CHAPTER- lI

DISASTER: MEANING, SCOPE AND IMPACT

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CHAPTER- II

DISASTER: MEANING, SCOPE AND IMPACT

INTRODUCTION

Mother Nature is prone to disaster. Disasters are like unwelcome guests because

it leaves permanent impressions of their visits on the victims1. Normally disasters arise

when hazards interact with physical, social, economic and environmental vulnerability2.

Since the beginning of history, man has struggled against these hazards elements

of nature. He has always tried to establish his mastery over the environment. Aided with

science and technology, man is struggling to fight against these odds.

Disaster as a term is difficult to define because its nature and character is

unidentified. But it is probably easy to describe and explain disaster. Mythologically it

is considered as a “Wrath of God” when evil takes over good. God bring in the process of

annihilation- the ‘kalki ‘in Hindu philosophy3 end of life on the earth in Christian

philosophy4.

Disaster is not an end in itself; rather it is just the beginning of an unending array of

disastrous events5Disaster affect not only the present generation but also the future

generation. Increasing incidents of gigantic disasters also sets back governmental policies

on poverty reduction, employment generation, environmental protection, sustainable

development etc.

Origin of the word ‘Disaster’

The word ‘disaster’ has its genesis in the Greek word astron meaning bad star. The

word’s root denotes that when the stars are in a bad position a disaster is about to happen.

Thus the astrological origin of the word indicates a sign of malevolent influence of

heavenly bodies or baneful and unpropitious aspects of star and planet. Hence it was

firmly believed that great misfortunes were caused by an unfavorable position. The word

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disaster descended to english language in the 16th centuary through French ‘desastre’

and Italian ‘disastro’ and from Latin ‘disastrum’6.

Disaster’s and Speed of Onset

According to its intensity and speed the disasters can be broadly classified as rapid-

onset and slow- onset disasters.

Rapid- Onset Disasters

Rapid- onset disasters7 occur suddenly with little warning, taking the lives of people

and destroying economic structure and material resources. In rapid onset disaster the

situation can be reinstated without much delay because the area affected in rapid onset

disasters are small and it can be resolved within shorter period. In those types of disasters,

one large scale event causes most of the damage and destruction. Following this event,

there may be tremendous amount of suffering and chaos. For e.g. this type of disasters

are earthquakes, floods, tsunami etc.

Slow- Onset Disasters

Slow- onset disasters8 occur over time and slowly deteriorate a society and its

population’s capacity to withstand the effects of the hazard or threat. In this type of

disasters the situation cannot be reinstate suddenly or immediately. It lasts for long

time. It can be also called long term continuing disasters. The area affected in this type

of disasters is large. In long term disasters the situation remains constant or may even

deteriorate as time passes. For e.g. drought and war.

Figure No. 2.1

Disaster’s Speed of Onset

Rapid- onset

Disaster

Slow-onset

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Definition and Meaning of the Term ‘Disaster’

Definition and meaning of the term disaster vary according to geosectors, geological

and social settings9. Internationally, accepted definition to the word disaster refers to an

occurrence arising with little or no warning, which causes or threatens serious disruption

of life and perhaps deaths or injury to large number of people and requires therefore a

mobilization of effort in excess of that normally provided by the statutory emergency

services’10.

Thus disaster is always reviewed as a calamitous event especially occurring suddenly

and causing great damage or hardship to mankind.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 of India has also assimilated its definition of

disaster, the spontaneous nature of disaster and the damage and hardship to the humankind

and environment. The Act defines disaster as ‘a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave

occurrence affecting any area, arising from natural or man-made causes, or by accident

or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to

and destruction of property, or damage to, or degradation of environment, and is of such

a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the

affected area’11.

Thus etymologically three meanings are attributed to the term disaster 12

• A state of extreme and usually irremediable ruin. The term is used in this sense

when there is a great and sudden calamity,

• An event that brings terrible loss resulting in lasting distress, severe afflictions

and injury to life and destruction to property,

• An act that has disastrous consequences. The term is used in the sense when there

is total destruction or devastation .

Common Features of Disasters13

Though it is difficult to define, disasters have certain common features viz.

(i) Disasters cause disruption to normal pattern of life. Such disruption is usually

severe and may also sudden, unexpected and widespread and thus remains long

period suffering to human beings.

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(ii) It adversely affects human beings such as loss of life, livelihood and property,

injury, hardship and health(physical as well as mental).

(iii) It affects on social structure such as destruction or damages to infrastructure,

buildings, communication and other essential services.

(iv) During and after the time of disaster, community needs assistance like shelter,

food, clothing, medical assistance and social care.

Disasters and Different Terminologies14

There are conceptual differences between various terms like emergency,

catastrophe, accident, crisis etc with disasters and at the same time these terms are

commonly used interchangeably.

(i) Emergency and Disasters 15

An emergency is a situation where a sudden incident or event has occurred and

normally used, local response with suffice to care for the situation without calling in

outside help.An emergency is defined as a state in which normal procedures are suspended

and extraordinary measures are taken in order to avert the impact of a hazard on the

community16. If an emergency is not properly managed, it will become a disaster.

Emergency calls for an immediate action if a serious occurrence that happens

unexpectedly. It can be managed locally without the need of added response measures.

But a disaster is an event that involves major groups and cannot interact, in order to

manage emergencies. In most of the cases, emergency occurs when an immediate

response is required consequent to a disaster.

Both emergency and disaster involves death, injuries, displacement of people, loss

of infrastructure etc and this leads to staining the domestic capacity and disrupting

economic and social activity of a nation17.

(ii) Accident and Disasters18

Accident means an unplanned event causing damage or injury, like the disaster. But

at the same time there is a qualitative and quantitative difference between routine accident

and disaster. A disaster is not at all a big accident19. The number of affected people and

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Table No. 2.1

Difference between Disaster with Emergency, Accident, and Crisis

i Emergency Disaster

An emergency is a situation in which the

community is capable of coping. It is a

situation generated by the real or imminent

occurrence of an event that requires

immediate attention. It can be affected in a

smaller area and can be prevented.

Emergency situation could be turned as

disaster, if it is not properly managed. When

we compare emergency with disaster the

intensity and destruction to property and life

are less .

A disaster is a situation in which the

community is incapable of coping. It

is a natural or human-caused event

which causes intensenegative impacts

on people, goods, services and the

environment. In disaster the area of

devastation is greater. Disaster could

not be prevented but its vulnerability

can. A disaster situation could not be

turned as emergency situation if it is

properly managed. In disaster the

severity and potentiality are high. It

exceeding the affected community’s

capability to respond; therefore the

community seeks the assistance of

government and internationalagencies.

magnitude differentiate an accident from disaster20. In accidents the immediate victims

are individuals, while in disaster the community21.

(iii) Crisis and Disasters22

The dictionary meaning of the term crisis means a time of intense danger or

difficulty23’. An event or occurrence can be termed as crisis if it poses a threat to human

life or property or causes or threatens to cause large scale disruption to normal life24.

Thus crisis may be defined as an emergency situation arising out of natural activity which

poses a threat to human life and property or leads to large scale disruption of normal

life25. A crisis may degenerate into a disaster if it not properly managed.

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Types of Disasters

Be it an ‘Act of God’ or ‘Act of Man’ a mind boggling spectrum of disaster wreaks

havoc in every country. Disasters are destructive forces to nature unlike anything in

human experience. It strikes quickly, it changes the lives of all it touches and its effects

are felt long after the event. And, perhaps more important, its forces are largely outside

the control of people whom it most affects26.

The disasters are of two types. The first is of gigantic convulsion to nature i.e.

natural disasters and the second exemplifies the man’s interaction with the highly artificial

environment, he has himself created i.e. human made disasters27.

iii Crisis Disaster

Crisis situations are termed as the situation

when an occurrence or an incident threatens

to cause large scale disruption to normal

pattern of life. Here the life is only the

concern. Crisis situations are the situations

which undertaken after the occurrence of a

disaster i.e. the response and rescue period.

While in disaster not only the life but

also the property, environment are in-

cluded for concern.

ii Accident Disaster

Accident could occur daily. The casualties

are low compared to a disaster. In accident

the affected persons can be an individual.

An accident can be a disaster when vulner-

ability and risk are high. In accident short

term is sufficient to recover.

The disaster could not happen daily.

But its impacts are higher than an

accident. Disasters affects a

community a large group of persons

and even years have to take that

community to get recover from a

disaster.

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Natural Disasters

Natural disaster is defined as extreme and catastrophic situation in population,

viably caused by substantial unfavorable changes in the environment as a spasmodic change

in the system in the form of its sudden response to smooth changes in external conditions28.

Natural disaster can be classified as major and minor, depending upon their potential

to cause damage to life and property. So natural disasters like earthquakes, drought,

flood and cyclones could be regarded as major disasters while hailstorm, avalanches,

landslides can be categorized as minor disasters29.

Natural disasters are also termed as ‘Act of God’ or ‘Act of Nature’. These are

universal reality and are perhaps inevitable. They are caused without any direct human

involvement. It can be again divided into three specific groups. They are

(a) Hydro-meteorological disasters30

(b) Geophysical disasters31

(c) Biological disasters32

Man Made Disasters

Manmade disaster33 is a threat having an element of human intent, negligence, and

error or involving a failure of a system. Very often manmade disasters are the result of

manmade hazards for which adequate emergency management measures have not been

adopted.

Human made disasters can be of rapid or slow onset types. For eg terrorism, riots,

war, industrial accidents etc.Both these disasters cause loss of life or injury, property

damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

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Figure No. 2.2

Types of Disasters

Disaster

Natural Manmade

Major Minor

Hydro meteorological Geophysical Biological

Categorization of Disasters by United Nations

United Nation’s has broadly classified disasters as natural and manmade34. The natural

disasters are classified as (i) Geological, (ii) hydrological,(iii) climate and

atmospheric,(iv) wild fire35 and (v) biosperical disasters.

(i) Geological disasters include avalanche, earthquake, lehar36, landslides and

mudflows, sinkholes37 and volcanic eruption.

(ii) Hydrological disasters like flood, limic eruption38, whirlpool39, maelstrom40,

sciche41 and tsunami.

(iii) Climate and atmospheric disasters includes drought, hailstorm42, heat waves43,

tornados, ice storm44, cyclonic storm, ice age45 and blizzard46.

(iv) A Biosperical disaster includes epidemic47 and famine48.

Categorisation of Disasters by Government of India

Due to the increasing frequency of natural disasters and their severe impact on the

individuals, society, economy and environment Government of India (here in after referred

as GOI) constituted, in August 1999 a High Power Committee (here in after referred as

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HPC) has classified disasters as(i) water and climate related49,(ii) geological related50,

(iii)chemical, industrial and nuclear related51,(iv) accident related52 and (v)biologically

related disasters53.

The committee has not explained the details of its classification in its report. There

are differences between classification and explanation of disasters by UN’s and GOI.

The HPC classified disasters according to the geographical and geo climatic condition

ie the disasters which are frequently and severely affected in India. They did not include

the disasters which are hardly affected in the country. For example HPC did not include

tsunami as a disaster in its water and climate related disasters.

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Natural Disasters - An Overview

Earthquake

An earthquake is a sudden shift or movement in the tectonic plate in the earth crust.

It is considered to be one of the most dangerous and destructive natural hazard. The

impact of the earthquake is sudden with little or no warning and making it just impossible

to predict54. These are the result of internal activities like faulting, folding and volcanic

eruption. The earthquakes are capable of causing secondary effects like fire, floods,

landslides, tsunami etc55 (See Appendix - 1).

Tsunami

The word ‘tsunami comes from the Japanese term ‘tsu’ means harbor and ‘nami’

means wave. The general cause of tsunami is due to geological movements. It can be

caused of three reasons. The most common is fault movement on the seafloor

accompanied by an earthquake. The second reason for it may be the landslide either

occurring underwater or originating above the sea and then plunging into the water. The

third common cause is due to volcanic activity56.

It have the potential to strip beaches, uproot plantation inundate large inland tracts

and extensively damage to life and property in coastal areas. The 2004 tsunami generated

in Indian Ocean marks the dead list in recorded history57 (See Appendix - 8).

Landslides/ Avalanches

Landslide is another disaster that causes immense loss in the hilly terrain of a

country. It represents the down-slopes movement of the earth materials such as soil,

rocks, debris etc under the dominant influence of gravity58. They often take place in

conjunction with earthquakes, flood, volcanoes, and soil saturation from rainfall or

seepage or human activities such as vegetation removal, construction of roads,

deforestation etc. mudslides and mudflows are special features of landslides59. Fast

moving flows or mud and rock called debris flows or mudslides are among the most

numerous and dangerous types of landslides60. Prolonged rainfalls can also cause

landslides61 (See Appendix - 2).

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The sliding down of snow cover on mountain causes avalanches62. It can be mixed

up with ice, rock, soil etc. it may occur due to the combination of factors like slope of

mountain, depth of snow cover, wind velocity and atmospheric temperature. When the

balance between gravitational force of snow cover and the resisting force of the slope

and the anchoring effect of the shrubs are lost avalanches are caused63.

Tropical Cyclones

A cyclone is a vast, violent whirl in the atmosphere which moves from the high

seas towards the coastal area. Its occurrence is confined to define regions of the earth

usually in the tropical portion of the ocean. The havoc caused by cyclone is mostly due

to strong winds, accompanied by torrential rains, tidal waves etc64.

Cyclones are created by intense low pressure in the atmosphere, due to which wind

blows with a very high speed in circular motion. The term ‘cyclone’ denotes all tropical

storms. It is known as ‘hurricane’ in the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific, ‘typhoon’ in the

Western Pacific, ‘wily-wily’ in the Australia and ‘bagius’ in the Philippines. The impacts

of these cyclones are confining to the coastal districts. Most casualties are cause due to

coastal inundation by tidal waves, storm surges and torrential rains65.

Cyclones are purely nature- generated phenomena and humans cannot control their

occurrence. But the indiscriminate destruction of mangroves in coastal areas on large scale

has made a large portion of coastal habited are exposed to cyclone damages. The secondary

effects of cyclones are landslides due to raining and flooding66 (See Appendix - 3).

Flood

Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on coast that leads to

inundation of land which is not usually submerged. Floods are also cause from unfavorable

combinations of meteorological and physical conditions of the drainage basins, which

leads to excessive water run-off and consequent relative reduction in carrying capacity of

channel leading to bank full conditions. They can be caused by many different sets of

conditions like prolonged or very heavy rainfall, severe thunder storms, monsoon rain or

tropical cyclones. Other common cause includes rapid melting of large amounts of snow,

bursting of dams or storm surges involving rapid sea water flooding67 (See Appendix - 4).

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Drought

Drought refers to a situation where rainfall fails in general and the ground water

losses its potentiality, affecting the biotic life adversely. The meteorological department

of India defines “drought as a prolonged, abnormally dry period when there is not enough

water for normal needs. It is a long lasting weather pattern consisting od dry conditions

with food and water supplies can run low, and other conditions, such as famine can result”

(See Appendix - 5).

There are three types of drought. It can be categorized depending on meteorological,

hydrological and agricultural aspects. In meteorological drought the actual rainfall is

significantly less than the climatologically expected rainfall. In hydrological drought

the surface water of rivers, streams, lakes and reservoirs are drying up. The hydrological

drought occurs when meteorological drought is sufficient prolonged. The agricultural

drought occurs when soil losses their effective moisture conserving capacity through a

complex diverse processes and consequently leads to land iridizations.

Figure 2:4

Important Natural Disasters

Earthquake

Flood

Tsunami

Natural Disaster Landslides

Cyclones

Drought

Elements of Disasters

A disaster is the product of hazard (earthquake, windstorm or flood) coinciding

with a vulnerable situations like communities, cities or village. Without vulnerability or

hazard there is no disaster. That means a disaster occur when hazards and vulnerability

meets together68.

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Figure 2:5

Elements of Disasters

Hazard Disaster Vulnerability

Hazard

The term’hazard’ is defined as a phenomenon that pose a threat to people, structure,

environmental resources and economic assets, which may cause a disaster. They could

be either manmade or naturally occurring. They can be grouped in the nature of origin

are

(i) Natural hazard (hazards with meteorological, geological or even biological origin)

(ii) Un-natural hazards (hazards with human-caused or technological origin)

A potential damaging of physical event, phenomena or human activity that may

cause loss or injury to life, property damage, social and economic disruption or

environmental degradation. Hazard can include latent conditions that may represent future

threat and can have different origins i.e. by natural (geological, hydro meteorological

and biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and

technological hazard)69.

Hazards usually do not pose any threat to person’s o property. It become a disaster

when something is exposed to it and damaged, such as people and building ie if a hazard

(natural and manmade) occurring in a deserted area it would be only considered as hazard,

but if it occurred in a populated city then it would be recognized as a major disaster70.

Hazards and disasters are closely related. A hazard is a natural event while the disaster

is its consequences or disaster is the realization of the hazard. It can be single, sequential

or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location,

intensity, frequency and probability71.

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Figure 2:6

Classification of Hazards

Natural

Hazard

Unnatural

Vulnerability

The term ‘vulnerability’ means the extent to which community, structure, services

or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard

on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster

prone area72.

The vulnerability is defined as the condition determined by physical, social,

economic and environmental factors or processes which increases the susceptibility of

a community to the impact of hazards73.

Vulnerability can be divided into physical, economic and social. Physical

vulnerability includes notion of whom and what may be damaged or destroyed by natural

phenomena based on the physical conditions of people and element at risk, building,

infrastructures and their proximity to the hazard. Physical vulnerability also relates to

the technical capability of buildings and structure to resist the forces acting upon them

during a hazardous event. The degree to which a population is affected by a hazard will

not merely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but also in prevailing socio-

economic conditions. Economic vulnerability is determined by evaluating the direct

loss potential of economic assets (damage or destruction of buildings, plants, loss of

employment etc) and indirect loss of economic asset (impact of loss of production,

loss of employment etc). Any complete assessment of economic vulnerability must be

linked to the studies of physical and social vulnerability. Social vulnerability is determined

by the perception of risk and the ability of people to take measures to reduce the risk.

Social vulnerability is more difficult to measure than physical or economic vulnerability74.

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FigureNo: 2.7

Types of Vulnerability

Physical

Vulnerability Social

Economic

Risk

Risk is defined as the probability of harmful consequences or expected losses like

death, inuries, property, livelihood, disruption of economic activity or environmental

damages resulting from interaction between natural or humn induced hazards and

vulnerable conditions. Thus risks depend on the nature and intensity of hazards on one

hand and the vulnerability of the community on the other. Conventionally risk is expressed

by the notion as Risk= Hazard X Vulnerability. Disaster risk can somehow defused by

three methods. They are by

(i) Disaster Risk Management,

(ii) Disaster Risk Reduction and

(iii) Disaster Risk Assessment

Risk Management

The disaster risk can be managed through a systematic process of using

administrative decisions, organizations, operational skills and capacities to implement

policies, strategies and coping capacity of the society and communities to lessen the

impacts of hazards and related environmental and technological disasters75.

Risk Reduction

Risk reduction is a conceptual framework of elements considered with the

possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and risk throughout a society to avoid (prevent)

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26

or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impact of hazard within the broad

context of sustainable development. Risk reduction composed of the following

• Risk awareness and assessment including hazard analysis and vulnerability/ capacity

analysis.

• Knowledge development including education, training, research and information.

• Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organizational, policy,

legislation and community action.

• Application of measures including environmental management, land use and urban

planning.

• Early warning system including forecasting, dissemination of warning, preparedness

measures and reaction capacities76.

Risk Assessment/Analysis

Risk is an integral part of life. So it cannot be completely eliminated. The only

option is to manage it. The management consists of risk assessment. They are as follows:

(i) Identification (identify what risk are possible)

(ii) Estimation (probability of occurrence and estimation of possible damage) and

(iii) Evaluation (weighting the decision of mitigation efforts)77.

Risk assessment determines the nature and extent of risk by analyzing potential

hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential

threat or harm to people, property, livelihoods and the environment on which they

depend78.

The common elements of both natural and human induced disasters are injury,

loss of life, damage to property, livelihood and environment. The risk elements are

different in different types of disasters. Some of them are given below.

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Table No: 2.2

Risk Elements in Certain Disasters

Sl No: Hazards Risk Elements

1 Flood Everything that located near the flood plain, crops,

livestock, people, infrastructure etc

2 Earthquake Weak buildings, people, infrastructure etc

3 Cyclone/Tsunami Anything that is close to coastal areas, including crops,

live stock, people, infrastructure etc

4 Landslide Anything located on or at base of steep, slopes or cliff

tops and building on shallow foundation, infrastructure

etc

5 Drought Life and health of the people who involved in the

drought prone areas, livestock, crops etc

6 Human induced Huge number of human loss, livelihood, infrastructure

disasters(industrial

disasters, terrorisms,

war etc)

Source: R.B Singh, Natural Hazards and Disaster Management at p.56

Disaster Management from Relief to Mitigation - Towards a Cultura ofDisaster Preparedness

Human vulnerability to disaster is age old phenomenon. Hitherto the approach

towards coping with the effects of disaster has been post disaster management ie after

the initial trauma of the occurrence of the disaster is over the phase of reconstruction

and rehabilitation is taken place (this phase includes evacuation, search and rescue, and

provision of relief and shelter ). There after the occurrence of disaster is relegated to

historic memory till the next one occurs in the same area or in the same part of the

country. But after the increasing awareness, consequences of disasters and its raising

issues brought the question of disaster management into forefront79.

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Traditionally the response to disaster has been reactive with disbursement of relief

in the post disaster period. There was no attention to pre–disaster preparedness and

mitigation activities. Soon there was a realization that there is a great need for disaster

mitigation activities, which can reduce the devasting effects of a disaster80. It is a fact

that rehabilitation and reconstruction after the disaster is too costly. Thus there is a

paradigm shift in thinking about disaster management from reduction to pre- action.

In general disaster management is the continuous process by which all individuals,

groups and communities manage disaster in an effort to avoid or ameliorate the impact

of disasters resulting from the hazards81.Disaster management involves plans, structure

and arrangements established to engage the normal endeavors of government, voluntary

and private agencies in a comprehensive and coordinated way to respond to the whole

spectrum of emergency needs82.

Disaster management as a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing,

coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for83

(i) Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster or its severity or consequences

(ii) Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or

consequences

(iii) Capacity building

(iv) Preparedness to deal with any disaster

(v) Prompt response to any threatening disaster reduction or disaster

(vi) Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster

(vii) Evacuation, rescue and relief

(viii) Rehabilitation and reconstruction

Rajendra Babu J in his concurrent judgment stated that

“…disaster management means all aspects of planning, coordinating and

implementing all measures which are necessary or desirable to prevent, minimize,

overcome or to stop the spread of a disaster upon the people or any property and includes

all stages of rescue and immediate relief”84.

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Disaster management refers to the process of managing disasters, including the

development of system to mitigate against and prevent disasters, responding to disasters

when they occur, proving relief to communities affected by disasters, and assisting in

the rehabilitation of communities affected by disasters i.e. the fundamental aspects of

disaster management programme includes

(i) Disaster Prevention

(ii) Disaster Preparedness

(iii) Disaster Response

(iv) Disaster Mitigation

(v) Rehabilitation

(vi) Reconstruction

Disaster Prevention

Disaster prevention involves the outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards

and related environmental and technological disasters. The culture of prevention should

be installed in all communities and this can somehow reduce the impact of disasters.

Early warning and conscious developmental programme is the key elements of preventive

planning. The hazards both natural and human induced are inevitable, but the disasters

that follow can be handed effectively through adequate preventive measures.

Disaster Preparedness

Disaster preparedness refers to the measures taken to prepare for and reduce the

effects of disasters. That is to predict and where possible to prevent them, mitigate their

impact on vulnerable populations and respond to and effectively cope with their

consequences85.

Disaster preparedness encompasses those measures taken before a disaster event

which aimed at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services etc. Its objects is

to ensure that in times of disasters appropriate systems, procedures and resources are in

place to assist those afflicted by the disaster and enable them to help themselves. The

30

aim of disaster preparedness is to minimize the adverse effects of a hazard through

effective precautionary actions86.

The United Nations Disaster Relief Office (here in after referred as UNDRO)

defines disaster preparedness “as a series of measures designed to organize and facilitate

timely and effectively rescue, relief and rehabilitation operations in case of disasters. A

measure of preparedness includes setting up of disaster relief, machinery, formulation

of emergency relief plans, training of specific groups ie vulnerable groups to understand

rescue and relief etc”87.

Disaster preparedness means “state of redines to deal with a threatening disaster

situation or disaster and the effect of”88.

Preparedness involves structural and non –structural activities. Structural activities

include preparation for the imminent arrival of a hazardous event eh to mitigate flood

and storm shutters and sandbagging. Non- structural activities involve taking steps to

minimize damage to personal property and to minimize harm to individual e.g.

recommendations to evacuate people from a disaster prone area and this will lessen the

chance of harm to individuals89

Common preparedness includes

• Communication plans with easily understandable terminology and methods

• Proper maintenance and training of emergency services including community

emergency response teams

• Development and exercise of emergency population warning90.

Components of Disaster Preparedness

The components of disaster preparedness includes

(i) Vulnerability Assessment

(ii) Planning and

(iii) Early Warning System.

31

Vulnerability Assessment

Vulnerability assessment means assessing vulnerability of a particular geographic

region or community which is susceptible to the impacts of disaster .Then it should be

informed to the inhabitants of that particular region about the proness of vulnerability

and this helps to reduce the impact of disasters91.

All planning and implementation of disaster preparedness should be based on an

assessment and prioritization of the hazard and risk that people faces, as well as their

ability and inability to cope with and withstand the effects of those hazards. This assessment

includes

Identify the characteristic, frequency and potential severity of the hazards that which

a community faces

Identify the particular geographical areas and communities that are most susceptible

and vulnerable to those hazards

Identify the main sectors of as community (population, infrastructure, housing,

services etc) that would be affected by a specific type of hazard and anticipate how

they might be affected

Assess the ability of sectors to withstand and cope with the effects of hazardous

phenomenon92.

Planning

Throughout all activities to promote disaster preparedness, the ultimate objective

is to have plans which are implementable and for which commitments and resources are

relatively assured. Planning for disaster management should be done during the pre-

disaster and post- disaster periods93.

Early Warning System

Early warning is considered as key to disaster management because it can reduce

the risk of a hazard94. It is the process of monitoring situation in communities or areas

known to be vulnerable to hazard. The purpose of early warning system is to detect,

32

forecast and issue alerts related to impending hazard events. The object of the early

warning system is to give timely and effective information through identified situations

that allows the individuals exposed to a hazard to take action to avoid or reduce their risk

and prepare for effective response95.

Disaster Response / Relief

Disaster response is the sum total of action taken by people and institutions in the

face of disaster. These actions commence with the warning of an out coming threatening

event or with the event itself if it occurs without warning. It means assistance or intervention

during or immediate after a disaster to meet the life preservation and basic subsistence

needs of those people affected. It can be an immediate, short- term or protracted

duration96.

Response activities occur during or after immediately after the disaster and it

includes time sensitive activities such as search and rescue operations, evacuation,

emergency medical care, food and shelter etc. response activities are designed to meet

the urgent needs of the disaster victims97.

During the response period the following activities may need urgent attention. They

are as follows98:

Restoration of utility services

Rescue and debris clearance work

Care of the inured and the sick

Information on the missing

Provision for food, clothing, medical supplies, transportation etc

Establishment of emergency operation centres for the proper coordination

of the activities of the different services

Identification and disposal of the dead

Proper sanitation of the surroundings to avoid epidemics

Giving solutions to the housing problems of the homeless victims etc.

33

It is easy to reduce the disastrous effects through proper response measure. It

helps to avoid the second happens of disaster. For e.g. During post disaster period effective

response measure could help to avoid the collapse of the building, restoration of utility

services, construction of temporary bridges etc.

Disaster Mitigation

Mitigation simply means lessening the impact of hazard. It refers to the efforts for

reducing the actual or probable effects of a disaster on people, structure, economic and

social system and the environment. Before embarking on any specific mitigation

measures, it is essential to have a proper understanding of the risk and vulnerability of

that particular community99.

Mitigation means structural and non- structural measures undertaken to limit the

adverse impact of hazards, environmental degradation and technological hazard100.

Mitigation means measures aimed at reducing the risk, impact or effect of a

threatening disaster situation101.

The aim of mitigation strategy is to reduce the losses in the event of a future

occurrence of a hazard. The primary aim is to reduce the risk of the death and injury to

the population. Secondary aim includes reducing damage and economic losses inflicted

on the community as a whole. The object of the mitigation strategy is to include

encouragement for people to protect themselves as far as possible.

Mitigation measures can be structural and non- structural. Structural measures

includes use of technological solution like flood levees. A non- structural measure

includes legislation, land use planning, government policy etc. Mitigation is the most

cost efficient method for reducing the impact of hazard102.

The main elements of mitigation strategy are risk assessment and vulnerability

analysis, public awareness and training, hazard resistant design and construction and

structural reinforcement of existing buildings103.

34

Recovery

The recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its previous state. It differs

from the response phase. Recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that

must be made after immediate needs are addressed104.

Recovery as the decision and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring

or improving the pre- disaster living conditions of the stricken community, while

encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risk105.

Rehabilitation and reconstruction comprise most of the recovery phase. This period

following the emergency phase, focuses on activities that enable victims to resume

normal, viable lives and means of livelihood106.

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation is the operation and decision taken after a disaster with a view to

restoring a stricken community to its former living conditions while encouraging and

facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by the disaster107.

Rehabilitation is the action taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic

services to resume functioning, assist victims self help efforts to repair dwellings and

community facilities and facilitate the revival of economic activities108. Rehabilitation

simply means settling people back to their normal life as far as possible through well

laid out plan109.

Reconstruction

Reconstruction means the action taken to re-establish a community after a period

of rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. This would include construction of permanent

houses, full restoration of all services and complete resumption of pre-disaster state110.

Reconstruction is an emergency management action that begins after a disaster.

These actions are designed to put the community back together. It is the permanent

construction or replacement of severely damaged physical structures, the full restoration

35

of all services and local infrastructure and the revitalization of the economy.Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing long term development plans, takingaccount of future disaster risk. It must also consider the possibilities of reducing thoserisks by the incorporation of appropriate mitigation measures. Damaged structures andservices may not necessarily be restored from their previous form or location; it mayinclude the replacement of any temporary arrangements established as a part of theemergency response or rehabilitation.

As per the DMA, 2005 reconstruction means “a construction or restoration of any

property after a disaster”.111

Figure No : 2.8

Components of Disaster Management

Disaster Management

Mitigation Response

Search & Rescue

Risk Analysis Prevention Preparedness Humanitarian assistance

Hazard Assessment Structural Measures Warning Evacuation Rehabilitation

VulnerabilityAssessment Reconstruction

Risk Assessment Non-Structural Planning of Disaster

Measures Response

Source:Ravindra Beshmukh, Lewlyn L.R Rodriguez and G.R Krishnamurthy,

“Earthquake Risk and Knowledge Management” 9Journal of Knowledge Management

2 (2008).

36

Phases of Disaster Management

The disaster management corresponds to two phases in disaster cycle. They are

pre- disaster and post- disaster period.

Figure No. 2.9

Phases of Disaster Management

Pre-Disaster Period

Pre- disaster planning is the process of preparing in advance to meet future disaster.

Thus the effect of disaster can be minimized. Activities taken to reduce human and

property losses can be minimized by pre- disaster preparedness. This includes long term

preventive measures like construction of embankments, irrigation facilities, technological

advancements etc. The crisis can also mitigate through various short term measures,

which either reduce or modify the scale and intensity of the threat or improve the durability

and capacity of the element at risk112.

In this period the potential hazard, risk and vulnerability can be assessed and steps

can be taken for prevention and mitigation of crisis and thus could prevent its future

occurrence113.

37

Figure No: 2.10

Pre- Disaster Management

Risk Analysis Hazard Assessment

Vulnerability Assessment

Capacity Assessment

Mitigation Prevention Structural Measures

(Pre-Disaster)

Phase Non- Structural Measures

Human Measures

Preparedness Warning & Evacuation

Planning Disaster Response

Source: Ravindra Beshmukh, Lewlyn L.R Rodriguez and G.R Krishnamurthy,

“Earthquake Risk and Knowledge Management” 9Journal of Knowledge Management

2 (2008).

Post- Disaster Period

Activities taken under this stage are called ‘emergency response activities’ or

‘response and recovery activities’. When crisis occurs those affected by it requires a

speedy response to alleviate and minimize suffering and losses. During this period the

primary activities become indispensible and include evacuation, search and rescue

followed by provision of basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing, medicines and other

necessities which are essential to bring the life of the affected community back to a

→→

→

→ → →

→

→

→→

→

→

→

→

38

degree of normality. Humanitarian assistance may play a pivotal role in post- disaster

period114.

Figure 2:11

Post- Disaster Period

Debris Removal

Search & Rescue

Security

Response Humanitarian Assistance Material Aid

Food & Shelter

Health Care

Accommodation

Rehabilitation Counseling

Compensation

Livelihood

Relocation & Reconstruction

Source: Ravindra Beshmukh, Lewlyn L.R Rodriguez and G.R Krishnamurthy,

“Earthquake Risk and Knowledge Management” 9Journal of Knowledge Management

2 (2008)

→

→

→

→

→

→

→

→ →

→

→

→

→

→

→

→

→

39

Challenges Posed by Disasters

The disaster can cause sudden disruption to the normal life of a society. It is a

proven fact that disasters can happen in any time at place irrespective of the developed

and developing nature of a country. But the least developed and developing countries are

impacted more severely by large scale of disasters. The frequent repetition of disaster

means a constant pressure on the economic condition of the population.

Disasters have severe impact on all sections of the society especially the vulnerable

groups of the society. The lack of recourses and basic necessities expose them to adverse

effects.

The impact of disasters in terms of human and economic losses has risen in recent

years, (see Appendix-6) and society in general has become vulnerable to disasters (both

natural and man- made). Disasters affect areas with different levels of vulnerability and

with distinct social, health and economic conditions, even though there are similarities

between them. Whether disasters are natural or man-made but their effects in a country

can be detected for months or sometimes even years.

Impacts of Disasters at Glance

Loss of life

Loss of personal life, health, injury and diseases

Destruction and damage of property

Destruction of environment

Disruption in basic amenities i.e. food, shelter, clothing etc

Disruption in communicative facilities

Loss of national and local economies

Even though, the impact of disasters is somehow similar in natural and manmade

disasters. Natural disasters have the extent of destructing the entire population and other

resources, while man-made disasters do result in irreparable damages for leaving its

hazardous effect even for the future generation. For e.g. the atomic attack in Hiroshima

40

and Nagasaki and Bhopal are manmade disasters. It reaps poisonous seeds to the maximum

extent that the children born to the inhabitants are becoming the victims of physical as

well as mental disabilities.

Factors Responsible for Increasing Number of Disasters

Today the world witnesses a large number of disasters of different gravity and

amplitude. Vulnerability to disasters is a function of human action and behavior. Though

disasters do not respect national boundaries a.But their impact on the developing countries

are more deleterious. It is due to less resources and technological support compared to

developed countries.

The impact of natural disasters in terms of human losses has risen in recent years

in developing countries ie

….the mean annual death toll due to hazards declined by 75% or more in developed

countries like Japan and United States of America during the 1960’s through the 1980’s,

but increased by over 400% n developing countries like India and Kenya over the same

period…115

Poverty

One of the major challenges for humanity in this centuary is the even expanding

human population and it indirectly leads to poverty. Across the broad spectrum of disasters

poverty generally makes people vulnerable to the impact of disasters116. Their decision

to occupy disaster prone settlements is influenced by the lack of alternative opportunities,

their need to gain access to employment etc. Migration and concentration of people in a

particular area leads to rapid urbanization .An impoverished people who lack education,

economic and political background clout to cope with the hazards of their surroundings.

At least make them aware about the community disaster preparedness and early warnings

of disaster.

Ungoverned Population Growth

There is a close correlation between the trends of increased population growth and

environmental degradation in developing and least developed countries. This leads to

41

huge vulnerability to disasters. Environmental degradation increases the intensity of

natural disasters Rapid rise in Population leads to settlements in hazardous areas

susceptible to disasters. Human beings competition for scarce resources, unplanned

development plans etc tends to increase the vulnerability of the nation to a disaster.

Vulnerability to disaster increases when a nation’s capacity to govern does not consider

the impact and trends in population growth in potentially hazardous areas. Rapid

urbanization results rapid rise in population also increase disaster vulnerability. It is the

developing countries suffer more than developed countries because when disasters

strikes the development funds are diverted to emergency situations. Additional aid is

directed to relief and reconstruction; need to get the country back on track towards

economic and social development117.

Environmental Degradation

Major causes for natural disasters are caused or exacerbate by environmental

degradation. Deforestation leads to rapid rain runoff, which contribute to flooding. The

climate change also leads o increase the natural disasters. Because the rising of sea level

due to climate change exacerbate the situation in small islands and low lying coastal

areas. The destruction of mangrove swamps decreases the coastal ability to resist tropical

winds and strom surges. Deforestation in hilly areas leads to landslide disasters.

In common, the rapid rise in population and unplanned development leads to

environmental degradation. This exacerbates the hazards into disaster because people

are pushed to live in cheaply as possible on dangerous, marginal sites and inadequately

build houses. This experience and concentration of human habitation in the form of

cities brings with it a multitude of new environmental, social and economic challenges.

Thus the process of urbanization is closely linked to the industrialization process. Both

rapid urbanization and poverty perpetuate the vulnerability of human settlements in

developing countries, leading to a number of serious negative aspects. The level of

urbanization is increasing on a very high rate. This trend is particularly pronounced in the

developing countries because of the unplanned urbanization and poor people have to

suffer more. The environmental degradation impoverishes the people it touches and

forces large scale migrations. Environmental related migration is expected to escalate

42

due to climate change. The direct victims of environmental damage are always the poor.

Eventhough poor people bear the burden of environmental damage they are seldom the

principal creator of the damage118.

Humanbeings attitude toward their society also changed. Obviously all society is

in a continual state of transition and change. The tendency of people to shift their life

style from non urbanized area to urbanize area is also a factor. The new construction

materials and buildings design in a society that is accustomed to traditional design and

material being used incorrectly. In disaster prone areas inadequate use of new construction

techniques contribute to houses unable to withstand earthquake or cyclones.

Conclusion

Disasters long have been considered a tragic interruption to the developmental

process. Lives are lost, social network are disrupted and capital investment are destroyed.

Hardly a day passes with news about a major emergencies happening in some part of the

world. Disasters are inevitable phenomena. There is no readymade method or solution

to non happening of disasters.

The disasters adversely affect the development of a country. It is the developing

countries suffer more than developed countries because when disaster strikes the

development funds are diverted to the emergency situations. Additional aid is directed

to relief and reconstruction, needs to get the country back on track towards economic

and social development.

In the past the developed countries too have to suffer from severe disasters. But

through an integrated approach to disaster mitigation and regional planning with

community participation, these countries have been able to reduce the impact of disasters

to a great extent. Likewise the developing countries can also mitigate disasters through

proper planning, preparedness, accurate early warning system, awareness programme

etc.

The role of United Nation in disaster management is commendable. Traditionally

they focus o manmade disasters like war, conflicts etc. but with the increasing frequency

and severity of disasters in 1987 the international community recognize the importance

43

of disaster management by United Nations General Assembly resolution on International

Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The next chapter deals with the role of

international community in combating natural disasters.

End Notes

1 Pradeep Sahni, Madhavi Malalogoda Ariyabandu, “Introduction” in Pradeep Sahani and

Madhavi Malalogoda (Ed) Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia 1 (Prentice Hall of

India Ltd, 2003) .

2 Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the resilience of Nation and

Communities to Disaster www.unidr.org accessed on 9th February 2009 at 8 am.

3 Gyana Chandrakar, “Natural Disaster and its Management”, http://www.un.org.in/media/

natural disaster accessed on 8th January 2009 at 8 pm.

4 See St. Mathew in Chapter 24:3-12 of Holy Bible.

5 Lisa P. Lukose, “Introduction” in Vishnu kanoorayar and Jaya V.S (Ed) Disaster

Management and Law 1 (1st published in 2006).

6 World Book Dictionary,596(Scott Fetzer Company,2003) and Webster’s Third New

International Dictionary 643(1st ed.,1909).

7 P.C Sinha, Introduction to Disaster Management 17 (1st ed.,1998).

8 Ibid at 19.

9 Parasuraman and Unni Krishnan P.V “Disaster Response in India” in Parasuraman and

Unni Krishnan (Ed) India Disasters Report 4 (Oxford University Press., 2000).

10 Webster’s Encyclopedia Unabridged Dictionary of English language 409 (Random

House Publication, 1994), the United Nations(here in after referred as UN) defines disaster

as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread

human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected

community or society to cope using its own resources see www.un.org/defenition-disaster

accessed on 24th December 2008 at 10 pm and World Health organization (here in after

referred as WHO) defines disaster as ‘any occurrence that cause damage , economic

disruption, loss of human life and devastation in health and health services on a scale,

44

sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside and the affected community

or area. see www.wpro.who.it/health_topics/disaster accessed on 25th December 2008

at 11pm United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction definition on disaster

as a function of the risk process. It results from the combination of hazards, condition of

vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative

consequences of risk

11 See Sec 2(d) of Disaster Management Act, 2005.

12 Supra 4 at 3.

13 Supra 5.

14 Supra 4.

15 Ibid.

16 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency accessed on 05th July 2008 at 03 pm.

17 Ibid.

18 Alton L. Thygerson, Accident and Disasters, 6 (Prentice Hall New Jersey, 1997).

19 The loss of a sole income earner of a family in a car crash may be a disaster to a family but

only an accident to the community.

20 An air crash is unquestionably harsh and expensive, but the number of victims relatively

undersized. Hence it is not a disaster although a big accident.

21 Supra 2 at 6.

22 Ibid.

23 Oxford Dictionary, 116 (1st Published , 1999).

24 Crisis Management- Second Reforms Commission Third Report, http://arc.gov.in/3rd

report.pdf accessed on Sep 2008 at 4 pm.

25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/crisis accessed on 05th July 2008 at 3.15 pm.

26 Frances Kennott,The Greatest Disasters of the 20th Centaury ,7(Cavendish Publications,

1975).

45

27 John Caning, Great Disasters, 9 (Octopus Books, 1976).

28 A natural disaster is a natural event with catastrophic consequences for living things in the

vicinity. It is defined as a violent, sudden and destructive change in the environment, not

caused by human activity, but due to natural phenomena. Such as floods, earthquakes,

tsunami etc see Aminul Kawser Khan, “Management of Natural Disaster” in H.N Srivastava

and G.D Gupta (Ed) Management of Natural Disasters in Developing Countries ,10

(Daya Publishing House, 2006).

29 Satish Modh, Citizen’s Guide to Disaster Management, 7(1st ed.,2006).

30 Hydro-meteorological disasters are natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric,

hydrological or oceanographic nature. thee includes floods, windstorm, landslides etc.

31 Geophysical disasters are natural earth processes or phenomena. Earthquake, tsunami

and volcanic eruption are disasters of this kind.

32 Biological disasters involve process of organic origin or those conveyed by biological

vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro organisms, toxic and bioactive substances.

E.g. epidemics and insect infestations.

33 Supra 4 at 9.

34 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/natural_hazards accessed on 26th Jan 2009 at 3 pm.

35 A wild fire is an uncontrolled fire burning in wild land areas. Common cause of this is due

to lightning and drought. But this can also be caused due to human negligence or arson.

36 Lehar is closely related to volcanic eruption and involves a large amount of materials including

mud, rock and ash sliding down the side of the volcano. This can kill thousands of people

and destroy the entire town within seconds.

37 It is a localized depression in the surface topography, usually caused by the collapse of the

subterranean structure, such as a cave. Although rare large sinkholes that develop suddenly

in the populated area can lead to the collapse of the building and other structure.

38 It is also called ‘Lake Overturn’. In this rare type of natural disasters CO2 suddenly erupts

from deep lake water posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, livestock and humans. Such

an eruption may also cause tsunami in the lake as CO2 displaces water.

46

39 It is a swirling body of water usually produced by ocean tides.

40 It is as large tidal whirlpool.

41 It is a standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water. It can be observed

on lakes, reservoirs, bays and seas.

42 Thunder storm produces hail storm and it can cause damage to the location in which they

fall. They can be especially devastating to farm fields, running corps etc.

43 It is a hazard characterized by heat. It requires specific combinations of weather events to

take place.

44 An ice storm is a particular weather event in which precipitation falls as ice due to

atmospheric conditions.

45 The climate all over the word would change and places which are too cold to permanently

inhabit. The side effects of this be the famine due to worldwide drought.

46 It is a severe winter storm condition characterized by low temperature, strong wind and

heavy blowing snow.

47 An epidemic is an outbreak of a contractible disease that spread at a rapid rate through

human population.

48 It is a social and economic crisis accompanied by widespread malnutrition, starvations,

epidemic etc.

49 Water and climate related disasters includes flood and drainage management, cyclone,

tornados and hurricane, hailstorm, cloudburst, heat waves and cold waves, snow avalanches,

drought, sea erosion, thunder and lightning.

50 Geologically related disasters are earthquake, landslides and mud flows, dam failure or

dam burst and mine fires.

51 Chemical, industrial and nuclear related disasters includes chemical and industrial disasters

and nuclear disasters.

52 Accident related disasters includes forest fires, urban fires, mine flooding ,oil spill , major

building collapse, serial bomb blasts, festival disaster and fires, electrical disaster and fires,

air, road and rail accidents, boat capsizing and village fires.

47

53 Biologically related disasters identified as biological disasters and epidemics, pest attacks,

cattle epidemics and food poisoning.

54 Anil Sinha, Disaster Management: Lessons Drawn and Strategies for Future 19 (1st

ed., 2001).

55 R.B Singh, Natural Hazards and Disaster Management 15 (1st ed.,2006).

56 S.Prasad, Natural Disaster Management 10(1st Published, 2007).

57 Supra 54 at18.

58 Ibid.

59 Jaya V.S, “Disaster: A Challenge to Human Security” in Vishnu Kanoorayar and Jaya V.S

(Ed) Disaster Management and Law 26(1st ed.,2006).

60 http://geohazards.cr.usgs.gov/facts sheet/htm/fils/debrisflow/fs/76-97.html accessed

on 05th May 2008 at 3pm.

61 Supra 27 at 64.

62 Supra 58 at 64.

63 Ibid.

64 Supra4 at 202.

65 G.S Mandal,”Tropical Cyclones and their Forecasting and Warning System in India” in

Pradeep Sahni, Alka Dhameji and Uma Medury (Ed) Disaster Management Mitigation

Experience and Reflection 171 (Prentice Hall (PVT)Ltd 2001).

66 T.V.S.R Appa Rao,” R & D for Cyclone Disaster Mitigation “in H.N Srivastava and

Gupta(Ed) Management of Natural Disasters in Developing Countries 51(Daya

Publications, 2006).

67 Supra 33 at 12.

68 S.L Goel, Disaster Administration and Management 6 (Deep and Deep Publication

(PVT) Ltd 2007).

48

69 Supra 54 at 7.

70 Supra 14.

71 http://www.unisdr.org/eng/risk-reduction/sustainable-development/cca-undaf

accessed on 03rd Feb 2009 at 3pm.

72 Supra 67 at 42.

73 Ibid at 45.

74 Disaster Risk Management Programme, UNDP and Department of Revenue, Government

of Kerala on 17th March 2008.

75 Supra 5 at 25.

76 S.L Goel and R.Kumar, “Issues in Disaster Management” in S.L Goel and Ram

Kumar(Ed)Disaster Management 3(Deep and Deep Publications, 2001).

77 Ibid at 13.

78 Ibid.

79 Vinod.K Sharma, “Managing Disasters in the New Millennium” in Pradeep Sahni, Alka

Dhameja and Uma Medury in (Ed) Disaster Mitigation Experience and Reflection 16

(Prentice Hall (P)Ltd, 2001).

80 See International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.

81 Sanjai Bhatia, “Disaster Management and PRIs” 50 Yojana 55-57 (2006).

82 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/disaster_management accessed on 10th July 2008 at 10pm.

83 Section 2(e) of Disaster Management Act, 2005.

84 N.D Jayal v. UOI 9 SCC 2004 p.393.

85 Introduction to Disaster Preparedness, International Federation of Red Cross and Red

Crescent Societies Disaster Preparedness Training programme, www.introdp.doc accessed

on 5th may 2008 at 4 pm.

86 Arun Kumar, Global Disaster Management 35 (1st Published, 2008).

49

87 www.un.org/undro/disaster_preparedness/definition accessed on 7th Oct 2009 at 7pm.

88 Sec 2(m) of DMA, 2005.

89 Supra 14.

90 Praddeep Sahni and Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandu, “introduction” in Pradeep Sahni

and Madavi Malagoda Ariabandu (Ed) Diaster Risk Reduction in South Asia 22 (Prentice

Hall (PVT)Ltd, 2003).

91 Faizal Moin, “Disasters and Development” in Pradeep Sahni, Alka Dhameji and Uma

Medury (Ed) Disaster Management and Experience and Reflection 24 (Prentice Hall

(PVT) Ltd, 2000).

92 Supra 55 at 160.

93 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vesuvius/planning.htm/ accessed o 25th Sep 2008 at

3.30pm.

94 Supra 14.

95 Supra 53 at 45.

96 Supra 5 at 15.

97 http://e.wikipedia.org/wiki/disaaster_management/response_2htm accessed on 25th

Aug 2009 at 11pm.

98 Supra 35 at 14.

99 W.B.J Fernando, “Disaster Management” in Pradeep Sahni, Alka Dhameja and Uma

Medury (Ed) Disaster Mitigation Experience and Reflection 2 (Prentice Hall (PVT)

Ltd, 2001).

100 Supra 53 at 42.

101 See Sec 2(i) of DMA, 2005.

102 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_Management#mitigation_2.htm accessed on

May 2009 at 11 pm.

50

103 Ibid.

104 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_Management#recovery_2.htm accessed on

May2009 at 10.45 pm.

105 Supra 14.

106 Ibid.

107 Rajdeep Dasgupta Disaster Management and Rehabilitation ,215(Mittal Publication,

2007).

108 Supra 85 at 23.

109 Supra 11 at 10.

110 Supra 14 at 26.

111 See Sec2(o)of DMA, 2005.

112 Sarthak Singh Disaster Management 30(1st ed.,2010).

113 Ravindra Beshmukh, Lewlyn L.R Rodriguez and G.R Krishnamurthy, “Earthquake Risk

and Knowledge Management” 9Journal of Knowledge Management 2 (2008).

114 Supra 112 at 35.

115 See www.worldbank.com accessed on 21st Jan 2010 at 11 pm.

116 Sarthak Singh, Disaster Management 20 (Oxford Book Company, 2010).

117 Ibid at 21.

118 Rajib Shaw and R.R Krishna Murthy, “Disaster Management : An Overview” in Rajib

Shaw and R.R Krishna Murthy(Ed) Diasater Management –Global Challenge and

Local Solution 14 (University Press (India) Private LTD).

Reference

(i) Vinod.K Sharma, “Managing Disasters in the New Millennium” in Pradeep

Sahni, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury in (Ed) Disaster Mitigation Experience

and Reflection (Prentice Hall (P)Ltd.,2001).

51

(ii) Elli Louka International Environment Law(1st ed., 2006).

(iii) S.L Goel, Encyclopedia of Disaster Management (2006) (Deep and Deep

Publication).

(iv) Vishnu Kanoorayar and Jaya V.S Disaster Management and Law (2006, 1st

Publication).

(v) Sahni, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury Disaster Mitigation Experience and

Reflection (2001) (Prentice Hall (PVT)Ltd).