1.0 Introduction:

In the wake of the successful Olympic bid, government sport policy shifted from a narrative

focused on sport’s wider benefit to society, to sport for sport’s sake (DCMS 2008, Brookes

and Wiggen 2009). At the same time, government drives for efficiency and accountability in

the delivery of public services meant a new strategic role for Sport England to deliver on

participation as part of the Olympic legacy.

In the 2005–2008 round of expenditure on sport activity, Sport England invested £660

million and saw overall sport participation among adults rise by 520,000. However, as the

2010 NAO report points out external factors, such as reactions to national sporting triumphs

or the weather, may well have had an impact on participation levels and these numbers may

not be sustainable as a result. (Carmichael et al, 2013).

It is easy to see why the government and other policy providers would be interested in

accurate participation data. Participation in sport is, after all, seen as crucial to the health of

the nation. While improvements in health potentially benefits the individual in terms of

earnings and well-being, there are also wider economic benefits linked to productivity gains

and lower costs of health care (Pratt et al. 2000, Wang et al. 2005). In the United Kingdom,

these gains have been highlighted in Game Plan (DCMS, 2002), which concludes that the

relation between sports participation and health is the main argument for government

promotion of increased physical activity (Carmichael et al, 2013).

In a recent European Union comparison of participation in sport, the United Kingdom ranked

11th and 8th, respectively (out of 27) when comparing sport participation rates of once per

week or more (participation ‘with some regularity’) and 5 times per week or more

(participation ‘regularly’) (Eurobarometer 334, 2010). Interestingly, when comparing sports

club membership, the United Kingdom slips to join 14th overall (with two other countries)

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with just 9% of those asked being members (Eurobarometer 334, 2010). This is important,

because club membership usually translates into more frequent, and above all, more long-

term, participation (See appendix A).

Among the legacy promises made to secure the London 2012 Games was a vow to make it

the first to inspire a long-term increase in grassroots participation. But Sport England’s

Active People survey showed the number of people playing sport for 30 minutes once a week

had dropped by 125,100 to 15.6m in the past 12 months.

Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jan/29/sports-minister-concern-

swimming-drops Accessed: 30/01/2015

1.1 Aims and Objectives:

The present study seeks to explore the students own perceptions regarding physical education

taught at key stage 2. Student’s perceptions of what they enjoy and dislike about multiple

aspects of physical education will be explored and will then be considered in relation to the

future development of physical education within primary schools. Therefore the participant’s

perceptions of the importance of health and how that may affect their motivation to

participate in sport will be discussed and analysed.

This study also aims to show how a review of appropriate and readily available research

evidence on a number of issues relating to PE, sport and the importance of early learning

experiences for lifelong participation, as well as highlighting any potential structural

problems with the delivery of PE and youth sport in England and Wales such as teaching and

timetabling. The aim of the study is to also argue that early learning experiences are crucial to

continuing involvement in physical activity later in life. Once completed the data will be

2

analysed and discussed in relation to previous research to test its validity and offer a more

comprehensive analysis of the current state of physical education. As the majority of the

literature surrounding this subject is based around the teacher’s perspective of physical

education, there is a gap in the research for such a study which will offer a wider range of

discussion moving forward.

2.0 Literature Review:

2.1 Current state of Physical education:

The socio-demographic data show that for under-represented population groups in particular,

school remains the most likely place that they will gain access to a quality PE experience.

The key problem, however, is that with the increasing pressures on the primary school

curriculum and on generalist teachers, it seems highly unlikely that primary schools can offer

the kind of quality experience young people need in the 5–11 age range that can significantly

influence their continuing participation. (Kirk, 2005)

However the use by state schools of sports coaches to deliver PE in England has been

particularly pronounced in primary schools where, historically, PE has been perceived as less

important than other school subjects and regarded as a context in which pupils’ experiences

are often impacted negatively by the quality of provision. In addition, generalist class

teachers have usually delivered PE despite claims that many of them lack sufficient specialist

expertise and confidence to do so while a lack of appropriate initial teacher training in PE and

few opportunities for undertaking continuing professional development (CPD) are among the

other status concerns which have been routinely expressed about primary school PE. (Flintoff

3

et al., 2011; Garrett & Wrench, 2007; Kirk, 2005; Morgan & Bourke, 2008; Office for

Standards in Education, 2013; Harris et al, 2012; Ward, 2012; Blair & Capel, 2011, 2013)

In this regard, it has been claimed that the employment by Head Teachers of a willing

industry of coaches who are considered relatively cheap, are willing to work in schools, and

are regarded as specialists in sport, has enabled primary schools to better manage the

constraints associated with several other educational processes. These processes have

included: rising class sizes; increased emphasis on standards in literacy and numeracy; local

management of budgets; and the inclusion of PE in an already crowded and pressured

curriculum timetable (Blair & Capel, 2011, 2013; Griggs, 2010; Rainer et al, 2012).

This way of thinking became increasingly evident when in March 2013 when the

Government announced a major new funding initiative to support the delivery of physical

education (PE) and sport in primary schools known as the P.E and sport premium. This cross-

government funding is provided by the Department for Education, with contributions from

the Department of Health and the Department of Culture, Media and Sport. The PE and sport

premium will provide over £150 million per year for the academic years 2013/14 to 2015/16.

The PE and sport premium is paid directly to primary schools and is ring-fenced to spend on

improving the quality of PE and sport provision for all their pupils. In 2013/14 all primary

schools in England with 17 or more primary-aged pupils received a lump sum of £8,000 plus

a premium of £5 per pupil. Smaller schools with fewer than 17 pupils received £500 per

pupil. (Department for Education, 2014)

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2.2 How Physical education is changing:

Between April and July 2014 research was commissioned by the Department of Education to

conduct two surveys of primary school head teachers and senior managers, to examine how

the PE and sports premium is being used in schools in England and the perceived impacts of

the fund on PE and sports provision. Their study found that since the P.E and sport premium

came into effect, Eighty-six per cent of schools reported using the premium to up skill and

train existing staff. Changes reported by more than two thirds of schools included buying new

equipment (76%), providing more extra-curricular activities (74%), and employing a new

sports coach (67%) (Department for Education, 2014).

Of those who had made changes to their curricular PE staffing, the use of external sport

coaches had increased from 37% to 82% per cent of schools, and the use of specialist PE

teachers had increased from 22 to 54 % of schools. The use of School Sport Partnerships Co-

ordinators had also increased from 9 % to 29 % of schools.

The vast majority of schools (91%) reported that due to the funding there had been an

increase in the quality of PE teaching, with 9 per cent reporting it had stayed the same. Other

changes to PE and sport in the first year of the funding included an increase in the range of

equipment (79%), and an improvement in the quality of equipment (73%).

Sixty-seven per cent of schools reported offering a wider range of sports during curricular

time whilst 77% reported doing so during extra-curricular time. On average an additional

three sports were offered in both curricular and extra-curricular time compared to the year

prior to the premium.

79% of responding teachers thought that the premium had increased participation for all

children. Particular groups of pupils were also mentioned in relation to this increased

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participation, including those less engaged/least active (38%), disadvantaged children (35%),

and children with special educational needs (30%). Around a fifth of schools reported an

increase in participation all- around however, particularly amongst girls (Department for

Education, 2014). Which is important as Fuchs et al, (1998) found that many girls acquire a

progressive disillusionment with certain aspects of PES and totally disengage from

participation as they move into secondary schooling.

The increasing use of sports coaches in primary school P.E has not, however, perceived to

have been an unalloyed blessing, for particular concern has been expressed about the extent

to which coaches, as sports specialists, lack the appropriate teaching qualifications; coaches’

prioritisation of sporting objectives over educational goals associated with the process of

teaching and pupil learning; coaches class management skills; and the degree to which

removing responsibility for teaching PE from the class teacher, means they are becoming

progressively de-skilled in PE (Blair & Capel, 2011; Griggs, 2010; Keay & Spence, 2012).

These concerns have been summarised by Blair and Capel (2013) who argue that coaches

who have learnt to coach through National Governing Body awards (NGB’s) and through

their own experiences are unlikely to have the background, experience or knowledge, skill

and understanding in relation to working within the national curriculum of physical education

(NCPE), debatably this may lead to a fractured curriculum where the teaching of physical

education is completely dependent on the individual coaching characteristics and knowledge

of each individual coach.

2.3 Teaching and learning within physical education:

Another key issue within primary education appears to stem from non-specialist P.E teacher’s

ability to teach P.E effectively. In a comprehensive review and critique of Daily P.E, Kirk,

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(1989) explained how the quality of Daily P.E lessons had reduced significantly as a result of

poor teacher practice. Kirk et al. (1988) also stated that classroom teachers do not possess the

skills or knowledge needed to deliver adequate PE lessons. Whereas Tinning and Hawkins,

(1988) described how P.E lessons had become supervised ‘fitness sessions’ and teachers had

stopped teaching skills.

Research carried out by Xiang, Lowy & McBride, (2002) has shown that this may be due to

the fact that many teachers generally do not feel confident teaching PE. Xiang et al, (2002)

found that many classroom teachers believed they did not possess the knowledge or ability to

teach PE after observing a number of PE lessons. Moreover, Carney and Chedzoy (1998)

asserted that the lack of confidence non-specialists have for teaching PE is related to a lack of

belief in their own ability to perform skills and activities competently.

The influence of personal school PE experiences may be argued also plays an important role

in the development of attitudes and perceived competencies regarding PE teaching as the

major, or in some cases, the only source of information teachers have about PE. This may

ultimately reflect their confidence to appropriately teach PE. The potential negative

consequences of this proposition need to be recognised, for those teachers with negative

memories of school PE, the thought of teaching a subject that was not enjoyed may be a

substantial barrier to effective teaching and adversely impact on teachers’ PE teaching

confidence and their subsequent teaching behaviour (Morgan & Bourke, 2008). However,

most research in this area has focused on specialist, rather than non-specialist PE teachers and

of the limited studies examining personal school experiences in PE of non-specialists, there is

a general agreement that they have poor memories of PE, which more often than not combine

into negative outcomes. (Howarth, 1987; Allison et al., 1990; Portman, 1996; Clayton, 1999).

7

DeCorby et al, (2005) reported two main obstacles of teaching P.E (a) a lack of training or

knowledge of developmentally appropriate lessons, and (b) a lack of planning and informed

leadership for the overall program. Whereas Mandigo et al. (2004) described how teachers

believed a lack of funding and time were the two biggest factors influencing PE program

delivery. As a result of this, teacher education programmes have often been criticized for not

preparing teachers sufficiently to educate future generations of students (Darling- Hammond,

2006, 2010). As a reaction to this dissatisfaction, teacher education programmes have

emphasized both the subject matter and pedagogical preparation that teachers receive and

have created alternative pedagogies for teacher education that link theory and practice

(Lampert, 2010).

It also has long been recognised that primary school teachers are generally poorly prepared

by their teacher education programmes to teach PE (e.g. OFSTED, 1998). Further, the

intensification of work for primary school teachers over the past decade and a half has

exacerbated this situation. Despite the presence of a National Curriculum Physical Education

(NCPE) in England and Wales, there is evidence to suggest that most schools struggle to

meet statutory requirements for Physical Education.

2.4 Motivational climate currently created:

If participation in sport is to be better understood, then motivation as a factor needs to be

looked into. Côté, et al (2003) suggests it is important that young people experience a

sampling phase during their sport careers. This means that during the early years it is

desirable for young people to be encountering a range of physical activities and literally

sampling what is available to them. The major motivation for these ‘samplers’, according to

Côté and Hay, (2002) is fun and enjoyment rather than competitive success by itself. The

8

emphasis Côté and Hay, (2002) place on what they call deliberate play should also inform our

thinking about the early years, as deliberate play suggests that samplers should ‘play the

game’ more than they practice drills and skills, since this links with their principal interests in

fun. Lee et al. (1995) supports this point, suggesting that the focus in the early years should

be predominately on what psychologists call a ‘task’ climate (where success depends on

doing the best you can) rather than an ‘ego’ climate (where success depends on being better

than others). They claim teachers; coaches and parents can play a key role in creating a task

climate in when teaching sport.

The importance of a task climate for deliberate play experiences is supported by research and

development carried out by a host of researchers and teachers on Teaching Games for

Understanding (TGfU) developed by Bunker and Thorpe, (1982) TGfU stresses that young

people in the 8–14 age range should learn to play through modified games rather than the

more traditional approach of learning skills prior to playing the game. The point to note is

that young people’s improvement as players or performers requires them to have as many

opportunities as possible to participate in their chosen sport or sports in ways that are

authentic and interesting.

Furthermore, there is strong evidence to show why competitive success as a primary aim

should not be emphasised during the sampling phase (Kirk, 2005). During adolescence,

young people grow at different rates. When cut-off dates for age groupings are considered, it

is possible for one child with a birth date at the beginning of the competitive season to be up

to a year older chronologically than a child with a birth date at the end of the season (Wilson,

1999). This means that the early maturing individual has a distinct competitive advantage in

many sports in terms of being physically larger, stronger and having a more mature

neurophysiology, which is an advantage in learning sport skills, which can have a negative

impact on children’s motivation to continue participating in sport. As for example

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psychologists have suggested that a significant factor regarding participation, are young

people’s perceptions of their competence in relation to their peers and the effects of these

perceptions affect their motivation to participate in physical activities (Lee et al, 1995). They

claim teachers, coaches and parents can play a key role in creating a task climate in when

teaching sport, meaning that educators should look to encourage ‘having fun’ and ‘giving

effort’ rather than positively rewarding success.

2.5 The Importance of Physical Education

Physical education has been said to help children to develop respect for the their own body

and others’, contributes toward the integrate development of mind and body, develops an

understanding of the role of aerobic and anaerobic physical activity in health, positively

enhances self-confidence and self-esteem, and enhances social and cognitive development

and academic achievement. (Talbot, 2001) There is also a large body of literature showing

that inactivity is one of the most significant causes of death, disability, and reduced quality of

life across the developed world. (US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical

Activity and Health, 2006).

Gallahue & Ozmun, (1998) suggest that basic movement skills, like those developed in

PESS, form the foundation of almost all later sporting and physical activities. There is also

evidence that those who have developed a strong foundation in fundamental movement skills

are more likely to be active, both during childhood and later in life. Okely et al, (2001),

Trudeau et al, (1999). It has also been proposed that without this foundation, children will

find it difficult to pass through the ‘proficiency barrier’ from the simple activities of the early

years to the more complex activities of later childhood and beyond (Seefeldt 1979; NASPE

1995; Scottish Executive 2003). There is also a frequently cited, but under researched,

10

hypothesis that the development of a broad range of these basic movement skills through

PESS programs is a necessary condition for excellence in sport Abbott et al, (2002).

Another emerging feature of the research is the contention that PESS should help all children

acquire the basic movement foundation needed to access a wide range of physical activities

across their lifespan (Welk 1999; Jess and Collins 2003). However, ecological approaches to

motor learning research studies have contested that these movement patterns are influenced

not only by maturation but also by environmental factors including equipment, cue

information and feedback, thus refuting the ‘it happens naturally’ misconception (Southard

2002; Whitall 2003). Moreover, Trost, (2006) states that evidence that PESS experiences set

the foundation for lifelong physical activity is scarce with recent studies revealing limited

tracking of physical activity patterns from childhood through to the adolescent years as the

cause of this. Data of this sort have important implications for PESS. Yet, whereas it would

appear that focusing on physical fitness may be a productive focus for PESS, from a

behavioural perspective, it has also been suggested that young people need to gain the

appropriate knowledge, understanding and behavioural skills to ensure physical activity

becomes a regular part of their daily life (Fairclough and Stratton, 2005).

Discussion on the claimed social benefits of engagement in PESS is founded largely on the

belief that the nature of physical activity renders it a suitable vehicle for the promotion of

personal and social responsibility and the development of pro-social skills (Martinek and

Hellison, 1997; Miller et al, 1997; Parker and Stiehl, 2005). The social element of

participation and, more specifically, the need for individuals to work collaboratively,

cohesively and constructively, is believed to encourage and necessitate the development of a

number of skills such as trust (Priest, 1998), a sense of community (Ennis, 1999), empathy

(Moore, 2002), personal and corporate responsibility (Priest and Gass, 1997) and cooperation

(Miller et al., 1997).

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It has also been claimed that physical activity improves psychological health in young people

(Sallis and Owen, 1999), following a review of literature, Mutrie and Parfitt (1998) also

concluded that physical activity is positively associated with good mental health, and the

psychological benefits of regular physical activity include reduced stress, anxiety and

depression (Csikszentmihayli, 1975; Hassmen et al., 2000; Long, 1985; Page and Tucker,

1994). Claims such as these have, however, been criticised for ignoring the range of life

experiences beyond sport and physical activity that can influence affective development

(Layman, 1974) and for lacking empirical foundations (Bailey, 2005; Bailey et al, 2006).

3.0 Methodology:

3.1 Rationale for research design:

Qualitative research is defined as an interpretive, naturalistic look at the world through the

use of a variety of research tools (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000) with the key aim to get a better

understanding of the subject matter in hand. It was thought that a qualitative research method

in the form of open ended questionnaires would be the most effective method in producing

detailed opinion from the participants as qualitative methods are recognised as being more

effective in eliciting true feelings and opinions of participants (Robson, 2002). Qualitative

methods have also been found to give more emotional and intellectual detail than quantitative

methods (Nash et al. 2009). Furthermore qualitative research methodologies have become

increasingly important models of inquiry for the social sciences and applied fields such as

education. (Marshall & Rossman, 2011).

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3.2 Data collection tool:

The questionnaire has been developed, adapting previously validated measures from subject

specific literature Penney & Jess, (2004), who suggests that a revised curriculum framework

should be categorised into four main areas;

• Functional physical activity (FPA), in response to demands of everyday work and home

life;

• Recreational physical activity (RPA), as a leisure pursuit, which, for many, is a socially-

orientated activity;

• Health-related physical activity (HRPA), concerned with fitness, well-being and/or

rehabilitation;

• Performance-related physical activity (PRPA), concerned with self-improvement and/or

success in performance environments.

However the design of the questionnaire will be split into five sections instead of 4, asking

the students for their perceptions based around these four subject themes, as well as the

structure of their P.E lessons as they currently are. However functional physical activity will

be adapted further, instead looking at the weekly structure of P.E.

Section 1 of the questionnaire focused on the lesson and timetable structure, such as how

many hours a week do they have P.E as well as discovering whether or not the school hires

specialist teachers/coaches or continues to allow their regular teacher to take these sessions.

Section 2 looked at how functional/beneficial the students believed their P.E lessons

currently are and give them the chance to make suggestions on how to improve these. Such as

which other sports would they like to play that they don’t get the chance to as well as asking

13

questions such as how important they believe P.E to be as a subject and also what have they

learnt from taking part in P.E at school.

Section 3 will look at the recreational side of sport such as how important the students

perceive having fun as to their reasons for playing sport and whether this can affect their

motivation to continue to participate in sports. This section will also look to explore what

percentages of the pupils are affiliated with sports clubs outside of school.

Section 4 will look at how much of a role success and performance plays in their motivation

to continue to participate in sport as well as asking whether or not they see themselves

playing sport throughout their life and whether they have any ambition to pursue playing

sport as a profession.

Lastly Section 5 will seek to explore how much knowledge the students have regarding the

health benefits of playing sports and staying active and whether this is a factor when they

consider future sporting participation,.

3.3 Sample Group:

The sample group chosen consisted of both male and female key stage 2 pupils (Years 3-6) as

it was believed that this sample would offer the most comprehensive answers which would

better help to develop areas of discussion within the physical education curriculum.

Qualitative researchers recognize that some informants are 'richer' than others and that these

people are more likely to provide insight and understanding for the researcher (Marshall,

1996). As I have an on-going relationship with the school a convenience sample was chosen,

the reason for this was because it would allow for greater access to the desired sample

meaning that time wouldn’t be wasted waiting for DBS clearance and meant that the study

14

could take place at a much earlier date allowing for more time to devise a suitable

questionnaire as well as then collecting the data. To ensure the participants data was not

compromised or influenced, questionnaires were completed under the researcher’s

supervision as this ensured that the answers given were their own personal thoughts and

beliefs, this also ensured that any confusion regarding the wording of the questions was

reduced as an explanation of the questions could be given if required, this meant that the data

that was collected will be more consistent and allow for a greater discussion.

3.4 Data analysis:

For the discussion of this study conventional qualitative content analysis will be used,

qualitative content analysis has been defined as;

“A research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the

systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns”

(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p.1278),

A thematic analysis was then carried out (Nash et al., 2009) where categories and labels were

identified across all of the returned questionnaires, for this a three stage content analysis

process was adopted to establish the relevant information and major themes within the data;

and were categorised into;

First order themes (main themes)

Second order themes (sub-themes)

General findings (un-related to the main themes)

15

Whilst this content analysis method is basic it helped to emerge key themes from the study,

making for a better discussion. Both research analysis methods were employed in order to

identify links between the existing literature on physical education and youth sport. By this

means, the perspectives of the producers of the text can be better understood by the

investigator as well as the readers of the study’s results (Berg, 2001). Descriptive analysis in

the form of percentages will also be used throughout the discussion to further illustrate the

key themes found.

3.5 Ethical Considerations:

As the participants of the study are under the age of eighteen, both DBS clearance and

parental consent was required before data collection could take place. For this consent forms

were sent home to the participants parents/carers to sign and return.

Anonymity will be used throughout the study as all of the information/data provided will only

be seen by the head researcher as the hard copies of the data will be collected and stored in a

locked cabinet. Any electronically gathered data will be stored on a password protected hard

drive which again can only be accessed by the head researcher. The participants will be given

a participation number which will be used to identify their answers throughout the study and

will be what they provide should they wish to withdraw from the study at any point. An

example of this would be; “(P11) stated that…”

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4.0 Results:

4.1 Quantitative:

Section 1 of the questionnaire looked to focus on the overall structure of a typical week

within the school.

Figure 1 shows that…

Kirk, (2005) First, children who are able to participate in a number of community-based club

sports are likely to have a more enriched experience of sport compared with their age peers

whose main experience is in school PE, thus making the primary school teacher’s task even

more difficult since the range of ability and experience levels may be widening. Second,

volunteer coaches in clubs are increasingly being faced with larger, mixed-ability groups of

children who have varying degrees of interest in and motivation towards a particular sport.

This development suggests that there will be increasingly serious challenges for volunteer

coaches to develop skills that allow them to facilitate quality deliberate play experiences for

children. (Kirk, 2005)

17

Figure 2 shows that…

Figure 3 shows that…

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4.2 Qualitative:

Figure 4 – Key Themes:

Theme Number: Theme found:

5.1 The increased use and employment of specialised coaches

5.2 Intrinsic motivation to play sport

5.3 The positive perception of P.E as a subject

5.0 Discussion:

5.1 The increased use and employment of specialised coaches:

It was concluded from the data (Questions 3 and 4) that the participants had been introduced

to coaching in various ways whether it be from their everyday teachers or a specialist coach.

Although the overwhelming majority said that they are regularly taught P.E through specialist

coaches (see figure 1.0) or that their P.E lessons are supplemented with additional sporting

opportunities delivered by specialist coaches such as lunch time clubs for instance.

This is in-keeping with the growing trend regarding primary school’s physical education

programme, as the Department for education, (2014) reported that the those schools who had

made changes to their curricular PE staffing, the use of external sport coaches had increased

from 37 per cent to 82 per cent of schools, and the use of specialist PE teachers had increased

from 22 to 54 per cent of schools. The use of School Sport Partnerships Co-ordinators had

also increased from 9 per cent to 29 per cent of schools. In order to meet such ambitious

targets of engaging children in two hours’ high-quality PE and sport at school each week the

19

number of adults other than teachers used in primary schools has increased dramatically

(Lavin, Swindlehurst, and Foster 2008).

However it has been argued that coaches can often lack a significant amount of information

and training possessed by the class teacher which is fundamental to effective teaching and

learning. This includes knowledge and understanding of the National Curriculum for physical

education, practised classroom management skills and personal knowledge of the children

and their individual needs and abilities (Griggs 2008). Foundation subjects such as physical

education have become increasingly marginalised within curriculum time, due to a greater

emphasis being placed upon the teaching of core subjects such as English (Literacy),

Mathematics (Numeracy) and Science for which annual results are published for all primary

schools (Speednet 2000; Warburton 2001; OFSTED 2005).

Although it can be disputed that specialist coaches are an essential alternative, as Caldecott et

al, (2006) reported that as few as a total of five hours during a one-year Post Graduate

Certificate Education (PGCE) course are being spent on PE in primary ITE, meaning newly

qualified teachers are not being educated how to teach P.E appropriately or efficiently.

Findings also indicate that most coaches charge approximately £20 an hour for their time in

primary schools, compared to the figure of circa £180 per day for a newly qualified teacher

(Teaching Personnel 2008). Therefore, many primary teachers lack confidence to teach PE

(e.g. Garrett & Wrench, 2007; Morgan & Bourke, 2008). Combined with the different

challenges regarding the specific content and pedagogical knowledge, including the increased

physical risk and class management, PE is perceived as one of the most challenging subjects

in the curriculum for primary teachers to deliver (Katene & Edmondson, 2004; Chappell,

2006). Further research also suggests that children have been shown to be significantly more

active in specialist-led versus generalist-led classes (Faucette & Patterson, 1989; 1990).

20

Another argument to support the use of specialist coaching is the increased variety of sports

that pupils can then sample, as the data showed that the pupils had sampled a plethora of

sports including; swimming, football, rugby, athletics, basketball, gymnastics, dodgeball,

invasion games, dance, tennis, gymnastics (Question 2). This sampling approach has been

largely established within recent literature as being the most effective in ensuring future

participation in sport. Côté et al, (2003) for example, suggests it is important that young

people experience a sampling phase during their sport careers. This means that during the

early years it is desirable for young people to be encountering a range of physical activities

and literally sampling what is available to them.

These findings have also been supported by the participants themselves, as 70.4% stated that

they would like to sample a different sport every week as oppose to focusing on 1 sport for an

extended period of time, responses in favour included;

“Yes because I would like to try something different” (P2)

“Yes because it is boring playing the same sport every week” (P4)

Sampling may also promote prolonged engagement in sport by limiting physical injuries

through developing different muscle groups (Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005), as overtraining

injuries are a concern for young athletes who specialise in one sport. A number of psycho-

social benefits have also been attributed to sport sampling, such as; communication, time

management and leadership skills, as they gain experience in a variety of social situations

(Danish et al, 1996). However to date, no study has linked sampling and sport dropout (Cote

et al, 2009).

It will therefore suggest that sampling a variety of sports that have high levels of deliberate

play will provide enjoyable experiences for young athletes and potentially foster motivation

21

to continue in sports throughout development and later in life. This is also supported by

Baker and Côté, (2006) who agree that deliberate play activities provide a context that fosters

intrinsic motivation to participate in sports by providing greater amounts of 'time on task'

rather than waiting for the next drill to begin, as can be the case with deliberate practice.

Furthermore Coakley, (2001) proposed that an action centred sport environment is important

in implementing an enjoyable sport programHowever after the analysis of the data it was

found that the data collection tool could have been enhanced with the addition of follow up

question regarding the pupil’s perceptions of specialist coaches and how their teaching styles

may differ from regular teachers and whether or not they see any potential differences as a

positive or a negative. As this would have offered a wider viewpoint to the discussion and

added to the existing literature. As well as this the question may have been misinterpreted by

some of the participants as although the majority of the participants of each year group said

they were often taught by specialist coaches this was not unanimous throughout.

5.2 Intrinsic motivation to play sport:

Another consistent finding within the data was the emphasis that the pupils gave to having

fun as oppose to winning as in response to question 14; 92.6% stated that having fun was

more important to them than winning. For example (P11) stated that;

“Having fun because it’s not always about winning, it’s about taking part.”

Whereas (P1) stated that;

“Having fun because it’s nice to see other people win”

This response suggests that the pupils are being taught in accordance to the widely accepted

research that it is important to foster a task motivational climate within young children, where

22

success depends on doing the best you can rather than an ‘ego’ climate where success

depends on being better than others (Lee et al, 1995). In order to create a task environment it

is suggested that deliberate play activities are essential at such a young age. Côté et al, (2007)

define deliberate play as activities in which children participate because they are inherently

enjoyable but could nonetheless contribute to the development of expertise.

.Findings from question 15 however tend to conflict with these results as 48.1% of the

participants said that they only enjoy playing sports that they are good at. This suggests that

almost half of the participants are showing ego traits as oppose to task traits. However these

results may be due to a misinterpretation of the question in some cases as the question could

have been worded to better suit the age group intended. Although this was not always the

case as one participant went on to state;

“No because I like to improve how good I am (in one sport)” (P6)

These findings appear to support previous research from Lee et al, (1995) (found in section

2.4) who suggest that that a significant factor regarding participation, are young people’s

perceptions of their competence in relation to their peers and the effects of these perceptions

affect their motivation to participate in physical activities, hence this would support the

notion that a person with a poor perceived ability will negatively impact their motivation to

participate, supporting the idea that children would predominantly prefer to play sports that

they are good at.

When asked what is the main reason they take part in sport 59.2% of the participants cited

having fun as to that reason;

“To have fun and play with my friends” (P12)

23

The results also show that when asked whether or not the pupils enjoy their P.E lessons an

overwhelming majority of 96.3% stated yes;

“Yes because I like to keep fit and play with my friends” (P19)

This is consistent with findings from Scanlan et al, (2005) who states that children often cite

enjoyment or fun as a reason for participating in sports. Previous research has also stated that

children of all ages often reported a lack of fun as the reason they drop out of sports (Butcher,

Lindner & Johns, 2002).

In response to question 9; “What would you like to change about your P.E lessons?” the

results again repeated the participant’s general satisfaction and enjoyment of their P.E

lessons. As although many differing responses were recorded, the overall response to the

question was positive, such as the need to make the lessons longer as some of the participants

stated that they often run out of time during their P.E lessons. Another suggestion that was

repeated was that they would like the age groups to be mixed, however this conflict with

earlier research from Wilson, (1999) who states that early maturing individual has a distinct

competitive advantage in many sports in terms of being physically larger, stronger and having

a more mature neurophysiology, which is an advantage in learning sport skills and that this

can then have a negative impact on children’s motivation to continue participating in sport.

Interestingly however, 37% of the participants said that they wouldn’t change anything about

their P.E lessons.

5.3 The positive perception of P.E as a subject:

The most notable recurrent theme found within the data was that the pupils recognised P.E as

being an important aspect of school life and their education, in particular how P.E relates to

24

health. As in response to question 7 an overwhelming 92.59% stated that P.E was an

important subject. When asked to elaborate on why they thought this was the case 66.7%

specified the importance of regular exercise and the health benefits associated with an active

lifestyle.

“Yes because you need daily exercise” (P5)

“Yes because it keeps you fit and healthy.” (P21)

In a study conducted by Morgan and Hansen, (2008) it was also found that teachers believed

that P.E was the main context for physical activity for many of their students. Bailey, (2006)

also described schools as one of the main sources for the provision of regular, structured

physical activity. As parental safety concerns and economic pressures have contributed to

lower levels of physical activity outside of school (Bailey, 2006). The health benefits of

physical activity were a major reason provided by teachers for participation in PE lessons.

This trend continued for question 12 as another 40.7% of the participants said that staying fit

and healthy was the main reason why they take part in sports.

“

Physical education (PE) has been widely acknowledged as a key vehicle for promoting

physical activity among children (Biddle & Moultrie, 2001). It is also claimed that PE

provides the opportunity for children to develop the knowledge and skills to lead a physically

active lifestyle (The hands report, 1999) The important role of P.E has also been highlighted

with the recent marked increase in the prevalence of childhood obesity worldwide (Ebbeling

et al, 2002)

Results from question 18 would also appear to support these findings as 74.1% showed that

they have a good knowledge of the importance of health and how exercise through physical

25

education can have a positive effect on their continuing quality of life. As when asked what

they know about staying healthy responses included;

“To get your five a day (fruit and vegetables) and play plenty of sport” (P16)

As well as this the participants also showed a knowledge and awareness health, as when

asked whether or not they believe it is important to stay healthy 88.9% said yes with the other

11.1% saying they “don’t know”. However when asked whether participating in sport is a

good way of staying healthy, 100% of the participants answered yes.

This would therefore advocate for being a strong indicator of future participation as 81.5%

also stated that they intend to participate in sports throughout their life (See figure 2), with

66.7% of those saying they would like to pursue a professional career in sports.

“Yes because you will get a lot of money and it will be fun” (P1)

When asked what they had learnt through taking part in P.E (question 8) the pupils gave

varying responses,

“

With regard to question 1 it was decided that no conclusive discussion could take place as

there was a clear misunderstanding of the question from many of the participants as answers

in response to the question; “How many hours a week do you have P.E?” ranged from 1 hour

of P.E a week to 7 hours of P.E a week. As this would suggest that many of the participants

answered the question as if it was asking how many hours of physical activity do they do per

week both in and outside of school.

26

6.0 Conclusion:

This study proposed to identify any failings/shortcomings within primary school physical

education which could be developed in order to support future sporting participation. It is

therefore possible to conclude from the discussion that previously held beliefs regarding

teachers competence to teach physical education correctly (Kirk, 1988; Kirk 1989; DeCorby

et al, 2005) doesn’t apply in this case as the quantitative results show that the majority of the

pupils are taught by specialist coaches on a regular basis, this suggests that the students are

getting a more diverse physical education, the implications of this is that primary school

pupils are arguably having the chance to sample more sports as a result, which has positive

links to future participation (Cote et al, 2009). This has been largely aided through

government support in the form of the P.E and sport premium which has better equipped

schools to purchase improved equipment as well as employing outside professionals who can

also help ease the burden for everyday teachers whose responsibilities have primarily shifted

towards an increased emphasis on standards in literacy and numeracy as annual results are

published (Griggs, 2010). However the change towards specialist coaches hasn’t been

unanimously accepted as beneficial as it is believed in some sectors that coaches do not

possess the necessary experience, knowledge or understanding in relation to working within

the national curriculum of physical education (Blair & Capel 2013). Nevertheless it is

believed in time that this can only benefit the delivery of P.E throughout the country, making

it essential for such financial assistance to continue.

The findings from this study also showed that the pupils have a very good knowledge of

health and how this can impact quality of life as they grow older as many of the participants

stated that staying healthy was the main reason they participate in sport. This is a positive

finding as this provides added motivation for them to continue participating in sport. Findings

also showed motivation to play sport stems from how P.E lessons are delivered, as research

27

from Cote et al, (2007); Baker and Côté, (2006) found that fostering intrinsic motivation is

important as this can prevent dropout (Butcher, Lindner & Johns, 2002). Implications of these

findings suggest that coaches/teachers should look to implement a ‘task’ environment where

emphasis should be placed on having fun through playing games as oppose to completing

drills.

7.0 Limitations/Future areas of study:

The study does have limitations which must be considered in relation to the results. As the

participants were between the ages of 7-11 they each have differing levels of reading and

writing skills which may have meant that some of the questions may have been interpreted

differently by some individuals in comparison to others, as well as this it may have meant

that their true beliefs may not have been portrayed as they may not have been able to

determine how to write that in a sentence. To better aid this future researchers may look to

conduct interviews as oppose to questionnaires as this may help in eliciting a more in depth

response. As this study was carried out by one researcher, this could also have led to a

misinterpretation of the data as it may have numerous meanings depending on the individual

(Pringle, 2001). The research tool may have also been adapted to look to gain further insight

into section 1 in particular, as this would have offered more of a discussion; therefore it was

found that the study would have benefited from conducting an initial pilot study as this may

have highlighted any modifications that needed to be made.

Due to the small nature of the sample size, it is difficult to draw valid conclusions from the

data collected, as more participants would have benefited the accuracy of the study (Collis

and Hussey, 2009). Instead, this study can only act as a base for future research which should

look to expand further on the research question but on a larger scale, across multiple primary

28

schools, as well as conducting longitudinal studies on the transition from primary school to

secondary school and how this may also impact sporting participation.

29

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41

Appendix A-European

Union Participation

Figures

42

Appendix A: European Union Participation Figures (Eurobarometer 334, (2010). Sport and

physical activity. Brussels: European Commission. pp. 26

43

Appendix B-Data

Collection Tool

44

Appendix B: Data Collection Tool – Questionnaire:

Name:

Age:

Year at School:

Gender:

Participation Number:

Section 1:

1. How often do take part in P.E? (Hours a week)

_________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What type of sports do you play in your P.E lessons?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Who teaches your P.E lessons? For example; (your normal teacher/ a specialist coach etc.)

__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Does the school ever bring anybody else in to take either P.E lessons or sports clubs? For example; a specialist coach

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 2:

5. If you could choose a sport that you would like to play in school but don’t get the chance to, what would it be?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Would you like to play a different sport every week? If yes then why. If no then why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

45

7. Do you believe P.E is an important subject? If yes then why? If no, then why not?

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

8. What have you learnt from taking part in P.E at school?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

9. If you had the chance, what would you like to change about your P.E lessons?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 3:

10. Do you enjoy your P.E lessons? If yes, then why? If no, then why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

11. Do you take part in sports outside of school? If yes then what sports do you play?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

12. What is the main reason why you take part in sports?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

13. Why do you find sports fun?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

46

Section 4:

14. Do you prefer winning or having fun? + why?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

15. Do you only enjoy playing sports that you are good at? If yes, then why? If no, then why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

16. Do you believe you will continue to play sports all of your life?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

17. Would you like to grow up to be a professional sportsman/woman? If yes, then why? If no, then why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 5:

18. What do you know about staying fit and healthy?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________

19. Do you believe that it is important to stay fit and healthy? If yes, then why? If no, then why not?

________________________________________________________________________________________

20. Do you believe taking part in sports is a good way of staying fit and healthy?

__________________________________________________________________________________________

47

Appendix C – Information and Debrief

Sheets

48

Appendix C: PARTICPANTS INFORMATION SHEET

Congratulations! You are being asked to take part in this exciting study, working with myself to see if we can improve P.E in your school. This means that you will be invited to fill out a short questionnaire, telling me what you like and dislike about P.E and what you would like to change, so that P.E lessons are even more fun in the future.

WHAT WILL I BE ASKED TO DO?

The questionnaire has only 20 questions and will take about 5 minutes to complete.

If all of this sounds good and you would like to take part then that’s great, just let your parents know. If you can’t take part or you don’t want to that is fine too. If you start the study and you don’t like it and want to drop out then that is no problem either.

Thank you for your help!

Cory

Email: cory.north@northumbria.ac.uk

49

Appendix C: Parental Information Sheet

Dear Parent/Guardian,

My name is Cory and I am currently conducting my dissertation at Northumbria University as well as taking a Basketball club with the pupils of West Walker primary school on Wednesday lunchtime. For my dissertation I will be investigating your children’s perceptions of physical education taught at West Walker primary school in order to gain their perspective on P.E, such as what they like/dislike about P.E and what they would change about their P.E lessons if they could. All that your child will be required to do is fill out a short questionnaire which takes approximately 5 minutes to complete. This information will then be used to gather common themes in order to find solutions to any problems they are experiencing and hopefully make physical education more enjoyable and beneficial moving forward.

I am writing to you to consider this proposal and to ask your permission for your child’s participation. If you have any questions or would like to discuss any issues further, please do not hesitate to contact me on the details provided below. There is no obligation that your child must participate and they will be at no disadvantage if they do not wish to take part.

The School has given me their consent to participate in the research, and your child will also be asked for their consent. So if you are happy for your child to take part please sign and return the research invitation consent form as soon as possible.

I would like to thank you for taking the time to read this and hope to hear back from you soon.

Yours faithfully,

Cory North

Contact details:

cory.north@northumbria.ac.uk

50

Appendix D –Consent Forms

51

Appendix D: Consent Forms

Research Invitation Consent Form:

(Parent/Guardian):

I would like to accept the invite for my child

…………………………………..………………….. to participate in the

research project investigating their perceptions of physical education in school.

By signing this form I understand that my child will be involved in the study.

Signed:

……………………..…………………………………...…. (parent/guardian)

Name (Printed):

……………………………………………….…………………………....

Date: …………………..

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53

Appendix D: INFORMED CONSENT FORM

Project Title: How can the Primary school physical education curriculum be developed to support participation in sport?

Principal Investigator: Cory North

Participant Number:

please tick where applicable

I have had an opportunity to ask questions and discuss this study and I have received satisfactory answers.

I understand I am free to withdraw from the study at any time, without having to give a reason for withdrawing, and without prejudice.

I agree to take part in this study.

I would like to receive feedback on the overall results of the study at the email address given below. I understand that I will not receive individual feedback on my own performance.

Email address……………………………………………………………………