on math. Lessons often drew fromMENSA activifies, incorporated geometric drawing,and used group problem-solving techniques.

HOTS has since moved to an earlier time slotShortly after the class had gotten underway, an advi-sory period of 25 minutes was implemented firstthing each morning. But when the staff decided theydidn't need advisory every morning, they decided todo reading on Mondays, HOTS on Tuesdays andWednesdays, and advisory on Thursdays and Fri-days. HOTS's focus has changed too, with math nolonger so dominant. Most of the teachers now designtheir own lessons. As a staff, they have decided onfour criteria for any HOTS lesson: it must stimulatethinking in the top three levels of Bloom's cognitivedomain (i.e., it should be a challenge); it should usegroup processing as much as possible; it should notbe attached to grades; and importantly it mastbe fun.

Students still rotate every two weeks to a newteacher including the assistant principal andprincipal. Every student in the school spends twoweeks with every teacher and administrator. "Weget to know every student, and they get to knowus," said one teacher, who likes the caring environ-ment this he!ps promote. Teachers particularlyappreciate the involvement of the two administra-tors. "They do it as well as advocate it," said one.Another added, "Because they are doing it, we cantalk to them about what works and what doesn't.They understaad." (For the other three days perweek of adv;:,ory, students stay with the sameteacher for all three years of their stay at Margarita.)

Teachers feel positive about Margarita's HOTSprogram. They believe it succeeds in part because

of the way it was designed, but also because of theway it was presented. Too often, teachers say, theyare hit with amorphous concepts that "need to bedone." With little explanation or help, they're ex-pected to include these things in their curriculum.HOTS, by contrast, was a "hands on" project thatstarted slowly. Teachers received assistance pre-paring lessons. "Actually," said one teacher, "we'venow begun including it in our regular classes. it'sreally taught me how to teach critical thinking. Iwouldn't have had a clue if wr, hadn't done a theway we did."

STUDENT REACTIONS TO HOTS

Students, too, like the program. One said henow applies his new problem solving skills to real-life situations. "Mostly, I've learned that I can solveproblems, and that I'm pretty good at it." Another'sreaction capsulized the purpose of HOTS: "It's tomake us learn how to think. I know I didn't think asmuch or as creatively before. It has helped me a lotin pre-algebra because I see problems and how tosolve them faster. It has helped me get better men-tal pictures and even a 'feel' for things in my artclass."

"I didn't think as much oras creatively before.RIOTS] has helped me alot in pre-algebra becauseI see problems and how tosolve them faster."

Margarita student

Others reported gaining insights about theirpeers and themselves, discovering new levels ofthought, gaining new perspectives, and getting ajump-start on the day: "Other students have geatideas that I can use. And when I see them goingthrough some of the same frustrations I have solv-ing something, I'm more willing to try." "You haveto think. It's not just rote, something you do with-out putting your brain into gear." "I seem to think


faster and connect things together easier. I also seethings differently. When I'm reading a story, Iknow why something is happening." "I wish wehad HOTS every day. I have some really hardclasses, and HOTS gets my engine running. It teasesmy brain out of sleep. I get so much more done in mySpanish class, which I have next, on these two days."

Favorite HOTS activities include Pascal's Tri-angle, tannengrams, cubes, protractor exercises,making puzzles into shapes, designing future equip-ment, using computers, estimating the numbers oflife savers of different colors in rolls of Life Savers,mazes, pentominoes, lines with stars, mnemonics.putting a grocery list into categories, triangles,numbers that add up, and breaking codes,

A Sucm GRADE HOTS LESSON(TWO DAYS)

Day 1: The students enter the mom andtake their seats in rows. The teacher hastwo students pass out photocopied mate-rials to the class and announces, "We'regoing to do a pentominoes activity." Sherefers to a sheet of paper showing a rect-angle divided into bO squares: "Identifyeach of the sets of five heavily shadedboxes on this sheet," she says. "Determinewhich sets can be folded to form a four-sided box with a bottom and no top, andwhich can't." After several student ques-tions, 0.0 distributes a second handout."Recreate the shapes you have identifiedonto this second sheet under the columnthat indicates whether they can or cannotbe folded to form a box with no top," shesays. "Quickly estimate, before you begin,how many you think will work and howmany you think won't, and put your an-swer in the space provided at the top of thepage." Students again ask questions, thenbegin to work some in pairs, some inde-pendently. The teacher passes out coloredpencils and monitors student progress bywalking around the classroom. This con-tinues until the bell rings.

Day 2: The students enter the classroomand continue the pentominoes exercisefrom the previous day. Midway through


the class the teacher interrupts: "Now, isthere a generalization, or yeneralizations,that you can make about these shapes andwhy some of them don't work?" Severalhands go up. The student called on says,"It wanks when there is a box on top andone on the bottom with three in the middle.Then you can fold it into a pentomino."Students immediately begin going overtheir papers again and tlw noise level in theclassroom rises. The teacher allows themto continue working to the end of the period.

OTHER PROGRAMS

Besides HOTS, Margarita has adopted nu-merous other new practices over the past two years.One of the most evident is the use of affirmations.Posters in classrooms and corridors carry messagesaimed at bolstering self-esteem: "No one can makeyou inferior without your consent"; 'People whomatter are most aware that everyone else does too";

I it's nice to be important, but t s more important tobe nice." Others foster success: "Be the best vou canbe"; "Nothing in life succeeds like success"; "Self-confidence: feeling skillful, feeling appreciated,teeling responsible"; and "It is better to solve oneproblem six ways than to solve six problems oneway.

Many teachers now use a "put down, put up"program. If a student puts another down in somemanner, he or she owes that student three "putups" or three statements actions indicating posi-tive things they have noticed about that person.

Teachers have implemented lots of coopera-tive learning activities. "Over three-qr afters of mystaff qualify as experts in cooperative learning,"says Ms. Hedlund. "Many of them have been for-mally trained, and they use cooperative learningactivities frequently." Teachers feel that coopera-tive strategies, which help students learn to solveproblems together, are an excellent complement tothe HOTS emphasis, As one said, "The two go handin hand."

Teachers believe in experiential activities anduse students to help other students. "In general,"one teacher stated, "there is much more studentchoice in learning." Teachers share materials with

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one another and tie learning in one area to another.Several packaged programs have served as majorresources at the school, including Explore, Aims,Quest, Skills for Adolescents, and Project Impact.

A BIT OF MAGIC

The principal relies on state, district, andschool mission statements and goals to keepMargarita on tradc. "You've got to have somedirection, and you've got to have it written down

'This is what we've said we believe in` so thatyou can always refer to it if you need to," she says.

She sees the principal's role as critical in theprocess of change. She has dearly delineated herexpectations, couched them in two easily under-stood statements, created school goals that reflectthose statements and aligned them with districtand state goals. But, she says, "having a vision is notenough You have to be a cheerleader and be out thereall tlw time pushing it." So she also visits classroomsfrequently, makes sure she is in the quad area duringbreaks and lunchtime, and teaches one of dm advi-sory classes.

The school now has an environment wherestaff talk with one another regularly about studentlearning and what it means in the classroom. Mod-eling and training are provided to help teachersbecome familiar with and use new skills andMargarita's teachers take advantage of it. Says theprincipal, "I can honestly say that staff members onthis campus give more. When the district offerssomething, 95 percent of my staff will be there."

As teachers have grown hicre sophisticated,they've seen how much more is possible and areeager to try new things. "Around our school it'salways, 'We can do that," said one teacher. Thoughthey sometimes have second thoughts about rashoptimism, their determination and confidence breakdown obstacles. "If it's making the students suc-cessful or improving cuniculum, we do it." Best ofall, their classroom approaches help communicatethis "can do" attitude to students. "There is a littlebit of magic here," said one teacher. "The studentshave been rewarded and so have the teachers. Weall feel a sense of success and accomplishment."

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BUILDING BRIDGES: DE ANZA MIDDLE SCHOOL (VENTURA)

DeAnza Middle School is located in the northeast "older" section of Ventura in an industrial area.

Oil derricks are abundant, and most residents of the twc LLnimunities from which DeAnza draws

earn low incomes. Sixty percent of the school's students ,ual.hy for freelre,luced lunch service. (me-

third are ChapterI. and the school maintains two biiingud classrooms. Thirty-six percent of

OeAnza's 7211 students are Hispanic, oi percent Caucasian. 2 twrcent Black, and 1 percentV ietnameseiCambodian. The school is a sprawling series of corridor-style buildings lorming a "'LI"

around an open courtyard. Five years ago, students were scoring in the fifth percentile on statewide

assessments; this year they're at the 5th.

Dates of V February 2, 3. 1991). PrincipaL Lorraine Becker,

5RIDGE5 TO THE CURRICULUM

To the principal and staff at DeAnza, activelearning is central: it is the way they engage stu-dents in curriculum. Their shared view is thatactive learning is a process of building bridges: toconnect experience with learning, to create mean-ing for information (a rich base of "whys" and"hows"), and to encourage a mixture of participa-tion and thinking. These bridges in place, studentsare able to maximize learning opportunities. Oneteacher explains that she and her colleagues teel theapproach allows them to emphasize student learn-ing "away from the traditional model" whichthey feel is critical. Without active learning, shesays, "students would be performing at lowerachievement levels, have lower self-esteem, andhave far less interest in coming to school."

How ACTIVE LEARNING CAME ABOUT

Ms. Becker, the principal, is responsible forthe emphasis on active learning. When she arrivedat the school, she found a lot of "cliquish" behavior."Students stayed within their defined groups. Theydidn't cross into someone else's territory. As aresult, there were problems, and achievement wasnot high." For example, she says, in some cliques itwas not cool to be a good student. She suspectedthat a change in the mode of teaching might createa different, more positive learning environment,


She began suggesting that teachers try active learn-ing, in hopes that they would find the approach aseffective as she has.

Years ago when Ms. Becker was student teach-ing, her master teacher modeled active learning,instilling principles she has used ever since, "Shedid so much more than just follow text with read-ings and worksheets. In fact, we had no text, so sheinvolved me in developing numerous projects asvehicles for teaching students the information."Having tried this project-orientation, M. Beckerfound it difficult to teach any other way "Withadditional experience in the classroom, I learned alot mc-e about how to connect students with con-tent. 1 learned to use what works, and activity-based instruction works. Bet:ides, teaching this wayis a lot more fun."

At DeAnza. Ms. Becker began advocatingthat teachers teach in a way that involves studentsintellectually and physically in what they're learn-ing. Teachers, she said, should encourage studentsto apply ideas to problems, take responsibility fororganizing and completing assignments, and takeintellectual risks.

In order to accomplish these student-cen-tere : tasks, teachers have been shifting from a"direct instruction" approach to one where stu-dents are frequently in small groups. This gives

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every child a chance to participate and express hisor her opinion. Teachers are also asking studentsquestions that provoke thinking, making studentprotects a central part of the curriculum, andmost important striving to make learning fun.

Teachers at DeAnza, in short, are trainingtheir students how to learn. "It's not unusual to seestudents writing in margins on photocopied mate-rials or using different colored marker pens tohighlight important information," said Ms. Becker.

Higher order thinking skills are heavilystressed. An example: each classroom has a posterof Bloom's taxonomy. Students are taught the dif-ference between synthesis and evaivation as well asthe key verb stems for each of Bloom's cognitivecategories ',they can recognize at w hich level theyare working. "We frequently ask students whatlevel a particular task might require and how theycould expand it to a higher thinking level," saysone of the veteran teachers. "This way the studentstrain themselves to !,le,ct challenging individualprotects. They also recognize why we are askingthem to do certain things certain ways, why weteach the way we do." The principal added. "Itgives student., permission to take intellectualrisks."

PROVIDING TEACHER SUPPORT

OeAnza, said Ms. Beeker with a smile. isknowr-iround the district as "home of the inser-vice" because of its large number ot trainings andworkshops. She Weis that the trainings are impor-tant because they provide teachers with necessaryand useful information as well as strong support:''I laving training available sends a message to mystaff that I value what they're doing in the class-room. I'm willing to pro-, ide the resources theyneed."

Last year, as the result of one such inservice,teachers began teaching their students about thevarious learning modalities: kinesthetic, visual,andauditory. Though the teachers try to include all

three as much as possible, they also want studentsto be responsible for getting the information in theway they personally need it. Said one teacher: "It'snot unusual for a student to stop one ot us and askfor an explanation in another way, visually, orwhatever." One 9rst-vear teacher added, "We tryto say everything, show everything, and let th ?stucients manipulate as much as postible."

Besides inservice, other resources the princi-pal provides for her teachers include 12 to 13 sub-stitute teacherdays per year tone or two per mont h kbudgeted for each teacher to give them the time toshare ideas, talk about what they are doing, andobserve one another's classrooms. "Every teacherhas observed at least one other teacher on staff,"said Ms. Becker. "I also encourage teachers to teamwith one another whenever possible. Team teach-ing helps spark active learning and vice-versa."

DeAnza is known aroundthe district as "home ofthe inservice" because ofits large number oftrainings and workshops.

.1-he principal herself is in classrooms a lot"not to ',-atch' teachers but to enhance teaching,"she explains. "The teachers are so te...d to seeing mein their classrooms that they otten aren't evenaware I'm there." Besides observing, she 0..mon-strates lessons, helps teachers plan and o liverlessons, and suggests lesson ideas. She trequentlytakes over a classroom so a teac'.,er so can visit acolleague, do some additional planning, or preparematerials. And she does a lot of team teaching withteachers.

"I can't help but be involved in what's goingon in the classrooms. It's a big part of me andsomething that I think I can `bnng to the party,* soto speak. I'm the master teacher here, and I have totake the risk. I need to be out there doing what I amadvocating." She believes her involvement hasgiven her much credibility with the staff. "It hasalso kept me fresh. And teachers know I'm cogni-zant of what they go through every dav with kids."

But perhaps the most important support Ms.Becker provides is her expectation that active learn-ing will take place in classrooms. "I hold teachersaccountable. And I make what teachers are doingin their classrooms public " She involves the schoolin various fairs, etc., which require display at stu-dent work. "The Program Quality Review process


we recently went through was a good demonstra-tion of a means to an end. Some teachers who hadnot been particularly prolific in displaying studentwork suddenly were posting work on their boards."To ensure that teachers can meet her expectations,Ms. Becker provides necessary materials and sup-plies. She has purchased an overhead projector forevery classroom, she makes lots of colored parravailable, teachers have butcher paper and markerpens, and she purchases many special materials byrequest.

Active learning strategieshelp kids "solve problemsin coordination with eachother, express ideas fully,and develop friendshipsand social connections."

De Anza teacher

She also feels that recent staff turnover hasbeen a plus for active learning. "I have hired almostevery teacher in this school, all with the under-standing that they will teach using active learning.It's a prerequisite for a job here." New teachersattend a two-day workshop with Ms. Becker priorto teaching at DeAnza. There they see concreteexamples and demonstrations of active learning aswell as practice usmg the approach. The principalthereafter meets with new teachers monthly and inthe interim spends a lot of time in their classrooms.

CAN'T BE DONE EVERY DAY

It's important to note that the principal doesnot expect all teaching to be in the active learningmode. "This isn't something that can be done inevery lesson, every class, all the time," says Ms.Becker. "Active learning lessons take a lot of prepa-ration, a lot of coordination. Sometimes the kidsneed some basic information that can't be deliv-ered any other way than through direct instruction.I'm looking for a blend. I want teachers to take risksand try new things. But not all the time."


Sometimes, she says, class dynamics on agiven day call for abandoning plans for activelearning lessons. One teacher offered an example:"I may have an active learning lesson all prepared.But I walk into the classroom and I can tell it's notgoing to work. Maybe it's a rainy day, or maybe it'sMonday after a long weekend. The kids are antsy,so I shift gears and haul out the reading books andgive them a quiet activity to settle them down."Active learning on such days, she feels, would onlylead to non-productive behavior.

How TEACHERS RESPOND

For the most part, teachers appreciate howsupportive the principal has been of their efforts tomake active learning work. One teacher describedhow differently she now teaches: "I used to have a'still classroom' mindset. I thought good irstruc-tion meant students working quietly, by them-selves. Now my classes are filled with busy learn-ers prod acing an abundance of work!" Anotherteacher said that the principal's efforts have pro-duced "a staff that is not stagnant. We're all grow-ing professionally, with a lot of openness and ac-ceptance of each other." Students, she says, havebenefited in the same way: "Because of active learn-ing, they are open to and accepting of each i:therand adults, and they ha ve an appreciation of othersthat I didn't see before."

For one teacher, the shift to active learningwas "scary" because it meant giving up control.Even so, she found that it complemented the wayshe likes to teach: "I like being the 'guide on theside,' rather than the 'sage on the stage', to quoteRoger Taylor." With active learning, she had tostructure tasks so that they were both very orga-nized and highly flexible. "I literally had to trainmy students to function in a different way." Herreward is that "students like my class, they learnmore, and I am able to give them a lot of freedomwhich they understand means 'freedom with apurpose."

A new teacher describes her experience withactive learning as an extension of her training atSeeds Elementary School, UCLA, where teachersare trained in a lab school setting using a variety ofteaching methods, including the Madeline Huntermodel. "I had already been trained in positivereinforcement techniques, classroom management,higher order thinking skills, etc., so teaching at

97

DeAnza was an opportunity for me to apply whatI had been trained to do." She has three majorobjectives that guide her each day: achievement ofher learning goal for her students, which she writeson the board; making sure that students under-stand the reason they're learning certain things ordoing certain assignments; and encouraging stu-dents to constantly question why have they reachedcerVin conclusions a nd to justify their findings. Ona recent day she gave students butcher paper dur-ing a lesson, and immediately they filled it withtheir opinions about the assigned topic. "Then, ontheir own, they wrote down why they thought thatway because they knew I'd ask."

For this teacher, being at De Anza and usingactive learning is the "best thing !could have hopedfor in a job." The work is hard, she admits "theprincipal demands a lot" and at times her com-mitment wavers. "But only fora minute. I guess I'mneurotic, but I really do love it. It makes me workbut, more importantly, grow."

Others agreed that the workload is heavy.Said one: "A lot of teachers leave here. They can goto a new school and not work as hard. A lot is askedof our staff. And it's hard getting kids to learn to dothings differently." (The principal confirms that 13new staff members were hired this year. "Not allthe attrition is due to what I demand," she notes."But it is why several teachers chose to leave.")Like most of her colleagues, this teacher thinks theextra effort is worth it. She sees that the kids nowsolve problems in coordination with each other,express ideas fully, and develop friendships andsocial connections. She believes that active learningstrategies help students learn more and be morecreative. "Kids always give me something I don'texpect when I do active learning. I am constantlysurprised."

WHAT VARIETY!

Unanimously, DeAnm teachers feel that ac-tive learning allows more teacher creativity. Withno one model, they said, each is continually en-hancing activities or inventing new ones. The fol-lowing portrayals of various class sessions illus-trate different teachers' active learning lessons.

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LANGUAGE ARTS - SIXTH GRADE

Twenty-six students, sitting in pairs (twodesks turned face-to-face), are instructedby the teacher to take out a piece of paper.On the overhead projector she shows awoman's face. She explains to the studenta,"This is a face of feeling. How would youdescrle the feelir.g that you see in thispicturer Students offer various comments,including "happy," "excited," "eager," and"pleased." She shows twoadditional faces,solicits responses, and compliments eachstudent on his or her contribution.

She then explains an upcoming activityand puts directions for it on the overhead.First, the students are to cut out five facesthat show feelings. Second, they are toname the feelings each face shows and tellwhat they think is causing it. Third, theyare to write a short story involving two ofthe faces. They can use conversation, ac-tion, and/or description to help the readerunderstand the story. As a bonus, theteacher asks them to explain whether theythink the mouth or the eyes are more ex-pressive in pictures.

The teacher and the aide pass out stacks ofmagazines to each pair of students. Thereis much noise as students leaf through andselect pictures. They work together, pass-ing pictures back and forth, but each isaccountable for handing in one completedassignment.

As the students work, the teacher movesaround the room, stopping at variousdesks.At one, she notices a student has labeledher picture 'happy." "Happy" is used allthe time, she says. "What are some othersynonyms?' The student's partner re-sponds, "joyful." The teacher agrees. Thepartners suggest several other words, withthe teacher voicing approvaL She then di-rects them to the thesaurus.

A short time later, the towher rings a smallbell at her desk. "You have one minute left,


then you need to begin writing." Studentsaccelerate their magazine cutting and be-gin writing.

MATH - SEVENTH GRADE

Fourteen students enter the classroom andtake their seats in rows. The instructor tellsthem to take out a piece of paper and"prepare for our first investigation." Heputs a chart on the overhead listing objectsin the left-hand column, including domi-noes, staples, cards, index cards, eraser,"Play Search" (a math game), gum, chalk,caramel, and tape. Across the top of thechart are column headings, including esti-mated Mais (g), actual mass, difference,ratio of difference to actual, and percenterror. At the bottom is a place far eachcolumn's average. The teacher has the stu-dents quickly copy the chart. He monitorstheir work, commentne "good work" and"nicely done."

When students have finished, the teachersays, "We me going to be using what weknow about mathematics to answer thequestions." He holds up each of the 10items and displays them on the chalk ledgeof the side blackboard. "Which objects doyou think are the lightest?" he asks. Manyhands go up, and he calls on three: "Theeraser" "the gum" "the caramel." Studentsthen vote, and the most common opinion isthat the caramel is the lightest item shown.

The teacher repeats the process and deter-mines that students think the staples arethe heaviest item. He holds up a one-gamweight and passes it around for students tofeel. He then tells students to take out theirchartsand estimate in the first column howmuch they think each item will weigh ingrams. When they're done, he asks them toshare their answers. He puts the highestand lowest estimates for each object on theboard.

Now, he says, they will weigh each itemand fill in the second column of their chart.

9 988 Instructional Challenge

He puts the students into groups of three,rearranging the desks to do so (studentsare familiar with this process and movetheir desks with no hesitation about whereeach should be in the rearrangement). Theteacher now sets out several baskets, eachcontaining al110 items. Scales and weightsare at the back of the room in plastic boxes.One student from each group goes up frontfora basket one goes to the back for weightsand scale. Students have 15 minutes toweigh each item and fill in their charts.Baskets and boxes are returned, studentsare instructed to finish their compitationsat home, and class is dismissed.

GATE ENGUSH - SEVENTH/EIGHTH

COMBINATION

Thirty-five students enter the room andtake their seats. Desks are arranged in ninegroups of four, with two desks facing theother two in each group. In the center ofeach is a set of four readings for today'sactivity, numbered for each student one,two, three, or four. (Students already knowwhich number they are). The teacher an-nounces, "Our goal for today centersaround learning everything you need toknow about the Articles of Confederation."She instructs the students to read theirhandout and write down five key ideas itexpresses. Students immediately begin,and the teacher monitors understandingof the task and progress. She then goes tothe front of the room and tapes two largepieces of butcher paper on the board.

Calling the students to attention, the teacherlabels tlw papers on the board "+" and "-."She tells the students not to think about theArticles of Confederation as "good" or"bad," but in terms of what worked aboutthem and what didn't Students grasp theidea quickly and begin offering sugges-tions. The teacher lists the following:

Positives

Gave coloniespower to vote

Forinde stateshum negotiatingpower with othergovernments

States had mostpower

Negatives

Land west ofAppalachians

Fed'l Govtnot muchpower

Couldn'tfind a way topay for the war

Couldn't tax

A discussion of each item follows, withmost students paying attention and con-tributing to the discussion.

World Geography/English - Seventh Grade

Twenty-four students enter the room, readthe assignment on the blackboard, andtake their seats. Instructions are to:

1. Quietly review the Plato reading.

2. Find at least one word that challengesyou while reading.

3. Be prepared to share.

4. If you were absent yesterday, take areading.

The seats are arranged in six goups of fiveor six desks, and students know to whichgroup they belong. They were given cop-ies of the Plato article yesterday and told toread them at home last night. Copies arestacked on one of the desks in each gnpupfor those who were absent. Students takeout their articles and begin reading. Asthey read, each student uses one or moremarker pens. They highlight key wordsand passages in one color, unfamiliar vo-cabulary words in another.

The teacher stops them and asks them toraise their hands far any words they don'tunderstand. Different students ask aboutlodgement' "imperceptibly," law abid-ing," "predecessor." For each, the teachereither refers the student to the word's con-text breaks the word into smaller pieces,or simply defines it. For example, for lawabiding" the teacher says, -Do ymt knowwhat 'abiding' means?" The student saysno. "Abiding means following the rules.So what would 'law abiding' mean?" Thestudent replies, "Following the rules oflaw." "Good," says the teacher. As teacherand students go through the vocabularywords, students are writing the definitionsin the margins of their articles.

The teacher now asks; "When you werereading this last night, did any of you lookat a dictionary and try to figure out some ofthese words? That's what I do. 1 end upwith delmitions w ritten all over mypaper.That's what you have to do with some-thing like this." A student raises her handand asks, "What is 'guise'?'"The teacherresponds, "Guise' is an outward appear-ance of something. Are you familiar with'disguise'? Something that's covering upyour real appearance? Guise is the out-ward appearance the guise of music, theguise of a pastime. What does this guiselook like?" Another student answers, It'sle&lation." The teacher agrees and con-tinues this questioning until all the un-known vocabulary words have been dis-cussed.

The teacher then curtails the vocabularydiscussion. "As we go along, I'll fill in anyother definitions for words. But let's startgetting the main ideas. How many of youfeel overwhelmed right now?" A few handsgo up, and the teacher comments, I see afew honest hands. This is tough. You haveto dig in and really struggle with it tounderstand what the main ideas are. I hadoriginally planned for you W brainstormand toss out the main ideas you found inyour reading. How many of you feel com-


fortable right now doing this? Or wouldyou rather go through and read it together?That won't be quite as exciting, but we candefinitely do that." The students vote tobrainstorm.

The teacher tells them that they will beenwith one idea then change plans if neces-sary. She says, 'I took this article out ci abook I read in college." She jokes aboutbeing "that mean teacher who makes youread college stuff.' Students laugh. "Okaynow, what do you think one of the mainpoints of the reading was? If you say some-thing completely a the wall, it's okay. Wemight laugh a little bit, but Ws okay. I'mlooking for some thinking here. You mightdisagree with some of the opinions, butthat will help us get to Plato's main ideas."

Through a process of discussion, the stu-dents arrive at the following main ideaswhich the teacher outlines on butcher pa-per taped on the front wall:

The teacher must instill rules/ respectfor law and behavior.

Can't legislate mles of behavior (i.e.,giving your chair to an older person).

Proper education creates awe, honorfor law.

Fashion is trendy, novel.

Music causes problems in society; itchallenges conventions and causeslawleoness.

Guardians must watch over your mu-sic (teachers).

The students reach consensus that "new"or "novel" music causes problems, accord-ing to the reading. The teacher says, "Whatkind of problems will the new music cawif you're allowed to listen to it? How isnovel music going to affect your A stu-dent replies, "The new musk is going to


make you want to change the rules. If it'snew, it's going to change the way youdance to it. People aren't pang to like thechange" The teacher says, "Great! Whatyou have just done is give a perfect defini-tion of one of the words: 'convention.'" Sterereads the section about music endanger-ing the moral fabric of society and upset-ting established conventions. SI* empha-sizes this as a major idea of the reading.

The teacher now passes out butcher paperto each group. She explains that a mainidea is printed at the top of each paper."Your jdt," she says, Is to determine ifyou agree or disagree with the statement.Then you are to explain why." The mainideas are as follows:

New music endangers society andencourages lawlessness.

Children's music must be strictlyregulated by adults and /or educators.

The purpme of musk is to help chil-dren learn how to respect laws andbehave appropriately.

Educators determine how childrenwill respect rules of behavior andlaws of the state.

The students excitedly begin work. Thereis much talking in each group. By the endof class most of the papers are completelyfilled, and the teacher tapes them on theback windows. She dismisses the students,indicaftng they will talk about their worktomorrow (see attachment for a completelesson plan).

STUDENT RESPONSES

Interviews with eight randomly selected stu-dents revealed a positive feeling about instructionat DeAnza. Students particularly expressed enthu-siasm about working with each other, having op-portunities to be creative, developing projects, andsharing ideas. One said he liked the way his teacheralways teaches one "main" way to solve a math

101

problem: "He teaches us the easiest way, but thengives us options and tells us to use the way thatworks best for us. He says, 'You might think betterthis way.' I like that."

Another student talked about working on a"risk-taker" project in history right now. "Wehavea whole variety of topics. We pick what we want towork on, then we get a whole packet of things thatwe can use to get information about that topic. Atthe end, we either have to do a presentation or turnin a report."

Another pointed out the emphasis placed on"learning how to learn." "We took a test to see howwe learn. It really helped me. I'm a visual learner.The test helped me see that. I know now why it'shard for me when teachers just explain things. Ihave to see it to learn it." Another said he hadimproved his ability to take notes in class. "I studya lot better now. I use note cards and make sure Iwrite a lot. I'm a kinesthetic learner and I need to beusing my hands all the time."

LOOKING TO THE FUTURE

Most teachers are using active learning regu-larly in their classes. They report a dramatic turnfor the better among students, both academicallyand behaviorally, and believe it is due to this im-portant bridge they've built between their middleschool students and the curriculum. As one teachernoted: "Middle school is a special age; it takes aspecial way of teaching."

Besides the vast improvement in studentachievement, absenteeism has decreased. Fewcliques are in evidence. Students are taking a greaterinterest in student activities. Now the principal andstaff are looking ahead, planning to focus next oninterdisciplinary instruction. "I think it makes sensefor that to be the next item on the table for us," saysMs. Becker. "There is so much teaming alreadygoing on around here. The staff's decision aboutwhat is next is closely connected to the school'sculture. I think we're ready."


DE ANZA: ATTACHMENTWORLD GEOGRAPHY/ENCLISH LESSON PLAN

Lesson: Plato's Views of Education

Materials: Poster paperMarkers (six)Plato reading

Message on Board:

1. Quietly read the Plato reading.

2. Find at least one word that challenged youwhile reading last night.

3. Be ready to share.

Objective: After reading a passage for The Republicof Plato, the learner will identify six main ideas. Ingroups of five, students will discuss one of the mainideas and decide whether they agree or disagreewith Plato's opinion.

(Objective is also written on the board for students.)

Anticipatory Set:

1. Students share challenging words.

2. Define words in context of the passage.

Input:

1. Today we are going to focus on some of Plato'sopinions about the role of education in society.When you read Plato you must realize that allof his writings were basically concerned withdiscovering how society could be "fixed" sothat man could realize the best that is in him.Plato had ideas about every aspect of society,but today we are going to focus on the role ofmusical education.

2. During the second half of the class you will theopportunity to share whether you agree ordisagree with Plato. First, we need to under-stand the main ideas he was trying to commu-nicate.


3. Map the reading. Highlight five major paints:

a. Novel music endangers society and en-courages lawlessness.1. Music seems harmless, but it corrupts

manners, laws, and how people dealwith each other.

b. The music children listen to must be regu-lated strictly by educators or guardians.

c. Purpose of musical education:i. instill a spirit of order i.e. following

laws respectfully.ii. result:children will follow proper rules

of behavior which have been forgot-ten.

d. Laws concerning rules of behavior likegiving a chair to an elder cannot belegislated.

e. Education determines how much childrenwill respect laws of behavior and state.

4. Questions?

5. Now you will have an opportunity to decidewhether you agree or disagree with Plato'sideas. Listen carefully to your directions:

a. Each group leader will receive a posterwith one of the main points written at thetop. You'll also receive a marker.

b. Read the heading.c. This is the idea your group will focus on.d. Using specific examples from your life to

support your opinion, discuss whether youagree or disagree with Plato's point. Dothis for about four minutes.

e. After you have had your d iscussion, chooseone person to record its main points. In-clude whether you agree or disagree, aswell as reasons for your opinion. Do thisfor about five minutes.

6. Determine a reporter and groups share their"opinions posters."

1e3

WE ARE UNIQUE: HEWES MIDDLE SCHOOL (ORANGE COUNn)

Hewes Middle School is in the northern portion of Tustin in an affluent neighborhood bordering

Santa Ana. Approximately 71)5 sixth. seventh, and eighth graders attend, primarily Caucasian, but

also 10 percent Asian with a handful of blacks and Hispanics. Seneml Taireanese students enrolled

this year fin- the first time. Parents have high academic expectations for their children, andachievement scores are generally high. Most Hewes students tend to be very success-oriented:a high

percentage are college-bound. Hewes has been twined a Middle Crades Partnership School.

Oates of Visit: March 5-b, 1990. Principal: tulle Hum.

UNEXPECTED PARTICIPANTS

"Our philosophy," says Ms. Hume, the prin-cipal, "is that we are a middle school and we areunique. Whatever we can do to address the unique-ness of middle school students, we do." Drawingfrom middle school literature, including Caught inthe Middh., staff are alert to their students' develop-mental characteristics, such a s body-growth spurts,restless energy, high social emphasis, need forstrong self-concept messages, and a desire for talk-ing and interaction. Teachers, administrators andother school personnel agree that du approachthey've found most effective in meeting the specia Ineeds of this age group is active learning. "Quit:literally," said one teacher, "it means 'doing it.' itrequires action on the part of the studi.nt. And thisis what our students need."

But when Hewes first began using activelearning strategies, the staff quickly learned thatthey'd neglected to involve some crucial allies:parents. When students talked at home abou t work-ing in groups to create Roman newspapers anddesign mythical communities, parents weren't surewhether to be concerned or excited. "This wassomething totally new for most of us," said onemother. "Things were being taught in new ways,with new expectations, and we didn't understandit." When she and others belan questioning ad-ministrators and teachers, M. Hume didn't see aproblem but an opportunity. She considered suchparent interest one more aspect of Hewes's unique-

104

ness. 11cr response was to start a series of demon-stration lessons for parents.

Several times each year now, teachers holdclasses that allow parents to experience first-handwhat active learning is all about. They learn prin-ciples that Ms. Hume long practiced in Gifted andTalented Education programs the backgroundthat prompted her to encourage this approach atlewes. "The premise is that we, as teachers, have

to do more than input information into studentsand have them iegurgitate it," she explains. "Theyneed to be trained to think." A sign parents can seein her office reinforces the message:

Tell a child what to think and vou makehim a slave to your knowledge.Teach him how to think and you make allknowledge his slave.

Henry A. Taitt, 1982

Ms. Hume strongly believes not only thatevery student needs to think, but that every child iscapable of thinking. "The way that gets translatedinto the classroom is through what I call 'engagedlearning," she says. "By engaging the students inthe process of learning, you help them developskills that go way beyond being a receptacle ofinformation and facts. They learn how to use factsto solve problems, work with others, create newsolutions, and feel successful in their accomplish-ments."


IT TAKES A LOT OF SUPPOR

She provides lots of support and resources tothe staff so they are equipped to use active learningtechniques. Teadiers are encouraged to attendworkshops, in-service trainings, and even visit otherschools if they feel it will make a difference in theirteaching. But Ms. Hume is careful to let teachersdecide for themselves which of these opportunitiesto take advantage of. "I used to be really pushy,"she recalls. "Now I'm much less directive, lettingteachers tell me what they need to increase theireffectiveness in the classroom. Not all teachers havechosen to participate, and that's okay. There are a fewwho iust don't want to do things differently."

"Now everyth:ng is morelin-depth,' with a flavoryou don't get from books."

Hewes student

For those who do, much staff development isalso provided. "The overriding theme for all staffdevelopment activities is how best to understandthe needs of middle school students and teach tomeet those needs." Activities have promoted teach-ing of higher-order thinking skills (I IOTS); usingactivity-based learning; putting students into co-operative learning groups; and using peer coach-ing to improve teaching skills. Teachers havelearned how to use the Meyers-Briggs assessment,deal with diversity, and keep stress at a minimum."These have been very important pieces in thebigger picture," says Ms. I lume. "I am committedto having my staff teach so that all students areengaged."

Several half-day sessions also offer teachersthe chance to work with each other, either as anentire staff or in small groups. "Just like the stu-dents, teachers need opportunities to experiencebeing engaged. I low can I expect teachers to advo-cate something they haven't experienced?"

rhe principal is a strong role model. "Shemodels active learning in practically everything


she does," said one teacher. "She uses name tags inmeetings so we know who people are. She puts usinto groups. She involves us in planning, doing,writing you name it." She also brings them intomitst phases of school management. "1 believe inparticipatory management," Ms. Hume says. "Itdoes create a lot of frustration. Teachers Sin?, 'Justmake a decision! You do it!' But then it's mine.want it to be theirs."

She tells a story to illustrate why she sostrongly advocates active learning. At a recentactive lea rning workshop she conducted at anothermiddle school, a teacher asked, "How can I beexpected to tcmch when all I get are a bunch of zerosor students who can't speak much English? I can'tteach them anything." Ms. I lume responded bvtelling of another workshop she'd once attended."The teacher began the lesson speaking Japanese.Slw continued for about 10 minutes, and I wascompletely lost. Then she told us in English thatthis was the way most limited-English-speakingstudents experienced being taught English. 'Now,'she said, 'let's see the same lesson done differently,using a different approach, still in Japanese.' Shetaught the very same lesson using charades, talk-ing, gesturing, and getting us up out of our chairsand involved. I understoixi the lesson. I finished, Ifelt good. I took a little test at the end, in Japanese,and I passed! This crystallized for me the value ofengaging students."

KIDS LEARN By DOING

Most teachers at I lewes attribute their suc-cess with active learning to their philosophy that ifone experiment doesn't produce the reults youexpected, scrap it and go on to something else. Theyare always trying new ways to reach students.They also credit their penchant to share with oneanother. "We're not selfish," said one teacher."When we find something that works, we want totell everyone. Pretty soon the teacher down the hallis doing his own version of the same thing."

Enthusiasm for this approach runs high. "I'vebeen ttmching for 19 years now," said one teacher."A lot comes and goes in that amount of time, butthere's one constant: kids learn by doing." For her,active learning may mean pushing the desks to thecorners of the room to give students plenty of workspace in the middle; asking parents to bring initems for students to use, talk about, and manipu-

IC 5

late; or allowing students to act out when it's ap-propriate or needed. "No matter which way thewind blows, the ones who learn are the ones whodo."

MATH 4, GRADES 6, 7, 8

Students are sitting in groups of four. Theteacher has the overhead projector on andstudents each have a cup of colored chips.The teacher refets students to the steps forsolving equations that are displayed asfootprints over the blackboard at the frontof the room:

Follow these 1.steps . .

3. Find the 4.variable

To solve 2.any equation

See what's 5.

been doneto it

Simplify

Do theopposite(to bothsides of theequation)

Is your answer reasonable?

At the top of the overhead, the teacherwrites the following equation:

X4-4 =6

Directly below it, she manipulates six dime-size chips to ilustrate the equation, movingher chips around and removing them asshe speaks. Students duplicate her work attheir own tables with their chips and agreethat the answer is X = 2. She then puts upanother equation: X + 5 = 9. She lets thestudents tell her how to move her chips toarrive at the answer: X = 4.

Now the teacher puts up the equation X +3/4 = 7 1/4. The teacher says, "Now whatdo we do here? This is not so easy now. Wehaven't done any fractions so far." Severalstudents let out a groan, while most beginto move their chips around. The teachercomments, "Isn't it amazing how hard itgets with fractions?" She gives the stu-dents several minutes to see if they canfigure out on their own what to do, then

106'

says, "You're working with portions ofnumbers, instead of whole numbers."Again, she allows time for students to fig-ure out on their own what to do.

The noise level is high as students discussthe problem. The teacher walks around theroom stopping at various groups. Thenone or two students determine that theirchips can represent portions of a wholeand begin to solve the equation produc-tively. Others imitate. The teacher callseveryone's attention to the front and dem-onstrates how to pa three chips on oneside, 29 on the other. She tells them, "We'renot going to do anything different. We'regoing to take off three-foarths over hereand three-fourths over here. What's myanswer?" Several students shout out"X = 6 214." The teacher reminds them toreduce, and they respond, "X = 6 1/2." Thebell rings, the teacher gives a homeworkassignment, and students are dismissed.

SIXTH GRADE CORE

Students are sitting in nine groups of four,their desks pushed together to form eachgroup. The teacher passes out previouslywritten student papers and evaluationsheets (see attachment), giving each groupthe work of another group. Students arefamiliar with this activity and begin work-ing immediately. Each student has onepaper to read and evaluate. Each thenpasses the papers to the student next tohim. At the conclusion of the "readaround," students have each read andevaluated all four papers. One student com-ments, 'This activity makes me a betterreader and definitely a better writer." An-other says, I like seeing other studenbework. It really helps me with my ownwriting." Most of the class period is overby the time each student has read fourpapers. The evaluations for each paper arecollected and paper-clipped together withthe paper, then passed back to the originalwriter. These papers will be taken hometonight, rewritten using the commenft on

Chapter Three: Active Ixartting 95

tonight, rewritten using the comments onthe evaluation sheets, then handed in to-morrow for a teacher grade.

The teacher gets the class's attention byputting her hand up. She indicates thatthey are to spend five minutes discussingas a group which paper was best and giv-ing two reasons why. Students immedi-ately begin to talk, and in each group oneperson begins to write.

The teacher again calls the class to atten-tion and asks each group to share. Onestudent from each stands up and readswhat the group decided. Reasons men-tioned for a student's paper being "thebest" include: good descriptions, an emo-tional twist, an original idea, it's logical,very creative, shows greed, doesn't haveany mistakes, we enjoyed it, it showed theoutcome of a wish (instead of just talkingabout it), it was meaningful, and it was areal:stic fantasy. Students conclude shar-ing just as the bell rings, and they aredismissed.

Tta CONSENSUS IS POSITIVE

Parents are pleased with the way teachers areteaching at Ilewes. They see their children excitedabout learning. "My son comes home each da vwith a lot of enthusiasm. When I ask how his daywas, he says, 'Great!' or 'I did very well.' My childis happy at school."

Another parent ialked of her child's enthusi-asm for some of her class projects. "The studentshave to come up with their own ideas about whatthey're going to do. That freedom has made such adifference with my daughter. She feels that she'sbeen given a lot of respect for her ideas. So whenshe gets an idea, off she goes. I especially loveseeing her persist, even when it's a struggle to workout what she's going to do and how she's going todo it." Another parent recalls that her two childrenwere both very frustrated in the beginning. "Onewas not getting a ny work done. The other grumbledevery day about how she didn't like 'the new way.'But they have worked through all that. Now theyget their work done. They accept group grades

96 Instructional Chalknge

when they are given. They've learned to alwayscontribute their best. And best of all, I see themexcited about what they're learning."

When asked about active learning, studentswere not confused by the question. They said, "It'shands-on," "getting involved," "working ingroups," "going outside" "having your own pointof view," or "working on projects." Clearly, theylike the approach. Typical comments included: "Ihave to work more, but I like it more"; "I like tolearn what others think about things"; "Now ev-erything is more 'in-depth,' with a flavor you don'tget from books. Nothing's just black and white."One student remembered creating an entire civili-zation with her group members: "It made me feellike I had been there when we finished. 'Our place'was real."

Staff, students, parents, and administratorsare all proud to be part of Hewes as it shifts awayfrom the way things have always been done. Saidone parent, "We're doing new things to get ourstudents read v fora new world. They're learning tothink better, and that's what they'll need to do inthe future."

HEWES: ATTACHMENTEVALUATION SHEET

Title

Author

Are there three paragraphs?

Is the first about the setting and lucky charm?

Does the second give two reasons for the "wish"?

Does the third tell what might happen?

Are the words all spelled correctly?(Write any to be checked on the back of this)

Are all the sentences complete?

Are there three-to-eight sentences in each paragraph?

Date

YES NO

What one change would improve this paper?

What is the best part of this paper?

108

Evaluator:


V

CHAPTER 4

InterdisciplinaryInstruction

rillNTERDISCIPLINARY instruction

(IDI) is about breaking down bound-

aries and increasing relevance. Most educators use

the term to describe a way of teaching that demon-

strates relationships between two or more disci-

plines so as to foster student understanding of

important problems, issues, or themes. The call for

IDI comes from a recognition that students are ill-

served when a curriculum totally segregates the

traditional disciplines. "On an epistemological level,

the primary disadvantage to Idiscipline based cur-

riculum] is that it does not reflect the reality of life

110Chapter Four: Interdisciplinary Instruction 99

outside school," says Jacobs (1989, p. 15). "Wesimply do not function in a world where problemsare discipline specific in regimented time blocks."

The middle grades are a kind of crossroadsfor discipline fragmentation. While the elementaryyears may prepare studeWs for encountering thedisciplines as distinct time blocks, middle schoolsusually compot nd the impression of separatenessby having students change classrooms and teach-ers for each subject.

In considering a shift to interdisciplinaryteaching, it is important to recognize that IDI cantake many forms. Jacobs (1989) describes the fol-lowing three: 1) a parallel discipline approach, whereteachers of different disciplines agree to similarlysequence their instruction (e.g., according to a his-torical chronology) and students, not teachers, mustfind the relationships across courses; 2) the comple-mentary discipline approach, where a unit or courseis developed by a small group of teachers, usuallyfrom obviously complementary disciplines (e.g.,math and science); and 3) the full-blown interdisci-plinary unit or course in which a curriculum piece isdeveloped by a larger group of teachers represent-ing a wider range of disciplines. Many schools seta goal of having interdisciplinary units that reflectall four major academic subjects (language arts,social studies, science, and math).

All three of these approaches assume somecoordination among teachers. Indeed, cross-sub-ject teacher teams are often organized as a first steptowards facilitating IDI. It is important not to equateteacher teaming with interdisciplinary instruction,however. The existence of teacher teams is no guar-antee that meaningful connections will be madeacross disciplines. There is evidence, in fact, thatteacher teams need to grapple with many issuesrelated to their functioning and identity beforethey can be "free" to focus on instruction (Plodzik& George, 1989). Some teams may never reach thatstage. Others, ready to focus on instruction, may befrustrated by lack of planning time, resources, orappropriate IDI models.

The importance of such models is often over-looked. Teachers, unlikely to have been schooled inIDI, must chart new territory when they want toembark on it. The task of truly comprehendingnon-trivial connections among disciplines(Ackerman, 1989), selecting themes to highlight


these connections, and turning these ideas into aworkable curriculum is not to be underestimated.

It is critical, too, to recognize that a sole prac-titioner can carry out excellent IDI (e.g., a coreteacher who independently designs integrated lan-guage arts-social studies units). While this is mostlikely to happen in a school that already encour-ages teacher interest in interdisciplinary ap-proaches, it can also arise from an individualteacher's unique perspective and talents.

When looking for schools involved with ID1,our primary goal was to find good examples ofinterdisciplinary curriculum units being taught tostudents. We anticipated that schools with estab-lished interdisciplinary staffing structures wouldyield the greatest number of units as well as unitsof highest quality. Thus, most of the cases not onlyconvey examples of ID1, but illustrate how teacherteaming can be the impetus that gets it underway.


Table 4 contrasts the four IDI cases, bothorganizationally and instructionally. Close exami-nation of similarities and differences among theschools reveals several important factors that otherinterested schools or districts might bear in mind:

Observation: At three of the four schools,many teachers ire assigned to teams in order tofacilitate ID1. At Sparkes, however, the school'ssmall size encouraged staff to consider other ap-proaches. Most Sparkes teachers are assigned tocore classes so that individual teachers take re-sponsibility for linking across content. These coreteachers have opportunities for collegial supportvia monthly planning sessions.

Changing a school's staffing structure tofacilitate ID1 can affect many areas otherthan curriculum development. What aresome of the implications of setting upteacher teams? Core classes? What staffingstructure might make most sense in yoursituation and why?

Observation: In the four schools, interdisci-plinary teaming has evolved slowly with thegradual building of staff commitment. Even inschools where teams are assigned, the professionaland interpersonal chemistry among staff may be

1 11

Table II: Comparison of Interdisciplinary Instniction Among the Four Schools

BUCHSER FORT MILLER


SPARKES

District mandated pilot team "Accidental" team in Principal mandated teamsat each of two middle particular committed to 1D1 to support individualschools teacher's core 101 work

CHAPARRAL

Principal as.igned teachersto teams 14 years ago

Principal "a' iigned" other teamsPrincipal continues toassign team members andmoves them as necessary

Principal committed to 101 Principal agrees with 101concept but has otherpriorities

Principal committed to anelementary model of 101integration withinindividual core classes

Principal committed toteam concept, has districtoffice support, and publiclyespouses idea

Workshops/consultantsmade available

"Accidental" team (twoteachers) attendedworkshop

One teacher attendedworkshop

District Staff DevelopmentDirector committed toconcept and holds bi-monthly mmings with twomiddle '<hoot pilot teams

Principal encouragesteachers to attendworkshops, acts asfacilitator, allows teachersto self-direct

Superintendent wants toexpand 101 and teachersmore responsibility

Planning time provided forpilot teams; principalenrourages regular planningby established teams

"Accidental" team (twoteachers) kis negotiatedcommon prep time forplanning

Support teams meetone-half day monthly togenerate and discuss 101ideas; principal providessubs

Teams have commonpreparatUm periods forplanning; principal ispatient, allows time


Loose, cross-classroomconnections (i.e., "luckylinks" of content ideas);some fully-developedthemes across teams; oneschool-wide attempt at atheme

"Accidental" team hasfully-developed cross-content themes; other teamsfocuses on discipline andstudent support

Loose attempts to connedcurriculum in core coursesby individual teachers;support team meetingshelp teachers brainstormideas

Loose attempts to connectcurriculum within teams;cross-subject connectionsprimarily in pairs (e.g.history with language arts)

112Chapter Four: Interdisciplinary Instruction 101

such that a school begins with only one or twoteams, then adds others later. When several teamsexist, one or two often emerge as models for theothers. This small-scale approach to initiating team-ing has been documented statewide (Slater, 1991).

Whether teaming occurs school-wide orwith "trial" teams, it involves risks. Forexample, a school that begins with one ortwo teams may risk faculty resentment orincreased chance of failure because so fewteachers are involved. Such worries mayundermine future expansion or cause dis-comfort for the teams. What other risksexist with trial teaming? With all-schoolteams? Which of these two approacheswould make the most sense in your schooland why?

Observation: Teachers in all four schools ex-press frustration about the work environment inwhich their interdisciplinary instruction is sup-posed to develop. While they often receive plan-ning time (e.g., weekly or monthly meetings), it isseen as woefully inadequate for the magnitude ofthe task.

What kind of sched- :1Mg (student andteacher) would allow your school to createcommon team planning time, even if onlyfor the contracted one-hour preparationperiod? If the entire school is assigned totimms, how does that complicate schedul-ing? What else might be done to increaseteam time together?

Observation: Teachers in the four schoolshave developed their own interdisciplinary units

all after considerable struggle. Their planningtypically involves brainstorming various looselyconnected activities that would fit under a broadtheme. Some unit components may be based oncommercial materials, but most stem from teach-ers' own ideas and resources. The resulting inter-disciplinary units are unique, but most fail to re-flect a good understanding of meaningful interdis-ciplinary relationships.

With so few commercially developed in-terdisciplinary units, what can be done tosupport consistently high quality teacherproducts? What strategies could help toensure that units explicitly promote stu-


dent thinking about the relationshipsamong disciplines? What criteria mightyou use for interdisciplinary units at yourschool?

Observation: The four schools' interdiscipli-nary units share some common content and se-quencing characteristics. The most natural contentlinks seem to occur between language arts andsocial studies. Less frequently, math and scienceare also incorporated. In most instances, electivesare not included. All of the schools have units thatcan be introduced at varying points throughout theschool year as opposed to a set of units that must betaught consecutively.

What do you think accounts for these com-monalities? What might explain the var-ied, intermittent placement of the units inthe curriculum? What are the advantagesand challenges of creating units that com-bine three or four disciplines of varyingconfigurations (e.g., language arts, math,and music)? How could decisions aboutthese unit characteristics be made at yourschool?

1. 3

LUCKY LINKS: BUCHSER MIDDLE SCHOOL (SANTA CLARA)

Buchser Middle School in Santa Clara serves approximately 1300 sixth, seventh, and eighth grade

students. Enrollment is down this year, with continued decreases expected over the next few years.

Approximately half the students are Caucasian, the other half primarily Hispanic, with some Asians

and a few blacks. Families are mostly middle income. Numerous apartment houses mai* the area , and

many students are bused from outlying regions. Test scores are goal, having improved during each

of the last two years.

Dates of Visit: February 13-15,1990 Principal: Don Flohr

USING DISTRICT AND OUT-SIDE RESOURCES

At this year's third meeting of the combinedPeterson and Buchser Middle Schools' "pilotteams," the district's assistant staff devebprnentdirector issued a reassuring directive: "Slow downand do what you can within your extra 20 minutesof preparation time. Try to find those 'lucky links'where you can integrate your curriculum with oneanother."

You could feel the room's atmosphere changeas several teachers sighed in relief and relaxed intheir chairs. Still, it was clear much concern re-mained over the massive amounts of time teacherswere spending planning for thematic overlaps incontent.

"We're looking at two different issues here,"the assistant director continued. "There's 'integrat-ing curriculum' and there's Susan Kovalik."Kovalik, a well-known consultant on interdiscipli-nary instruction (IDI), has given several work-shops at Buchser over the last three years. Now thespeaker was pointing out that those who had takena Kovalik workshop tended to attempt too muchtoo fast. "Instead," she told teachers, "proceed insmaller steps."

"If you have an overriding theme that you'regoing to try to carry over from math to science tohistory and so on, it's going to take massive blocksof time to map it out. But if we're talking about

414

simply integrating curriculum as it is, without try-ing to give it a thematic approach, then smallersegments of time say, 35 minutes two times aweek should be sufficient to talk about whateach of you are doing in your classrooms and findplaces where you can 'hook up.' We want you tofind those 'lucky links' and use them."

Many of the teacher teams at Buchser havebeen attempting to create overriding themes thatthey can use to guide their curriculum planning.For example, one of the sixth grade teams decidedto use "water" as the theme for the entire year. Oneseventh grade team chase "patterns," another, "let'sget organized." For one week last year the entireteaching staff focused curricula around the theme"grand" an idea prompted by Susan Kovalik'swork.

Because of Buchser's involvement withKovalik, many teachers have been striving to do farmore MI than the district advocates. Buchser'3emphasis on 101 began three years ago. "We startedwith the idea that implementation would not stifleany teacher's curriculum," said principal Don Flohr."I wanted teachers to do what was comfortable forthem; how much they relate disciplines is up tothem." As one teacher who helped pioneer I01stated, "We wanted it to be voluntary and positive,not negative."

They got underway after one of the teachersattended an interdisciplinary instruction workshop


(not Kovalik's) and was so excited about ID1 thatcolleagues caught her enthusiasm. The principaland a few teachers visited a Phoenix middle schoolto observe interdisciplinary teaming. Buchser thenflew in an expert from Maryland and even ar-ranged for several of the Phoenix teachers to comeon-site to talk to the staff.

TEAMING UP

Soon several teams formed, and despite someskepticism, most of the teachers expressed interestin teaming. The principal identified two key factorsthat would contribute to the success of IDI: makingsure that all teachers on a team shared the samestudents and making sure they planned together.

"We wouldn't go back toteaching independently everagain. Sure, this is a lot ofwork, but it gives my teachingdirection . .. and it definitelyis better for kids."

Buchser teacher

In establishing teams, one of Mr. Flohr's ob-jectives was to provide students with a logicalprogression from the elementary (one-teacher)model to a full-scale departmentalized high schoolmodel. As a result, grades seven and eight haveincreasingly more specialized classes and less timein core groupings. Another objective was ensuringthat all teachers in language arts, science, math, andsocial studies were on teams. "Because of schedul-ing, I knew it would be impossible to have allteachers on a team. I decided to stick with the fourcore subject areas, since this was where studentscould best see relationships."

He sent out questionnaires to the core teach-ers, asking if they preferred to be teamed througha sociogram or on a voluntary basis. They chose thesociogram, which meant the principal had to makesome tough choices. One of the hardest was decid-


ing what to do with teachers not totally sold onteaming. "I wanted strong, dynamic teams thatcould serve as models. Should I put a hesitantteacher in with a strong group, figuring that he orshe would be bolstered by the group, or should Iput several hesitant teachers together, figuring theywould be motivated by the work being done byother teams?" In the end he did both, simply be-cause of the way the numbers worked. He created11 teams: five sixth grade (each with two or threeteachers), two seventh, two eighth, and one combi-nation seventh/eighth (all with four teachers). "Thehardest team to establish was the split one: I had tomake some concessions to get teachers to mix stu-dents like this like agreeing not to schedule inany 'problem' kids."

Last spring the district staff development di-rector asked for three or four volunteer teachersfrom each grade level at each of the district's twomiddle schools to serve as "pilot" teams. The objec-tive was to overlap content, and a prime issue eachschool had to deal with was finding planning time.

Pilot teams at both schools wel e given anadditional 20 minutes of preparation time to worktogether time created by freeing these teachersfrom the 20-minute, all-school reading time eachmorning. (Counselors, administrators, or otherteachers substituted.) This extra time worked wellwhen it immediately followed teachers' normalpreparation period. But for teams who tried tobreak away for just this 20 minutes, it caused prob-lems. One team finally abandoned it. "By the timewe all got together, most of the time was gone. Itwasn't productive at all. Plus, we would return toour classes and find that we had to do a lot ofsettling down and getting students back into 'our'routine. It just wasn't worth it."

At Buchser, where students are dismissed anhour early on Wednesdays, teams are also able touse that time slot. They find it valuable but still noilong enough. "Once you start down this road to-ward IDI," explained the principal, "you need moreplanning time, not less. Planning time is the bench-mark. It's also very expensive." To further createtime, many team teachers are advocating a 5-1-1proposal a , contract negotiation item this spring:teach five p, iods, prepare one period, and plan inteams one period. Others feel several release dayswould be a better solution, and the staff develop-ment office is promising more of these days.

115

Mr. Flohr is very supportive of these efforts."I have planted a seed, the tree has grown, and nowthe fruit is all over the place. I don't want to see thefruit rotting on the ground. Teachers have got tohave more planning time."

A SIXTH GRADE TEAM

One sixth grade team has worked out a for-mat for efficiently using the Wednesday planningtime. One teacher acts as group leader, keepingminutes/notes in a small blue folder. This respon-sibility is rotated every two or three months. Thethree team members share the content being taughtto their 90 students. Students have three core timeblocks (two hours apiece) that encompass read-ing/language arts, social stud ies/ ma th, and Quest /science. PE and exploratory are done in a one-hourblock each day.

In addition to the weekly planning sessions,this team meets periodically on Sunda y evenings tocontinue working and planning. Initially, they triedto follow Kovalik's guidelines as they understoodthem. They selected a theme for the year "water"

and looked at ways to reorganize their curricu-lum around it. In each classroom, for example, thebulletin board reflects the theme. One has the cap-tion "Catch a Wave" beneath huge constructionpaper waves. Each wave is connected by a string toa rhyme or song line having to do with water("Water, Water, Everywhere"; "Old Man River";"Row, Row, Row Your Boat"; "London Bridge isFalling Down"; and "Three Coins in a Fountain").Between the wave and the rhyme, some 10 to 12mathematical functions or terms are displayedalong the string. For example, under "Beach Blan-ket Bingo" are "graphing," "mean," "median," and"mode." Under "Three Coins in the Fountain" are"decimals," "place values," "integers," and so on.

Each of the teachers has integrated water in avariety of ways, using it as the focus or anticipatoryset for instruction. However, as one teacher pointedout, "We haven't gotten to the point where socialstudies, science, and math can cover the sameaspect of water at the same time. We can see ourtheme in each of our classrooms, but we're havingtrouble getting it to match up outside of our indi-vidual classrooms."

The other teachers agreed. "I really should beapproaching history in a mind-map rather than

chronological order," said one. "Instead of startingwith ancient civilization and working my way up,I should be breaking up my curriculum to bettermesh with science using the great rivers of theworld as my launch, for exa mple, and not worryingso much about everything being in chronologicalorder." The team had originally seen history andgeography as driving the curriculum, but nowagree that science makes more sense. AU threeagreed that math needed to be made part of lan-guage arts, social studies, and science. "All of usshould teach math. We don't need a separate mathclass. So much of it fits right into the curriculum."

INDIVIDUAL CLASSROOM: COMMONINSTRUCTIONAL APPROACH

All three have been writing their own cur-riculum, using the texts as resources rather than asthe mainstay. They've worked out a common ap-proach to discipline, with the same rules and con-sequences in each class. "We wanted to make ourroom: safe, comfortable places. We try to disciplinein a positive, rather than negative manner. We puta positive quote on the board daily. We have posi-tive aphorisms or clich& on our bulletin boards.We each have a potpourri simmer-pot going andplay soft classical music in the background. Ourstudents enioy coil7ing to class."

A major r lanning effort went into incorporat-ing critical thinking. "We may be separated bydoors, by time, and by some of our curriculum, butwe certainly are united in our approach to instruc-tion," said one teacher. "Critical thinking Ls thedriving force behind everything we do." All thrwhave developed questioning strategies to elicithigher order thinking, and they agree that "we aska lot more questions and a lot better questions thanwe ever used to."

They've also created what they call "inquir-ies." These are a series of choices students can makeabout follow-up activities to classwork. The teach-ers have designed each inquiry to include activitieslabeled for each of Bloom's cognitive levels, andeach activity is given a certain number of points,increasing as the student chooses from the higherlevels. Students understand the d ifferences betweenlevels. They also know that the activities have beendesigned to appeal to varying learning styles withineach level. One student said he usually chose onesthat allowed him to make things with his hands.

Chapte Four: interdisciplinary instruction 105

Another simply said, "I choose the stuff I'm goodat."

If students finish an inquiry ahead of the twoweeks allotted, they may work on their "collectionfolders" in which they keep information they findabout their topic. Ultimately, the information isused to write a report, which is delivered to theclass. Most students have chosen topics related towater, such as "fish of the Red Sea," "Atlantis,""myths and legends of the ocean," and "coral."Students said they liked the folder idea because itgave them both freedom and respoasibility. "Ithelps me make decisions," said one. "I like havinga choice," said another. "The teachers don't tell uswe have to do this or that. I get to put in the folderwhat I consider important."

The teachers felt that their efforts had pro-duced good results. "I can't tell you that our stu-dents are better learners, although I think they are,"said one. "I do know they have gained the ability toanalyze a lot better."

Though one teacher joked that the team'swork this year toward thematic instruction hasbeen an exercise in "seeing what not to do," all threefeel they have made tremendous strides. "We worktogether extremely well," said one. "We all knowwhat the others are doing, and we do a lot of thingsin sync in the best interest of the students." Anotherspoke of the excitement of "feeding into one another,complementing one another with Our curriculum."

Some frustration is perhaps inevitable. "Wedo get kind of down because we started the year allexcited, thinking we were integrating and usingthematic instruction, and now we haven't done asmuch as we wanted," said one. "It doesn't meanthat we aren't still dynamic, creative teachers. Butit just hasn'L happened as quickly and as neatly aswe had thought it would." All three, however, areadamant about sticking with it. "We wouldn't goback to teaching independently ever again. Sure,this is a lot of work, hut it beats doing it alone. Itgives my teaching a direction, a goal. We get a lot ofsupport from one another when we work together,and it definitely is better for the kids."

A SEVENTH GRADE TEAM

This seventh grade pilot team comprises fourteachers, three with elementary school experience


and one with high school experience. The combina-tion leads them to describe themselves as "the bestof both worlds." They feel these complimentaryperspectives help them better understand theunique age group they now teach and thus be moreeffective. As one teacher commented, "We havestudents who are poised at a tremendously impor-tant point in their lives, no longer children and notyet teens."

This team has done a great deal of planning,collectively and in pairs. Team spirit abounds andmembers have even adopted a team name: 'TheEagles." Students have Eagles Team tee-shirts, andal1120 come together periodically for special activi-ties. For example, during one class session theirteachers took them to the football bleachers for anawards ceremony specifically designed, said oneteacher, to "create a sense of ownership and be-longing." The awards have encouraged the teamspirit among students whose classrooms are notnear each other. And they enhance students' self-esteem. "W . think it's important to give kids lots ofpositives," explained another teacher. "We doa wards frequently and make sure that every stu-dent is acknowledged for something." During eachceremony, all students are recognized for theiruniqueness and individual talent. Each receives ahandmade card with a cute saying on it as well asa foil-wrapped chocolate coin.

"Patterns" is the team's theme this year, and.each teacher tries to tie it into his or her curriculumeven if only in a small segment. In addition, eachclassroom has bulletin boards highlighting pat-terns and relationships from their content area.These teachers also address a specific social skilleach month, which they try to tie into curriculum.October's theme, for example, is respect. In Decem-ber students learn about sharing and caring, and inMarch they talk about responsibility.

The team has also adopted a set of year-roundrules, such as "be prompt," "be responsible," "beprepared," and "be respectful." They feel the rulesallow them to a void the negative "don't" by statingtheir expectations in a positive way. As one teacherexplained, "We come from the same philosophy:we give lots of chances and latitude. There is also akit of 'at home' communication." To establish bet-ter communication and align parental support be-hind student learning, the team has already held 29parent conferences.

117

The team meets daily with jam-packed agen-das and dynamic discussions. A typical team meet-ing finds an four kicking around a lot of differentideas and talking almost simultaneously. Naturalpairings have evolved among them. The core teach-ers social studies and language arts generallyplan together and have done a lot of extra planningbecause they see their areas as "tightly tied to-gether." In turn, the math and science teachers tendto plan together and try to support the other two asmuch as their curriculum allows. "For example,"says the math teacher, "I moved geometry andmetrics up on my original calendar to better tie intowhat science was doing, and both of us are makingefforts to tie into a unit the other two are doing onRome." Following is an example of how two teach-ers integrated the patterns concept.

ARABIC PATTERNS

During one planning session the math andsocial studies teachers discovered one ofthose district-advocated "lucky links." Thesocial studies teacher mentioned that shewas going to do a unit on Muslims, ex-plaining that she had taken a lot of slides ofIslamic design during a recent trip. Themath teacher immediately connected thisto a unit he was planning on geometricdesign. "With just a few adjustments wegot synchronized and the kids love it,"said the math teacher. "You know it's work-ing when students talk about what they'redoing in another class to help explain some-thing we're doing in this class." The sci-ence teacher also recognized an opportu-nity to "link up" beciuse one of the Islamicmotifs is plants.

During one of the class sessions in socialstudies, the teacher listed three things onthe board that students would see in Is-lamic design: geometric designs, calligra-phy, and plant designs (leaves, stems, flow-ers). She then directed them to go throughthe books on their desks and find someexamples. After discussion of the examplesthey found, she explained why Islamic lawwas responsible for many of the designs.She also pointed out that Islamic designtends to be very creative, incorporating

poems that make words look like whatthey name for example, a poem about atree written in the shape of a tne. There isalso much use of illusion. "One of ourAmerican artists, Escher, has used the ideaof illusions from the Islamic design to cre-ate his famous woodcuts. Your mathteacher has some of these drawings andwill show them to you."

She then calls for volunteers to go to theboard and draw some basic geometric de-signs. Several students go up and draw acircle, a triangle, a parallelogram, and arhombus. "I know you're doing some otherthings with circles in math," she says, "andwe'll see some evidence of circles in Is-lamic design. But primarily we're going tosee designs with straight edges." She em-phasizes the various patterns that are thehallmarks of Islamic design: designs withrepefition and those beginning from themiddle and working outward.

She turns out the lights and begins show-ing various slides taken from Muslim tiles,windows, a mosque, a courtyard, and arich man's hallway. In each instance, sheasks students to pick out some of the geo-metric designs that are predominant, whichthey do very well. All the students areinvolved in the lesson, and it is apparentthey are making direct connections withtheir math classes. The teacher concludesthe lesson by passing out photocopies ofbasic designs, then shows design workcompleted by previous students. She in-structs the students to begin thinking aboutcreating their own design by either ex-panding outward from the center or re-peating endlessly across a page.

That same day in math, the teacher gives alesson on how to use a compass and rulerto create a geometric design. He beginswith basic rules of compass use, then illus-trates how to draw a circle, then an arcwithin the circle. As he continues drawingarcs throughout the circle, with studentsfollowing step-by-step, it becomes appar-


ent that a design is emerging. By amnectingarcs with tl*ruler in various ccefigurations,thencoloringsegimmis, a very complex geo-metric design is in-educed. At we point theinstitictor asks, "Where have you seen pat-terns in other culturesr audents respond,Islam" and "the Arabic world." lie has thestudents point out the various geometricformstheyhaveincorporatedintotheirdraw-ing, eliciting responses such as "a triangle,""squares," "rectangles," and "a circle."

All four teachers in this seventh grade pilotteam feel they have accomplished a lot. They havemany plans to better mesh their curricula and tocorrelate with what they've already learned with-out being constrained by the overriding thematicstructure. For example, the science teacher intendsto include a section on "Black De.th" next yearwhen social studies and math do their Islamic/geometric design unit. "I might even include asection about foods here," he said.

Later in the year, teachers will combine infor-mation about the rain forest and stewar .ship of theearth with word problems in Math relating to both.Another unit will revolve around metrics/mea-surement in math and measurement of body parts/volume in science. Science and math are also con-sidering ways to use food in science lab experi-ments with consumer math, e.g., weighing ba-nanas, determining how much is edible, how muchis water, what the food value is, how fotxi valuerelates to cost. Said one teacher, "We try to look forentire units where we can overlap, but that's moredifficult. Sometimes we have to settle for just alesson or two here and there. Sometimes it's just theuse of a concept or even a word in many differentand connecting ways."

Though the team is not "pure" yet, as oneteacher put it, they believe they're getting better.Generally they feel they need more time to plantogether. "We should have taken a full day off forplanning sooner than we did," said one. "We fi-nally did that after Christmas, but we need to buildsuch days regularly into our schedule, with lots oftime at the beginning of the year." Another agreedthat with mom time a fully integrated unit wouldprobably emerge though he doesn't see all fourteachers overlapping content simultaneously for atleast another year or so.


All four teachers are enthusiastic about whatthis approach means for kids both academicallyand socially. "I was a high school teacher. When Imoved to Santa Clara and was hired at the middleschool, I figured it would be a stepping stone backinto high school," said one. "Since being here andteaming, I've decided middle school is the place tobe. I love it. I wouldn't leave here for the best highschool in the state."

AN EIGHTH GRA.DE TEAM

The eighth grade pilot team's progress paral-lels that of the seventh grade team. They've foundnumerous places where their curriculum naturallyfits together. Their joint planning has created asense of unity and teaming among their 174 stu-dents. All four teachers feel that parental connec-tions are stronger and that kids perceive the teamspositively. "The students like it that their teachersknow oneanother," one commented. "I t gives thema secure base. They perceive that we are friendssocially as well as academically, that we care aboutthem individually, and that we care about theirfriends."

The change that students sense is real, saidthe social studies teacher. "Teaming makes us stu-dent-centered. I care about what the kids are doingin math and science as well as in social studies inmy class. My picture is bigger, and it helps theirpicture expand as well."

This team cited notable successes with cur-riculum. For example, when students read SherlockHolmes's "The Speckled Band" in language arts,they also studied chromatography (fingerprintsand other crime-Lib chemistry) in science, createdpuzzles in math, and studied about lost colonies insocial studies. In another lesson students read Flow-ers for Algernon in language arts and studied leftbrain versus right brain in science. Ina unit plannedaround inventors and inventions, students lookedat the histories of various inventions during theindustrial revolution in social studies, went overthe inventive process in science, did layouts fertheir own inventions in math, and did reports calvarious inventors in language arts.

Like other teams, these teachers expressedthe need for more time and felt they have much todo before being truly interdisciplinary. They wantmore hick-to-back scheduling and concentrated

summer planning sessions. Not one of them wouldbe willing to go back to working independentlyagain, despite the extra effort this new approachtakes. "We knew this would be a lot of work," saidone. "But teaching is our profession, not a sideline.We give as much as we can and then some,"

ISSUES

One of the bigger pluses Buchser teachers citeabout teaming is the sharing of materials, ideas,and philosophies. As one said, "The sharing hasnot only enriched pilot team members, but hasinvolved other people in the school as well. Otherteachers, the SIP coordinator, and the librarian areon the lookout now for materials for us and for oneanother. It's amazing. I really feel supported in away I hadn't realized was missing before." Thegold coins handed out by the seventh grade teamduring awards had been diverted by the SIP coor-dinator when they were left over from magazinesales. "I did it because I knew this team did a lot ofspecial, fun awards," she said. "I also watch formaterials that pertain to either water or patterns."

The librarian now says she needs additionalstaff assistance. "I am so busy since teachers startedteaming, and it is getting busier each day. Teachersare using the libraiy now. Many never used tocome near here or want anything to do with mymaterials." She frequently meets with the variousteams and is often an integral part of their planningfor various units. Some of the teams even meet inthe library, so the materials are available and onhand for perusal as they make decisions aboutwhat to include. "The teachers will notify me inadvance what they are going to be teaching say,a unit on medieval times. Then I pull a stack ofbook.s and card listings out for them. They come infor their meeting, and what I have given themtriggers additional ideas. I pull out more books andcards, and eventually they have a nice collection ofmaterials."

She also purchases books and materials whenshe knows that a team is doing a unit (ml a particulartopic. "The more the teachers talk to me, the moreI get for them." Students, she said, are using thelibrary more frequently now; overa thousand booksgo in and out each week. She also takes carts ofbooks to classrooms where both teachers and stu-dents can use them. This allows students to see thattheir teachers too use these books. But it also better

connects the readings to in-class project work andfrees kids from the idea that research can only bedone "over there" in the library. "The books be-wine more alive for them, more real."

THE FUTURE

To help bolster district level support for inter-disciplinary teaming, the staff development officeissued the results of a recent questionnaire filledout by the pilot teams. It revealed several benefitsof teaming: communication, collaboration, and co-operation have increased; curriculum correlationand integration is increasing; student attitudes andlearning are improving; and, problem facilitation/resolution has increased.

Certainly the administration at Buchser iscommitted to teaming. And that commitment isreinforced by the teachers' determination to makeit work and willingness to give so freely of theirown time to do so. Some teams are still in thefledgling stage; others have been finding luckylinks" and taking advantage of them; still othershave advanced to trying thematic units that spanall core content. All teams recognize that they needmore time and are pressing for ways to get it.Meanwhile, teachers enioy the camaraderie thatcomes from working together. And though theyadmit that teaming takes tremendous amounts ofenergy, they feel that the academic and social ad-vantages for the kids make that effort worthwhile.

120Chapter Four: Interdisciplinaq instruction 109

THE ACCIDENTAL TEAM: FORT MILLER MIDDLE SCHOOL (FRESNO)

Fort Miller Middle' School is centrally located in Fresno and bordered by busy commercial streets.

Small tract homes define the neighborhoebi, with several apartment compkxes nearby. The school

SerreS 870 seventh and eighth graders. The student population is 45 ilercent Hispanic, 25 percent'

Asian, 78 percent black. and 12 percent Caucasian. Seventy-fimr percent of the students are bused

from soutlwast and western portions of the city. Parents are low- to middle-income; many subsist at

the poverty level. Student achievement, improved the last few years, falls in the low to average range,

Dates of Visit: November 6-8; December 11-72,1989. Principal: lulie Adams.

AN ACCIDENT WAITING TO HAPPEN

Four years ago Fort Miller's then-principalmade the first move toward combining disciplinesat the school when he assigned teachers to partnerteams. The ostensible purpose was twofold: to giveteachers an opportunity to begin working togetherand to assist with student social and disciplineissues. But as one teacher commented, "The focuswas definitely on discipline."

Despite that inauspicious start, one trio ofteachers the Pathfinder fimm has managed tobuild an extensive interdisciplinary curriculum thatother teams look to as a model.

The team's two original members Ms. T(math/science) and Ms. S (history/geography)first began working together when a workshop onoutdoor education inspired them to jointly de-velop and teach a unit. The upshot, they say, was"such an exciting change in students' attitudes to-wards school that we were ready to do this forever."Then one day when Ms. T was at the copy machine,Ms. C, the English teacher, happened to notice thegeometric shapes Ms. T was reproducing. Intrigued,Ms. C said, "I'm doing Greek and Latin roots in myclass. Why don't I do vocabulary that coincides withy.alr work?" Thus, by accident, this third teacher wasrecruited, and the Pathfinder team was born.

The three teachers arranged io meet over thesummer to plan activities. They put together quar-terly themes they could each "tie into" during the


year: 1) law and order, 2) grammar rules, 3) per-sonal frontiers, and 4) our environment, Thesewere deliberately broad, loose themes that pro-vided latitude within each content area, since theteachers didn't yet feel ready for a structured effortto coordinate topics. "It was still pretty much anindividual effort," said Ms. T. "We each agreed torelate to the quarterly themes where appropriatewithin our curriculum."

They then looked for materials to comple-ment one another's curriculum and began plan-ning together in a way that allowed curriculum tooverlap from class to class. Ms. T recalled the earlyresults: "I was teaching two seventh grade classes,while Ms. C was teaching just one. Those in myclass who had Ms. C for language arts just lit upwhen I started talking with them about perimeterand geometric names. They saw added meaning,and they were really excited. The whole tone of theclass changed. This showed us how important it isto expand a subject by tying things together acrossclassrooms."

The Pathfinder team now has a yearly calen-dar designed around seven thematic curricularunits: 1) "The Voyage of the Mimi," 2) outdooreducation, 3) presidential elections, 4) CharlesDickens and Victorian England, 5) history day andscience fair, 6) health and wellness, and 7) Califor-nia history. (For a detailed description of the units,see Attachment 1). They send this calendar alonywith a newsletter to students and parents before

121

each school year begins. The newsletter welcomesthe studenN to the Pathfinder team, introduces thethree teachers, and describes some of the actMtiesstudents can expect throughout the year.

For each unit the teachers have preparedwritten descriptions (outlining objectives, activi-ties, and evaluation procedures), compiled materi-als, and devised lengthy lesson plans.

All three teachers stressed the importance ofunderstanding the developmental needs of middleschool students. 'Teaching in the middle grades isnot the same as teaching any other age," said one."Middle sd -"..aching requires attention to thewhole child's needs." For these teachers that meanspresenting content in ways that allow students tocorrelate school activities with real-life experiences;analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information,rather than simply accepting it at face value; andwork cooperatively with others.

A THEMATIC INTIMOUTDOOR EDUCATION

Approximately 84 students attended theone week Pathfinder field trip to Bass Lake(one hour northeast of Fresno in the SierraNevada mountains) last November. Theystayed at a private camp within walkingdistance of the lake. The cost for each stu-dent was $50, and most earned their tu-ition through a variety of fund-raising ac-tivities sponsored by their three teachers(beef *rky sales, jog-a-thon, spaghetti din-ners, etc.). Students bunked four to a roomin barracks-style buildings (one for g;one for boys) and congregated for mealsand group activities in a separate building.A typical day's agenda was as follows:

6:30 am - wake-up, showers7:30 am - breakfast8:30 am - group sessions (four separate

activities)12:00 pm - lunch100 pm - afternoon gmup sessions400 pm - rest and/or recreation5:30 pm - dinner700 pm - groups/planning/skits/

singing/games

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On a district form the three Pathfinderteachers state that their objectives for thisunit are to expose students to: 1) intensegroup interaction, 2) orienteering and mea-suring, 3) environmental issues, and 4)local history. Activities listed include: 1)using navigational skills learned from "TheVoyage of the Mimi" to measure distanceand depth of water; 2) following a pre-mapped course in the forest based on skillslearned in the "Mimi"; 3) expressing them-selves through arts, crafts, games, musk,and drama; 4) participating in grouppro*cts and discussions regarding today'senvironmental issues and local histcuy; 5)writing and sharing observations,thoughts, and insights concerning envi-ronmental and personal problem solutions;and 6) hiking to Milltown to excavate forartifacts and completing a plat map of theOld Milltown area.

Besides the three Pathfinder teachers, theart and woodshop teachers and two stu-dent teachers attended and taught duringthe five-day session. Students were as-signed colorsand numbers through a com-puterized random assignment done at theschool. Each day their color and /or num-ber detennined which activities they wouldattend, thus mixing the students each ses-sion. In other words, no cliques or "tracks"could form as students moved from activ-ity to activity. All students were givencamp notebooks that contained variouslesson instructions, worksheets, and othermaterials. Group sessions included suchactivities as river mapping, a nature walk/write, treasure hunt/compass plotting,trust building, nature crafts, etc. Approxi-mately 16 to 20 students were in each groupactivity. Two of the activities are describedbelow.

River Mapping

Ms. T met the students on the front porchof the girls' dormitory and had them sit ina circle. She began by discussing variousliquids and having the students visualize

Chapter Four; Interdisciplinary Instruction Ill

amounts (e.g., a gallon of milk). She thenled the discussion to people's use of waterand amounts used for various daily activi-ties such as showering. Students estimatedhow much water they each used in a day,recording the amounts in their camp note-books. After they shared the variousamounts recorded, Ms. T explained thatmost people use between 200 and 400 gal-lons per day. Studetts discussed this inlight of the drcarght facing parts of thestate. Ms. Tthen described how they wouldbe measuring the flow of water in thenearbystream,ulthratelydetermining howmany people could live off the strewn for aday. She divided the students into smallergroups, and they hiked to the stream.

Once there, Ms. T reviewed directions forthe measurement activity, directing stu-dents to their camp notebook. She passedout string and ping-pong balls, then senteach group off to a different point alongthe stream. The students worked together,making several tries at floating the ball (tolater compute the average time it takes tofloat from point A to point B). The entireactivity took approximately two hours.They returned to camp, where they com-pleted their calculations and made finalentries i n their notebooks.

Nature HikelWalk

Ms. C met the students on the dormitoryporch and had them sit in a group aroundher and open their camp notebooks to thepages for this activity. She talked about theforest and the importance of looking andlistening" while there. She then got twobackpacks for all the camp nWebooks andassigned two students to take the first"backpack shift." Students lined up withthe teiwher in the lead, one student teacherin the middle, and one student teacher athe end of the line for safety. The studentshiked uphill for a little over an Imur withbrief pauses as the teacher pointed outthings to observe. Fce example, at one pointMs. C directed everyone's attention to the


woodpecker "pinging" the tree overhead.At a small waterfall, she stopped the stu-dents again and had them listen to thesounds of the water as it splashed acrossthe rocks. At a large rock clearing she hadthe students carrying the backpacks takeout the notebooks and pass them to theirowners. Students turned to their writingpage and began to list things they had seenand heard. Notebooks were then loadtdback into the packs and two new studentsvolunteered to carry them.

This pattern of hiking, stopping and dis-cussing, and writing continued until ev-eryone reached the mountaintop. At thetop the teacher reached into her bwkpackand took out treats for the students. Every-one relaxed for 10 minutes before startingthe descent.

Toward the bottom Ms. C stopped thegroup one last time, had the notebooksdistributed, and directed students to readover and share the entries they had madeso far. Ms. C then had them turn the pageto "hildng poetry' and read 0* introduc-tion with her. A discussion began aboutwhat it means to be "attuned." One stu-dent said, "To me, it means getting toknow one another differently." Anothersaid, "It means making friends with some-one you didn't think you'd like." Anothertalked about how nature affects man:those things we saw and heard? Well, itmade me think about how important it isto be aware of the beauty of simple thingsaround me." One student commented, Ifeel quieter after being out here."

Ms. C instructed the students to write apoem desaibing their feelings, using someof the sounds and sights they had justexperknced. Some studerts went off to siton rocks or tree stumps. Most began writ-ing almost immediately. Tlw forest wasquiet. Approdrnately30 minutes later, Ms.C said quietly, "We need to think aboutgoing back." Students stretched, yawned,and began talldng very quietly to one an-

123

other. The teacher now asked them to se-lect the line they liked best from whatthey'd written and write it on the back oftheir papers, She said they would havetime that evening to read their wrfting tothe group if they wanted to. Students putthe notebooks back into the backpacks andhiked back to the camp.

A POSITIVE EXPERIENCE

This is the second year the Pathfinder teamhas taken an outdoor trip, and all involved feelpositive about it. The principal, Ms. Adams, de-scribes the outing as "unique and worthwhile." Shefeels that students gain a lot, both academically andsocially "They expand their horizons through thisexperience. And the bonding and reliance on oth-ers is strong. Some of these relationships will lastfor years."

Pathfinder teachers agree that kids comebackexcited and with lots of new friendships based ontheir shared identity as Pathfinders. For this suc-cess the teachers credit the qualitative differencebetween these outings and a lot of school trips. InPathfinders, students care for and nurture oneanother, said Ms. T. "We have such a diverse mix ofstudents, and they could really cause a lot of trouble.But as a team we work hard from the beginning ofthe year to instill in them strong social skills and theability to regard each other's differences as okay."Ms. C added, "It's especially important for stu-dents at this age to learn these skills. I think ourstudents have done an outstanding job!" Ms. S feelsthat trust-building activities done at camp are verjhelpful. "Helping one another over a 10-footwoodiii wall, wa:king together to move a trolleyftwo 4x4 beams aNroximately nine feet long that ateam stands on and, holding ropes, move forwardin giant steps] over a poisoned yogurt area thesethings teach them that they can work better to-gether than by themselves. They learn that it'simportant to be able to work with and trust theirneighbors."

All three teachers were also quick to point ontthe value of the outing's curriculum. Said Ms. C,"Students are learning about their world by usingmath, writing, reading, science, history and geog-raphy."

124

Students too were very enthusiastic. Said one,"I've made so many new friends. I think I do morework here than when I'm in school, but it's worthit. I'm glad I came."

TEAM TEACHING TO COMBINE MATH/LANGUAGEARTS

Since working together on the Pathfinderteam, Ms. C and Ms. T have found team teaching soenjoyable and productive that they recently metwith the principal to arrange a schedule that allowsthem to combine their two classes. They estimatethat they teach together approximately 40 percentof the time. "We do it when we can and when it'sappropriate," said Ms. T. When they do, they mixperiods one/two and four/five, teaching a combi-nation of seventh and eighth grade students. Theyteach a fairly heterogeneous mix of students inmorning classes, though only afternoon classesinclude GATE student&

The two teachers report that their greatestpleasure in team teaching is collegiality. "It's excit-ing to plan together," says Ms. T. "We just bounceideas off one another. Plus, we have different abili-ties that we each are able to share with more stu-dents." They also mix grade levels together be-cause they have found that the combination ofstudents offers many advantages, including devel-opment of mutual respect among students of dif-ferent ages and an opportunity for older studentsto serve as models for and to teach the youngerones. They rotate their team-taugh'- curriculum ona two-year cycle, thus eliminating repetition.

Apart from the sevev broad curricular unitsthat all three Pathfinder teachers work on, Ms. Cand Ms. T have many smaller units that just the twoof them teach together. Here is one example:

A TEAm TAUGHT LESSON/LANGUAGEArra AND MATH (WirrnR Houtay)

This thire-day, six-hour lesson done just priorto the December holiday focuses on Otristmasas a cultural activity.

In a large science room with 12 lab-typetables, five to six students sit at each tableaccording to their group assignment. As-

Chapter Four: Intentisciplinary Instruction 113

signments are made for each new unit orproject, with groups reflecting a mixture ofthe two classes. Group assignments arechanged quarterly throughout the year togive students an opportunity to work withdifferent students. Painted onto the backwindows of the classroom is a large muralfacing outside which reads, 'The Path-finders Wish you a Merry Christmas,Happy New Year," The students have de-signed and drawn snowmen, reindeer,trees, bells, and other Christmas symbolsacross the top and bottom of the windows.

Day One:

Students enter class and sit with their as-signed groups. Ms. C begins class whileMs. T handles roll- taking, student errands,and miscellaneous bookkeeping tasks. Ms.C announces that they are starting a newunit today and asks student to put ontheir best listening ears. She reads 'Taws theNight Before Christmas, then shares whatsome of her family members like to doduring the Christmas holidays. For ex-ample, she tells about the "silly little pre-sents" that her father buys each year foreveryone in the family. Ms. T then sharessome of her family experiences such as noteating meat on Christmas Eve, "becausewe're Catholic." The two teachers pass outexcerpts from Christmas Aivand the Worldby Emily Kelley short, written descrip-tions of the celebration of arristmas inMexico, Spain, Iran, China, and Iraq andencourage students to 'read-around"within their groups. Students do so forapproximately 10 minutes as both teacherscirculate in the room, stopping at variousgroups to monitor progress.

Ms. T interrupts the students' work. "Whatcustoms were discovered in your readingfor each of the countries?" she asks. Manyhands go up. One student says, "In Chinathey light their houses with paper lan-terns.' Ms. T writes "paper lanterns" onthe overhead. As other students volunteerinformation, she continues writing down


key words. Ms. C then asks the students ifthey can think of categories for these cus-tom that would apply to all countries."Food," she says, is a good example of acategory. The students com up with oth-ers and Ms. C lists them on the overhead:

1. food2. presents3. decorations4. costumes5. gifts6. music7. activities

Ms. T now explains that on Friday (daythree of unit) they want to have a "familytraditions" party, with all students partici-pating. "You will share some of your cus-toms - what you do at your house. How doyou get together? What are some of youractivities games, a riddle, a puzzleanything that says 'this is how we cel-ebrate holidays.'" As the students start toget into the spirit of the upcoming activity,Ms. C encourages them to "wearcostumes,bring food, put on a skit, or whatever."

The teachers now direct the students intothree groups based an their cultural back-grcnutds: Asian, American, and Hispanic.The teachers circulate among the threegroups and break them into sabgroups,such as blacks or those of Chinese ancestry.The students are given appoximately 15minutes to sharecustoms with their groups,using the criteria they had determined ear-lier, and to plan for Friday's activity.

Then Ms. C again talks to the class aboutlogistical details such as letting their momsknow about Friday's activity. If you areplanning to bring food, you don't want towait until Friday and then say, 'Oops. Iforgot to ask more" She tells them therewill be time tomorrow to continue plan-ning with their groups.

Ms. T now takes out her guitar and says,"We're going to sing a song you've prob-

125

ably heard before everybody join in."She plays "The Twelve Days of Christ-mas,' singing with Ms. C,and the studentssing along readily (it is apparent that thestudents have sung together on other occa-sions: no one seems hesitant). Each timetiy finish the words "and a partridge in apear tree," guitar and singing stop ard Ms.C reads from a book of letters LadyCatherine Huntington wrote to Lord Gil-bert Faraday (Letter of Tim] AChristmasTale, by Manghanita Kempadoo, 1969)about the gifts he's sent that are chronicledin the song. At the beginning of the bookLady Catherine is quite thrilled and pleasedwith each gift. But as the gifts keep comingand raise issues ci maintenance (upkeepand feeding of livestock, etc.), shebecomesmore and more disgruntled and upset. Forexample, after receiving the six geese-a-laying, she writes to Lord Gilbert

Thank you for your unusual gift ofsix laying geese. My big problem iswhere to put them. They are, at themoment, ruining my new croquetlawn and flowers. Can you tell mewhat to do wfth their eggs? No oneseems to want to buy thent. I darenot keep them for six geese are afright to the hens.

In addition to the singing and the reading,a volunteer walks around the room with abook of large, rich illustrations of each gift,showing them to the students.

The letters from Lady Catherine becomeincreasingly negative and formal with theaddition of each gift. The concludingIOWis from the Lady's secretary, indicatingthat she will be returning all of the giftsexcept the gold rings and tly partridge.The stud.nfts chuckle.

Ms. T laughs along with the students, thensays, "Can you imagirm the amount ofmoney Lord Gilbert spent on these gifts?"She pauses, then places on the overhead alist with the unit cost of each of Lord

.126

Gilbert's gifts at today's prices. She thenputs up another transparency with blanksby each gift She tells the students to figureout the total cost of all the gifts that Gilbertgives each day. For example, on the thirdday he gives not only three French hens,but two turtle doves and a partridge in apear tree. Students must calculate the totalprice After tlw dass solves the first threeproblemstogether, tiwteadwassignsetchgroup one of the remaining problems, giv-ing them 10 minutes to complete it. Duringthe final minutes of class she goes overeach group's answers, displaying them onthe overhead and making corrections.

Day Twix

The students enter and quickly seat them-selves in their ataigned groups. Ms. T in-structs the group to review their answerson yesterday's item sheet and total LordGilbert's cumulative costs for the entire 12days of Christmas. She reminds them thatas they tally each day's casts they mustinclude the previous day's costs as well."Remember," she says, "Lind Gilbert sentfour calling birds, three French hens, twoturtle doves, and a partridge in a pear treeall on day four." With a groan, the studentssettle into the task

Students are now instructed to write thankyou letters to Lord Gilbert for his manygifts. They work independently within theirgroup. They are to complete their lettersthen spend time continuing their planningfor Friday's activity. As the students write,the teachers call individuals to the frontdesk where progress is discussed and areport filled out (a once-a-semester school-wide task which occurs today).

Approximately 45 minutes later the teach-ers announce that it is time to change tasks.They pass out letters written by kindergar-ten students to Santa Claus. (This team hasarranged several letter exchanges with el-ementary students ftom a nearby school).Each student receives one and is to write a


letter in response, assuming the role ofSanta. The students readily involve them-selves, and the teachers continue withprogress reports until the end of class.

Day Three:

Students arrive early, bringing fond,clothes, games even a Onata. When thebell signals the beginning of class there isan atmosphere of excitement and gaiety.Someone has called the local newspaper,and a reporter has come. The teaches havethe students sit in their assigned groups.One group at a time comes to the front ofthe room, and each student shares some-thing. One tells about the cookies hergrandma makes each year. Mother de-scribes opening presents =Christmas Eve,one at a time. Some sing songs. Othersdance. Several wear costumes.

After all students have had a chance toshare, everyone eats. Many students beginplaying games. One student has involvedseveral others in a Southeast Asian ballgame played with their feet. A group goesoutside to break open the pinata. All con-tinue to eat and play right up until the bellrings.

STUDENT RESPONSE

Six students, randomly selected from bothclasses, talked positively about the team teachingdone by Ms. C and Ms. T. One particularly likedhaving a "kindergarten friend" to visit with andwrite to. "I've learned to cooperate with kids smallerthan me. They look up to us." Three studentspraised the opportunities to work in groups. Saidone: "It makes learning easier. I learn more becauseI get so many ideas from other students. My ownideas begin to change as a result." Another added,"If you think critically and listen when someone'sopinion differs from yours, you can learn fromthem and change your own thinking." The thirdliked getting help from his peers: "If you havetrouble, you can go to a partner or someone acrossfrom you. We can depend on each other." All sixstudents agreed that "you work harder in groups."And they saw long-term benefits in combining


classes. As one put it "It's good for us to havedouble periods because we get to work together. Inthe future we'll be able to help each other and nothave so many fights."

Students did report some problems aboutworking together so much, however. One spoke ofconfusion: "Sometimes the teachers will be hurry-ing us and we're not done, or we're getting differ-ent answers. We don't have time to work it out, andthen they're collecting our papers." Another some-times felt stuck doing more than his fair share:"Some students just give up and then you have todo all the work. That doesn't happen too oftenthough." Five of the six said they prefer grouplearning to individual learning.

THINGS TO WORK OUT

Although all teachers at Fort Miller are as-signed to teams, not all have the Pathfinder team'slevel of involvement. Ms. Adams, hired a year ago,has been working to develop trust with the teach-ers. Noticing early that many teams were not work-ing well together, she did a sociogram with thefaculty and made some team changes that teachershave found positive. However, she said, "I wantthe teachers to plan together, to integrate theircurriculum. That just isn't happening for most ofthe teams."

Most teachers from other teams indicatedthat they are making progress at working together.All teams have adopted names to create an iden-tity. They plan together to create common disci-pline rules and consequences, goals and expecta-tions. One team member described a much looserstructure than Pathfinder's. "We cross some con-tent, but we don't do 'units' or teach together. WhatI like is that we have the same discipline rules andthat we have the same prep period." Another teacherexpressed some confusion about what "teaming"was supposed to be: "There aren't any set guide-lines. I guess it's pretty much up to us to determinewhat we want to do." One team spoke of develop-ing several extra-curricular assignments for thestudents, but admitted, 'We know we could domuch more, but we just haven't really put forth theeffort."

Ms. Adams believes that all team, will beintegrating curriculum eventually. But, she says, itwill take time: "I try to take on one thing each year.

127--

When you try to do too much it turns people off. Itmakes them uneasy. Last year I worked with theteams to get them reorganized. When I take thingsslowly, teachers are willing to work with me. Theyare learning to trust me." She described how shesends notes out to teachers when she notices themdoing something with teaming that pleases her: "Isaw your team working to put up a bulletin board"or "I saw your team sharing a room." In fact, shehas designed a half-sheet note with "I saw yourteam doing something terrific" printed on it, andshe simply writes in what she has observed.

"When I can make connec-tions between things, that'swhen learning has the mostmeaning. It's got to be thesame for kids."

Fort Miller teacher

One teacher fi.els that the principal needs tomore clearly define team expectations. "Until Iknow what she really wants, I can't do it. It's tooloose." This teacher's suggestions for team im-provement included workshop attendance and off-site school visitations.

Ms. C and Ms. T have delivered several work-shops on interdisciplinary teaming in Fresno andthe surrounding areas. They have also workedwith other teachers on staff. In fact, many staffmembers have attended their inservices. Both teach-ers have spoken at national and statewide middleschool conferences.

For all their dedication to helping others,however, they do express some discomfort aboutwo ling with teachers at their own school. "Ourpimcipal wants us to work with the other teams,but they're our friends...you can't put pressure onif you're friends." They worry that they won't beeffective. And since they are held up as the "model,"they are concerned there may be resentment.

128

On the whole, the school has an atmosphereof optimism about teaming. Most of the teachersare eager to "take the next step," recognizing valuefor students. As one teacher said, "I know I learnbest when things relate. When I can see somethingmake sense across the board, when I can makeconnections between things, that's when learninghas the most meaning. It's got to be the same forkids." Another commented, "I earning is not com-partmentalized. To think that we can put math orliterature into one hour a day is foolish. They haveto tie together. Our brains don't work as well on the'one-hour-a-day' plan. And we lose a lot."

A few teachers feel overwhelmed by the Path-finder team, particularly the team-teaching doneby Ms. T and Ms. C. One teacher felt it was becauseof the way the two "click." "They seem to be on thesame wavelength. One will have an idea and beforeshe has finished describing it, the other is buildingon it. You'd think they'd been working together foryears and years." Another commented, "They're agood model af a good team. I don't know if ourteam could even come close." Ms. C and Ms. Tagree that working together is special. "It may havebeen an accident that brought us together, but itsure works. I love coming to school because I loveteaching, but I also love having someone whoworks with me so well. My days are a pleasure. Ilook forward to everything we do together."

As of this writing, Ms. C and Ms. T have acceptedpositions for the 1990-91 school year at King CanyonMiddle School (Fresno) where they will be on a year-roundschedule, working with their former principal.


FORT MILLER: ATTACHMENTPATHFINDER TEAM'S THEMATIC UNrrs, 1988-89

Unit 1 "The Voyage of the Mimi"Videos and Activities Sept/Oct

mappingmath activitiesscientific observationswhale and environmental issuesjournal writing

Field Trip February 1whale watching and Monterey BayAquarium

'The Voyage of the Mimi" is a 13-episode videoof expeditions that take place on a boat equippedwith technology and manned with a scientist, anoceanographer, three students, and two teachers.The plot development and characterization giverise to numerous oral and written language artsactivities. Geography and mapping skills are inte-grated throughout the videos, and we utilize twocomputer activity programs that are componentsof thif program. We develop the scientific method,incorporating science pmcesses, math skills, andwriting through integrated math/science projects.

SourcesSunburst Publishers: Videos, computer

programs, student books, activitiesAIMS Activities (Activities Integrating

Math and Science), Fresno PacificCollege

Unit 2 Outdoor EducationCamp Gaines November 1-4

group interactionmeasuring and mappingcompass activitieslocal historyjournals

Follow-up Field Trip May, 1989Yosemite National Park Hike toVernal and Nevada Falls

We plan and develop our own units of studyfor our outdoer education program. We schedulethis unit early in the Fall to establish a positiverapport from the start and begin as a team. Ouractivities include numerous math, science, lan-guage, and geography skills, Some examples ofactivities are: boating, to measure the lake width


and depth; sensory poetry, written after a six milenature hike; following and mapping a compasscourse; writing and performing plays/skits. In eachactivity we stress group cooperation and positivesocial interaction. We present problems and usequestioning strategies to stimulate critical think-ing.

SourcesSharing Nature With Children by Project

Learning Tree Activities, Project WildThey Felled the Redwoods by JohnsonAIMS Activities

Unit 3 Presidential ElectionsMock school election

prepare campaign materialsrole-play candidate speechespolls and predictions

In history we registered voters, prepared theballot, and studied the issues and candidates of theNational Election, role-playing their positions.Concurrently, in language arts the students wrotethe voter pamphlet for the school mock electionand prepared and debated the major propositions.In math the students conducted pre-election pollscomparing their statistics to national pools. Onelection day our team ran the mock election, count-ing the votes and reporting the results to the stu-dent body.

Sources"Election '88" by NIE"Votes" by InteractLocal voter pamphlets and sample ballots

Unit 4 Charles Dickens and Victorian EnglandRead A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens;

study Christmas in different cultures,empbasizing Victorian England; andstudy foreign currency and exchange rates

Field Trip December 6Meux Home (local Victorian mansion)

Students conduct research in cooperativelearning groups, preparing visual and oral presen-tations on various aspects of the Victorian era. We

1L)11

read A Christmas Carol, studying the language,characters, and celebrations of the era. We researchthe first World's Fair, emphasizing personalitiesand inventions of the time. The unit culminateswith a Victorian Christmas party, complete withauthentic costumes, food, and games.

Unit 5 History Day and Science FairResearch papers and projects

Each student will write on researchpaper and complete one project for theother class.

parent meeting in early Januaryawards ceremonies in February

Students who write a science research papercomplete a history project and converselythose who write history research papers do scienceprojects. Outstanding projects and papers are en-tered into district and county Science Fair/HistoryDay Contests. Students follow specific guidelinesfor writing a research paper (not just a report)."How to write a research paper" becomes the lan-guage arts curriculum. In math/science classes thestudents learn and practice all the science processesemphasizing the scientific method of experimenta-tion. The History Day theme, introduced in the Fall,is discussed and applied during the history lessonseach week.

We involve the parents in each stage of theunit, first through a letter introducing it. We holdan evening meeting to explain our expectationsand to share slides of previous projects. On theevening of our History Day and Science Fair, weinvite parents to view the projects and papers andto enjoy the awards ceremmy.

Unit 6 Heath UnitWellness concept

self-confidence and self-esteemservice related projectpersonal positive health behaviorcontract

Various Guest Speakers

Students read articles and discuss currenthealth issues and adolescent concerns. Using avariety of guest speakers, the students are chal-lenged to consider their own sense of wellness andlifestyle. We encourage them to consider their physi-

cal, social, and spiritual well-being and to activelychoose to improve their health and living. Studentsincorporate graphing and calculating skills to helpchart their biorhythms.

SourcesHealth Through DiSCOVery Dintiman and

GreenbergAIMS Activities"Health Framework for Fresno Unified

School District, K-12"Periodicals from School Library

Unit 7 California HistoryRead Red Pony by John Steinbeck

local historypopulation trends and statisticsnatural ecology of California

Cultural Party students share parts oftheir own heritage

Field Trip April, 1989Oakland Museum and San Francisco

Before reading Red Pony by John Steinbeck,students begin the study of California's history andrich cultural diversity. Population growth statis-tics, current social issues (i.e., refugee concerns andwater problems), and ecology are discussed withinthe cooperative leaining group setting. Studentsactively research the issues and present their "solu-tions." The unit culminates with a "culture pal ty,"where students share foods and customs unique totheir own family heritage.

SourcesRed Pony by John Steinbeck"Steinbeck's Unique View," by Kjsten Drew

Califiirnia English, Jan/Feb 1989

'130 Chapter Four: Interdisciplinary Instruction 119

A DRIVING FORCE: FRANK SPARKES ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (WINTON)

Sparkes Elementary School is located in Winton, some 70 miles northeast of Fresno, and serves 670

students in fourth through eighth grades. The primary occupations in the area are agrarian, with

most parents reporting low incomes (over half of the students' families have incomes below the

national poverty level). Forty percent of the students are Caucasian, 45 percent Hispanic , 10 percent

Asian, three percent black, and two percent Filipino. Achievement scores are consistently low, and

rnany students never complete their education ( the nearby high school has a 60 percent drop-out rate).

Sparkes has been selected as a Middle Grades Partnership School.

Dates of Visit: February 8-9. 1990. Principal: Mark Walker.

GET-TING FROM THERE TO HERE

"At this school we focus on ideas and solu-tions, not problems," says Mr. Walker, the princi-pal. This philosophy has guided him throughouthis seven years at the school. He also has a vision ofwhat's best for students and believes that cleardelineation of the vision plus teacher buy-in to it

has made a number of positive changes possible.

Mr. Walker describes a six-part process con-tinually used to implement his vision: 1) personnel

hire the best teachers, and after two years don'trenew those not doing a good job; 2) environment

ensure adequate instructional support so thatteachers can do their jobs; 3) general opennessencourage talk about every aspec. of the school; 4)conferences send teachers to key conferences,then ask them to share what they've learned withcolleagues through staff inservice; 5) create a blueribbon special task force whose goal is to assist staff"to improve our middle school"; and 6) monitorstate publications "If they say we should bedoing something, we do it."

This process, says Mr. Walker, has fostered aclimate for change. One result is interdisciplinaryinstruction. Started at Sparkes after Caught in theMiddle was published, this innovation continues toevolve and expand. Because the school was toosmall to accommodate a true grade level teamingarrangement (where teachers share a commongroup of students), faculty began by deciding that


core classes would be the vehicle for promotinginterdisciplinary instruction that combines lan-guage arts and social studies. The first year oneteacher volunteered to teach in a cone; the followingyear other staff members were assigned to teachcore, based on their credentials. "We scheduled allour sixth and seventh graders into cores," the prin-cipal explained. "Once we got started we justcouldn't stop." Eighth grade also has a smaller corethat combines literature and language arts. Allteachers at the school teach seven periods with nopreparation time.

Last year the faculty met to clarify and definewhat interdisciplinary instruction meant at Sparkes."We decided that it wasn't about team teaching,"said Mr. Walker. "Our ideas are much more expan-sive." Though they acknowledge that teaming is apart of interdisciplinary instruction, they believethe focus should be on thematic approaches tocurriculum that encompass all subject areas. "Thisconcept certainly makes sense in our core areas."

During the summer of 1988, Mr. Walker de-cided to place seventh and eighth grade teachersinto two groups and have them meet monthly for ahalf-day planning session. "I didn't ask the facultyif this was something they wanted to do. I simplydivided them up by grade levels, trying to get a mixof subject areas, and wrote a letter indicating thiswas what we would be doing." He also enclosed aplanning guideline sheet for teachers to work fromat each meeting.

131

VisrnNG A PLANNING GROUP SESSION

For this year's fifth planning meeting, fourteachers gathered with the principal one morningin a small back section of the library. Participantswere two math/science teachers who primarilytaught seventh graders, one social studies teacher,and one language arts teacher. The latter two taughtboth seventh and eighth grade classes (but notseventh grade core classes).

The principal began the meeting by passingout a new planning sheet, which he encouragedthem to try. "One of the teachers brought this inand thought it might work better than the onewe've been using," he said. Because the sheet usedthe title "integration of instruction," they begandiscussing the difference between integrated andinterdisciplinary instruction. The salient distinc-tion, they concluded, is that integrated instructionrelates to one teacher finding connections in con-tent areas within the classroom, whereas interdis-ciplinary instruction involves teachers from vari-ous areas and is not restricted to a single classroom.

The social studies teacher said he would soonbegin teaching the American Revolutionary Warperiod. He asked if anyone could suggest a tie-in.After a pause, the principal prompted the group byurging them to focus on higher order thinkingskills. Think about the forces that brought about theAmerican Revolution, he said. How were humanneeds being denied during the early part of thiscentury? He suggested parallels to Eastern Europetoday. "You could bring to light things kids aren'teven aware of food shortages, for example. Thekids may not realize that the Communists havefailed in many ways, including not meeting basichuman needs. This is a great topic! You could havea writing project where students analyze and makejudgments about how the denial of basic neees canlead to revolution. I can also see tying in languageideas."

The social studies teacher asked the languagearts teacher if he had any materials that would fitinto the topic of revolution.

"I'll be starting A Wrinkle in Thne next week,"came the answer.

"Do any of your materials have connectionsto black history?"

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"Last month I worked with my classes onMartin Luther King's speeches, but I don't haveanything further planned."

"I'm about to use a film on the Jackie Robinsonstory," the social studies teacher explained. "It'sold, but it's well done and projects a lot of what wasovercome by one person."

"Oh, well I can teach a critical thinking lessonI have that's centered around Jackie Robinson athree-page reading lesson with a handout for stu-dents."

"1 also just started a Junior Scholastic articleon prejudice. A supplementary article requires thestudents to put themselves into 10 different situa-tions and describe how they'd react. The theme,again, is black history . . . "

The principal interrupted. "You keep comingback to the theme of revolution that you'd writtendown, but you're talking about black history. Let'sdecide on the theme and write it down. I think youcan talk about human needs and connect both ofthem."

The language arts teacher sighed. "We startedthe year with a bang when we all did the medievaltheme. We had swords and shields all over cam-pus, there was a big presentation, we had so much.But we've had trouble keeping the momentum. It'shard to focus on a theme. This might work, but Ireally feel I have so little to do. I mean, the JackieRobinson critical thinking lesson is only one day. Iloved the medieval thing, but there doesn't seem tobe anything else. I'm frustrated."

The principal commented on a general lack ofmaterials. All four teachers expressed dissatisfac-tion and a need for assistance in obtaining teachingmaterials to support their achievement goals. Themeeting concluded with the principal encouragingthe teachers to continue looking for ways to matchcontent through broad themaic units. "It's notgoing to be easy. There are a lot of things you'llneed. But each time we do something, we becomea little better at it. You've done a lot of work today,and I think you've made some important stridesforward."


BRAINSTORMING ADDS "PIZZAZZ"

The principal felt the meeting went well."People sat down and did some thinking together.They threw out all kinds of ideas. That's muchmore than what they do on their own." He is surethat these meetings reinforce the process of change."Alone in the classroom, you always do things thesame way. When you talk to other teachers, you seehow they do things and you ask questions. There isa constant challenge for teachers to ask, 'Why areyou doing things this way?' And now at Sparkesthe networking between teachers has increased."

Teachers have suggestedmeeting more often so theycan brainstorm even morethematic connections.

He related a story about one of the teacherswho during one of the meetings had challengedanother to "loosen up a bit." "Why don't you let thestudents draw some pictures in your classroom?"she suggested. A few days later, the teacher hadcome by her room and said, "I've ordered myselfsome crayons!"

The teachers' response to these meetings isgenerally positive. "This is the first time in thisschool that we have all had to get together and planprograms," said one, obviously pleased. Anothertalked about the value of hearing what other teach-ers are doing in their classes. "I can adjust mycurriculum to fit theirs where possible. From thesemeetings I have an idea of what is going on in theentire school." One teacher described the impact oncurriculum: "I keep finding ideas I can use, andthat's exciting. Talking together in these meetingsis much more creative than doing it on your own. Ithink we have better curriculum as a result. There'scertainly much more pizzazz!" Teachers credit theprincipal with this progress. Said one, "He really isthe driving force here, the one who pushes us towork together."

Mr. Walker is conscientiously moving thefaculty to expand their use of thematic curriculumin their classrooms, at the same time encouraging


them to get the students using higher order think-ing skills. "I'm doing some very mechanical thingsto move them forward. I sit in on every meeting atleast for the first hour, and I try to force them to lookat what they're doing and consider ways to do it abit differently. In the meeting today I was pleasedto see the teachers asking one another what theycould do to complement the idea of revolution."

I le has worked hard, he says, to instill in histeachers the idea that they can take novel approachesin their curriculum. "For example, my social stud-ies teachers never considered having their studentsdo essays on social studies issues. Their responsewas always, 'I'm not a language arts teacher!' I justkept pushing them. Then I had one of the languagearts teachers demonstrate brainstorming with them.Next she demonstrated clustering and the actualwriting process. When she got to editing, theybalked, and the same response came out, 'Wait aminute, we're not language arts' teachers!' Finally,I got them working together so that writing hap-pens not only in language arts, but also in socialstudies. And I have to emphasize that the teachersare working together. Sometimes the social st:id iesteacher doc.s all the lead-in with a social studiestopic, then has the language arts teacher go throughthe writing, using that same topic."

He finds it gratifying that the teachers havesuggested meeting more often, feeling that theycould make even more connections. "But I justdon't know if we can find the budget to do it. I haveto pay for subs each time we meet, and that addsup."

VISITING A SEVENTH GRADE CORE

(LANGUAGE ARTSSOCIAL STUDIES)

CLASS

Students enter the classroom and sit intheir assigned seats. Desks are arranged ingroups of four, with eight groups total.The teacher has the students recite theirvocabulary words, then write sentencesusing the words. These two activities takeup the first 15 minutes of class time.

In one corner of the room the teacher hasplaced a 4' x 8' piece of plywood on top offour desks, which support it at its corners.

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Covering the underside of the plywood isbutcher paper, pasted on. As students fin-ish writing, he excuses one group of fourwho gather paint, brushes, and water, thenplace them near the plywood.

Now the teacher puts several chalk lineson the board at the front of the room for therest of the students, creating a tic-tac-toe-like chart. In the top right-hand boxes lwwrites 'Sistine Chapel' and 'our mural.' Inthe left-hand side boxes he writes 'theme'and 'matured.' The four students who wereexcused earlier return to their desks. Thefollowing exchange occurs in a recitation-type dialogue between the teacher andstudents:

T: "What we are duing here is recreat-ing the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.While you're under there (he pointsto the plywood 'ceiling' in the cornerof the mom), I want you to imaginewhat it was like painting the SistineChapel. Now, last week you saw avideo about the Sistine Chapelwho made it, who painted it?"

S: "Michaelangelo!"

T: "Right. Michaelangelo had some-thing in mind when he was drawingall those pictures up there. What doyou think that was? What was hiscentral themer

S: "Scenes from the Bible."

T: "Perfect! Scenes from the Bible. Whywould he choose to paint those?"

S; 'The Church was important then."

T: "Thank you for raising your hand.Yes. That's probably true. TheRoman Catholic Church was a bigdeal back then and it played animportant role in people's lives.People's lives revolved around the

134

Church. Now, do you think it wasMich, 4angelo's idea to do that?'

5: 'It was the people's idea who paidhim."

T: "Exactly. People paid him. This wasthe Renaissance. This was the timethat big families, like the Medicifamily, were paying artists likeMichaelangelo and Da Vinci hugesums of money to have picturespainted. There was probably a greatdeal of money in this forMichaelangelo. And scenes from theBible being painted in a churchwhat are churches for, basically, butto carry on the work of the Bible? Soyes, that was the theme. Now,remembering our work from a weekago, what were some of the scenesfrom the Bible up on that ceiling?"

S:

5:

S:

S:

S:

S:

"Adam and Eve."

"Angels."

"Naked bodies."

"Gods."

"Clouds."

"Animals."

"Garden of Eden."

(The teacher writes these on the boardunder the colunm "Scenes fmm the Bible.")

T: "Now, we've got all these scenes.What was the reason they werefeatured again?"

5: 'They were important to thepeople."

T: "Yes. These things were valued bythe people. Now we're going to shiftto something different."

Chapter Four: Interdiscipiniary Instruction 123

(The teacher now moves back to the black-board and points to the column labeled"our mural.")

T: "Our theme, now, instead of 'ScenesFrom the Bible,' is what?"

S: "Scenes from A Wrinkle in Time."

7% "Okay. Good. Now let's do just likewe did over here, except let's listscenes from A Wrinkle in Time. Thiswill be a good exercise for you toremember important times from tivebook for your upcoming test."

Students again call out the following vari-ous scenes and in a lively interchange, theteacher puts them on the board: "Brain('Ir)," "Aunt Beast," °Ms. W.," "HappyMedium," "Man With Red Eyes FallingStar," °Black Ho/ z.," °feather," 'column,""space," "CC II," and "Tesserete The fin-ished chart appears as below:

Sistine Chapel Our Mural

Theme:Scenes From the Scenes FromBible A Wrinkle In

Time

Featured;Brain ("Ir)angelsnaked bodiesGodscloudsanimalsGarden of Eden

T:

Adam and EveAunt BeastMs. W.Happy MediumMan w/Red

Eyes&MI5 StarBlack HolefeathercolumnspaceCCIITesserett

"Now, what we're going to do in ourgroups is this. I'm going to pass outone sheet of paper to each group.


These are your mini-murals. You'regoing to create a mini-mural, thefour of you in each group, and Iwant to see four heads close to-gether, working on the same piece ofpaper. You're going to do this inpencil. Then when I call your groupover, you'll get a chance to wicwk onour mural, our 'ceiling.' You'll get tobe Michaelangelo."

The teacher passes out paper. Studentgroups choose one scene from those listedabove under A Wrinkle in Time and begin todiscuss how they will draw it. Students arebusily engaged in the activity, and afterabout 15minutes the teachercallsone groupto come and begin work on the plywood'ceiling.' The students take their mini-mu-ral, lie on their backs on the floor under theplywood, and begin to paint. The groupsrotate through the process for the nexthour. The teacher indicates there will betime again tomorrow to continue.

The teacher is pleased with the lesson.Afterwards he says had it not been for thegroup planning meetings he might nothave thought to combine the Renaissancewith A Wrinkle in Time the way he did."Actually, I was probably stretching it abit, but I think it really worked. It got thelas looking at parallels and seeing howyou can take two things and look at them insimilar ways. This is what the principal istrying to get us to do. The kids certainlyexperienced the Sistine Chapel and AWrinkle in Time, lying there on their backs,didn't theyr

LOOKING BACK

"When I wrote that letter last summer, I hadan idea of what I wanted to accomplish, but I didn'treally anticipate how it would all tran.spire," saysMr. Walker. "I think we've achieved a lot." Teach-ers agree. One recalled how she had laughed whenshe first received the principal's letter. "There wasso much he wanted to achieve. I thought, 'Sure,'and put it aside. But we have done a lot. Before,there was no communication at all. Now, the PE

135

teachers talk about the sharing of the playing field.I talk to the teacher next door in fact, we'replanning a lot of our lessons together. I went to herand said, 'Help! i've never taught language artsbefore!' She became my mentor. This wouldn'thave happened before the principal pushed us todo this."

Mr. Walker does see some problems. One isthe scarcity of good materials. "There just aren'tenough materials to support the teachers in work-ing across disciplines. Most of the stuff we' ve lookedat is poor, and the state is so far behind in texts.Since this problem won't change soon, the teacherswill just have to continue to share and devise theirown ways of meshing until the resources catch up."

Another problem is heterogeneous grouping."We've been heterogeneously grouped for a whilenow, but it is a real challenge. Some teachers use itas a stumbling block, arguing that IDI is challeng-ing enough without also having to teach a diversegroup of students. They're quick to ask me, 'Whatdo I do with these kids?"

He is also very concerned about test scores.While student scores are good compared to those atsimilar schools, they are low in terms of absolutestate and national rankings. "Unfortunately, thestate focuses on test scores. I'd love to be able to dointerdisciplinary instruction and point to test scoresthat are good and getting better. Unfortunately,our scores aren't good, and I worry that maybe thisir.ift the thing I should be doing. Still, I realize thatthe teachers are doing a great job. I guess I just needto relax a bit."

Finally, he is aware that he may be strainingpeople's capacity for change. The school has re-cently put in a whole new computer system thataffects every classroom teacher in bookkeepingtasks (attendance, grades, etc.). Because of hugeenrollment growth, a new school is being builtscheduled for completion within the next two years(Mr. Walker is directly involved in the planning,designing, and readying of the school). And thedistrict is reconfiguring its boundaries. "All of thisis having a tremendous effect on my teachers. Ihave to be careful about how much I load on them,and especially I have to be supportive throughthis time."

.136

FROM HERE TO THERE

If one word can sum up this principal's ap-proach to interdisciplinary instruction it is patience."I recognize that it's going to take time," he says."We just have to put one foot in front of the other."He envisions teachers functioning around thematicunits, working closely together, and having thestudents use higher order thinking skills. Despite aslower pace than he would like, his commitmenthas put Sparkes well on its way toward meetingthese goals.


TEACHER EMPOWERMENT: CHAPARRAL MIDDLE SCHOOL (DIAMOND BAR).=1111

Chaparral Middle School is located northeast of Los Angeles in Diamond Bar. The campus sprawls

across hilly terrain, surrounded by a nekszhborhood of upper-middle class homes. The buildings are

single story with an open-space design. Some portable classrooms have been placed near the main

building. Enrollment is 1,250 students,grades six through eight. Most come from families with middle

to high incomes, and achievement kvels are generally high. The student population is 53 percent

Caucasian, 28 percent Asian, and 11 percent Hispanic, with the remaining eight percent black or of

other heritage. The school anticipates a decrease in eighth-graders next year as approximately 200

students move to a newly constructed middle school which opened this year for sixth and seventh

graders and will now add eighth graders. Chaparral is a re0onal Foundation School.

Dates of Visit: March 7-9,1990. Principal: Roger Skinner.

"WE'VE BEEN AT THIS A LONG TIME"

"Fourteen years ago our principal put us intoteams," recalls one of Chaparral's teachers. "Afterso long, teaming is thoroughly ingrained. Peopleknow it's part of the school and do it without reallythinking about it." Though the same principalMr. Skinner remains, teachers have come andgone over the years, and team composition hasshifted. But currently, all three grade levels haveteams of three or four teachers each, generally inlanguage arts, social studies, science, and mathemat-ics. Each team has a common preparation period forplanning, and each is responsible for a four-hourblock of time. "That time is theirs," explains Mr.Skinner. 'They 'own' it. They can do anything theywant with that four hours, as long as it meets twocriteria: what they do must be educationally sound,and the teachers must be able to defend it."

Mr. Skinner came to Chaparral with a vision.After long experience at the elementary level, hewas convinced that students on their way to middleschool are still young children who need strongsupport and adult figures with whom they canidentify. "1 never could understand how studentscould go practically overnight from having oneteacher all day to having six. It just didn't makesense to me." Shunning the idea of a mini highschool, he saw teacher teams as one way of provid-


ing the nurturing he felt kids at the intermediatelevel needed. He set up this innovation with the fullsupport of the district superintendent.

TEACHERS TAKE RESPONSIBILITY

From the start, teaming was intended to ben-efit not just students, but teachers. "I felt that ifteachers were given real responsibility for a coregroup of students as well as real control over time,then they would be empowered," said Mr. Skinner."And when you empower people, miracles occur."

Teachers at Chaparral wholeheartedly agree.They have high praise for the teaming concept andare particularly enthusiastic when describing theadvantages of freely adjusting their four-periodblock to accommodate curriculum and /or specialneejs. One teacher described how her team helpedmeet the demands of her biology project: "Last yearwhen I was dissecting frogs, I realized that I neededstudents for a four-hour time frame. I talked to myteam members and we worked out a plan whereeach of us kept students for the full four hours,rotating them each day so that all students wouldget their day in the lab. What a relief. I only had toset the lab up once each day, 1 had students' fullattention, and I was able to begin and end a labwithin the same day. It was wonderful!" Other teammembers said this experience caused them to look

137

at curriculum in an entirely different manner, un-bounded by the time frames they were used to.

Many teachers spoke of being able now toassume greater responsibility for the care, well-being, ani development of students assigned totheir teams. Said one: "My team develops a lot ofactivities for the students to participate in as agroup, we talk to them when they need someone toconfide in, we try to handle any discipline problemsourselves, and we meet with the parents as a team."

The team meetings with parents struck virtu-ally all the teachers as beneficial: "Parents don't getjust one teacher talking to them about their child,"said one. "They get three or four. It makes it easierfor them to see that we genuinely care and areconcerned. And they get the advantage of meetingwith most of their child's teachers all at once. Ifthere's a problem, they are more likely to providesupport rather than chalking it off to 'Well, that'sjust one teacher's opinion."

Other changes have also been a boon to teach-ers. For example, the principal decided to take thestudents' ouNide lockers, cut them down from doublelayers into single units, move them indoors, and usethem as dividers between classrooms (the school hasan open-pod arrangement often found in elemen-tary schools). Intended or not, teachers found thatthis move increased both their control over stu-dents and their ability to be responsible for them. "Iknow where each of my students' lockers is, and ifsomeone forgets a book, I don't have to excuse thestudent to go out and roam the hallways; I simplygo get the book out of the locker," said one. "As ateam, we determine when students can take lockerbreaks," said another, "and the entire team breaksat the same time. This has cut down student prob-lems, noise in the hallways, and unpreparedness."

Clearly intentional is the power teachers de-rive from being asked to provide input into theselection of new team members when someoneleaves. As one teacher noted, "I was interviewedwhen I came here by five teachers. They wereincluded in the process. It gave them a buy-in on thechoice. I think it made them more inclined to makesure that their choice worked." Said another, "Itwas a great benefit to me as a new teacher seven-and-a-half years ago. I felt special, as though I hadbeen carefully selected. I have enjoyed workir:with experienced teachers. I never looked bad. I

138

never went too far out because of their guidanceand support. I now work with other new teachers inthe same way. I'm here for them."

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH

Interdisciplinary instruction, teachers say, wasnot planned but evolved as a logical extension of theteaming process. "As we shared curriculum, webegan seeing some interesting overlaps," said oneteacher. "That encouraged us to interface." Anotheradded, "By now most of us have attended severalworkshops where thematic learning is stressed. Itreally makes sense, and the structure for it is alreadyin place here."

The principal has strongly encouraged thisevolution. "I look at it as a process rather than assomething that has to be done," he stated. "Fullyimplementing an interdisciplinary approach willtake years, not months. I'm content for it to movealong at its own pace, with teachers being empow-ered to make it happen rather than doing it justbecause I say so. Sometimes it takes going through,or around, to get to the finish line."

Mr. Skinner's perception is that many schoolshave trouble 'mplementing interdisciplinary in-struction via te mingbecausetheymovetooquickly,trying to do too much, too fast. "Schools want tosacrifice quelity for quantity. You don't move for-ward when you move too quickly. Their conceptmay not be bad, but their process can be."

Chaparral, he says, is really just on the thresh-old of an interdisciplinary curriculum, even thoughteachers have subscribed to the idea for some time."In five years I want to see kids empowered byteachers in terms of thinking skills, decision-making, and real-life skills. It's all really an outcomeof teachers working and planning together." Mr.Skinner sees tremendous progress being made, par-ticularly around thematic ideas, even though hedoesn't think teachers fully understand the poweravailable to them. 'Teachers are going to have theopportunity to teach about the real world, aboutwhat is happening now, then make connectionsback through history." He sees his role as one of afacilitator making suggestions, throwing out ideas,then allowing the teachers to grab the ball and runwith it. "I'm excited! We have a lot to do, but thepayoff will be having students enthused about learn-ing and about learning to learn."


In a handbook sent to all parents, Mr. Skinnerdetails Chaparral's emphasis on interdisciplinaryteaming. He includes a chart that illustrates theschool's vision for a collaborative environment (at-tachment 1) and an illustration of how an integratedcore curriculum occurs through teaming (attach-ment 2). "I want parenN and students to be aware ofwhat our philosophy is here. And I want teachers toknow that I am advertising."

TEACHERS INTEGRATE CURRICULUM A GRADUALPROCESS

Language arts and social studies have takenthe lead at Chaparral as teachers have implementedvarious complementary units. Teachers find thesesubject areas the easiest places to start, since themany topics involved in sc :ial studies offer intrigu-ing assignment choices that can be readily tied toreading and writing skills. Despite an interest inincluding more math and science in interdiscipli-nary projects, one teacher noted: "I don't connectwell with math and science. It's a lot harder to findways to fit these into what we're doing." The sci-ence teacher, however, thinks this difficulty will beovercome. He pointed out that the new state frame-works for science are organized around thematicinstruction. He sees this as a spur toward interdis-ciplinary instruction and anticipates that by nextyear, each grade level will have two thematic unitsthat integrate all four subjects with a major empha-sis on writing in every class with every team.

In general, teachers feel that progress isgradual, but steady. One seventh grade team mem-ber summed it up as proceeding "in little tidbits" asteachers augment one another's curricula whereverpossible. Students doing maps and scale measure-ments in social studies, for example, would reviewhow to read a ruler in their math class. Similarly,Islamic art in social studies would be complementedby tessellations (geometric shapes) and mosaics inmath. As the teacher explained, "We're searchingfor connections across our curriculum, but at thesame time, we don't want to sacrifice the things weneed to teach."

SAMPLE UNITS:

FROM GREECE TO EARMIQUAKES

Language arts and social studies teachersintegrated curriculum this year Mum teach-


ing the Civil War. One approach was tobring the two classes together, with onerepresenting tlw North, the other tIwSouth."We did a simulation of the war, giving thestudents a real experience of what it waslike," explained one of the teachers. Stu-dents were given roles to play where theyadopted "typical" attitudes and had tosolvevarious problems the teachers posed.

For example, one problem involved theissue of California being admitted as a freestate. After debating the problems, thegroup as a whole had to decide if they weregoing to war or not. "It was a difficult taskfor the students," co-Amented the teachers."They really had to get into the time of theCivil War and wrestle with some prettytough issues. A lot of anger occurred, butthey stuck with it. Even though they endedup in war, their understanding increasedtremendously." Several writing assign-ments followed, focused on feelings aboutthe war. Students read Across Five Aprils,then drew characters and created illustra-tions for the novel. A guest speaker cameand did several Civil War reenactments.

Another social studies/language arts teamchose to do the Civil War unit a bit differ-ently, with students creating newspapersthat could have been published during thewar, chronicling major events. "Studentsloved this project, and I think it really helpedthem learn the history faster and easier,"said the social studies teacher.

For a unit on Japan, a social studies/lan-guage arts team had the students read TheMaster Puppeteer (set in 18th century Ja-pan) as they studied Japanese history. Atthe end of the unit, students read 1,000Cranes and did origami projects (seventhgrade teachers had received inservice in-struction on origami from one of the eighthgrade teachers). Eighth grade teachers arelooking forward to this spring when stu-dents will study the Holocaust while read-ing The Diary of Anne Fmk.

139

For several years teams have joined togetherto produce one very big unit on the GreekOlympics. "The social studies teachers teimhabout ancient cultures, the language artsteachersteachmythology,andthemathteath-ens teach metrics," explained the assistantprincipal. 'This year several of the teams arechanging their focus to medievaltimes." Theyplan to read The Proud Taste of Soviet andMinewr (a humorous depktion of Henryvm and Helene of Aquitane) in languagearts, contrast the plague-of-old with mod-em-day plagues (AIDS) in science, andbuild scaled replications of castles in math(using a variety of items such as sugarcubes, graph paper, tongue depressors, andLegos). They'll hold a Renaissance Faireand a medieval tournament, complete withcolors, armor, and events. And everyonewill have lunch at a medieval restaurant."Teachers am very excited about this unit.I can't wait to see it myself!"

Recently, a science and math teacher havedeveloped what they call "Quake Odys-sey," which they patterned after "MathOdyssey," a combined effort by math teach-ers to encourage students to work togetherto solve pmblems. The science tischer ex-plained: "I paired up with another teacherto get a grant for our seismograph machine.The students work in cooperative groupsand use clay to mold the earth. We useratio, we plot coordinates, and we studyproportion. We investigate earthquakewaves by using slinIdes, then we plot thewaves and chart effects. We measure quakeslogarithmically, produce seismograms andstudy them." Even the language arts teacherhas joined in, having students readi7wMght

of the Twister and show3ng a laser presenta-tion on tornadoes. "I kwe tlw crossover ofactivities and the flooltility that being in acore reinforces," said the science teacher.

REFLECTING BACK

Looking back over the 14 years since introduc-ing teaming to Chaparral, Mr. Skinner expresses sat-isfaction. "A lot of what I do is intuitive. I did many ofthe same things in elementary school, such as taking

140

down walls and putting people on teams. It's reallynot much different. My decision-making process isdriven by what I think makes kids successful." He isparticularly pleased with the teachers willingness towork together toward common ends and their inge-nuity in finding successful ways to work with stu-dents. "If there is one piece of advice I could give, itwould be this: find ways to empower teachers. Strongsupport for teachers makes the biggest difference forkids. We all know it. We have to be committed to it."

One concern for next year is the issue of team-ing in eighth grade. "Because I am losing over 200students, I will lose about seven teachers," said Mr.Skinner, 'This is a good time to evaluate what we'redoing at this grade." He is seriously consideringdisbanding teams in the eighth grade so as to easethe transition to high school. "We need to grt theeighth-grade students used to moving through ahigh school day, period by period. In high school,students really do have to be independent in a waythat we're not training them for. Perhaps by back-ing away from teaming, yet still providing an envi-romnent that is supportive and nurturing for thestudents, we can do a better job before turning themover to the high schnol. It's a hard choice to make."Teachers agree and make arguments both ways.

The principal is also concerned about teach-ers' lack of time. "Teachers need more time to becreative. There is a lot of pressure to perform. Muchof it is pressure they pu t on themselves. But it meansthat teachers don't get the fun of standing back andenjoying what they are doing." Peoviding moretime would take money, and there isn't leewayenough in the district budget. "This has been aproblem for a very long time in education."

But the district is very supportive ofChaparral's interdisciplinary teaming efforts. Infact, the superintendent would like to expand theidea by having teachers sign contracts for three- orfour-year stints in teams, with each teacher assum-ing responsibility for a major area of specialization.For example, one teacher would specialize in pro-gram design, another in evaluation. As he stated,'This is all pretty amorphous at this point, but Ithink it would be good for the team and good for theteachers' careers. In addition to the common sharedtasks that all team members would take part in,each would have some additional skills that wouldgain them respect. I think they could put togethera much better package this way."


r 4 1

CHAPARRAL'S VISION

STUDENT CENTERED(YOUNG ADOLESCENT)

SCHOOL / HOME LEARNING TO LEARN(CONNECTED) (THINKING)

INTERDISCIPUNARY

TEACHINGGUIDANCE ORIENTED

(TOTAL STAFF)

COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENT

HIGH EXPECTATIONS

STUDENTS / STAFF / PARENTS

111111111111111

INTEGRATED

CURRICULUM

SENSE OF SUPPORT SENSE OF HUMOR

ENJOY / FUN

IllidTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIES

(VARIETY)

SELF FULFILLED(SATISFACTION)

1 .1 '2

em:APARRimuni:L=== JIOOL

NTENEMOCfirll,AMOY TEACHNO TEAM

SoCiiiiScience

IntegratedLanguage

Arts

IntegratedCone

Math

COMMON SETOF

STUDENTS

-Flexime Groups:*heterogenous*homogenous

-Equal Access Cuiriculum

*At Risk

-Peer support &security-"Whole School"

Science

COLLABORATIVE SET OF TEACHERS

-Common prep period: planning, guidance, R & R,communication

-Empower Thichers: Decision making, dignity-interdisciplinary Planning: integrated Currkulum

143

COMMONBLOCK OF

TIME

- Active learning- Flexible Sched-

uling,- integrated cur-

riculum- interdisciplinary

planning

144

References

Ackerman, D. B. (1989). Intellectual and practicalcriteria for successful curriculum integration.In H. H. Jacobs (Ed.), Interdisciplinary currku-lum: Design and impktnentation. Alexandria,VA: Association for Supervision and Cur-riculum Development.

Alexander, W. M. (1987). Toward schools in themiddle: Progress and problems. Journal ofCurriculum and Supervision, 2(4), 324-325.

Brandt, R. (1988). New possibilities. EducationalLeadership, 45, 3.

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.(1989). Turning points: Preparing American youthfor the 21st century. Washington, DC: Author.

Cohen, E. G. (1986). Designing groupwork: Strategiesfor the heterogeneous classroom. New York, NY:Teachers College Press.

Gall, M., & Gall, J. P. (1987). Study for success:Te:Ther's manual. Eugene, OR: M. DamienPublishers.

GA, M. D., Gall, J. P., Jacobsen, D. R., & Bullock, T.L. (1990). Tools for learning: A guide to teachingstudy skills. Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development.

Jacobs, H. H. (1989). Interdisciplinary currkulum:Design and implementation. Alexandria, VA:Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Mergendoller, J., & Packer, M. J. (1989). Cooperativelearning in the classrwm: A knowledge brief oneffective teaching. San Francisco, CA: Far WestLaboratory.

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Middle Grade Task Force. (1987). Caught in themiddle: Educational reform for piing adolescentsin California public schools. Sacramento, CA:California State nepartment of Education.

Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structureinequality. New Haven, CT: Yale UniversityPress.

Office of Middle Grade Support Services. (1987).Glesswry of middle grade education rtform terms.Sacramento, CA: California State Departmentof Education.

Plodzik, K. T., & George, P. (1989). Interdiscipli-nary team organintion.Middk School Journal ,

20, 15-17.

Slater, J. K. (1991). Interdisciplinary teaming: Feed-back from foundation and partnership schoolprincipals. The Middle Level News, 10(3), 1-5.

Slavin, R. E. (1990). Achievement effects of abilitygrouping in secondary schools: A best evi-dencesynthesis. Review of Educational Research,60, 471499.

Slavin, R. E. (1983). Cooperative learning. New York,NY: Longman.

Sternberg, R. J. (1983). How can we teach intelligence?Philadelphia, PA: Research for Better Schools.

Thomas, J. W., & Strage, A. (1988). Resource guide forimproving self-directed learning in the classroom ,

Vols.1-6. San Francisco, CA: Far West Labora-tory.

References 133

Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development730 Harrison Street San Francisco, CA 94107-1242 (415) 565-3000

California League of Middle Schools18012 Cowan Suite 110 Irvine, CA 92714 (714) 261-2567

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