DisaccharidesDisaccharides

According to the position of the linkage According to the position of the linkage between the sugar units, disaccharides are between the sugar units, disaccharides are classified into non-reducing such as sucrose classified into non-reducing such as sucrose and reducing such as maltose and lactose.and reducing such as maltose and lactose.

Non-reducing disaccharidesNon-reducing disaccharidesSucroseSucrose

Sources:Sources: Sugar cane.Sugar cane. Sugar beet.Sugar beet.

Properties:Properties: It is readily soluble in water. It is readily soluble in water. It has a sweetening power more than glucose and less than fructose.It has a sweetening power more than glucose and less than fructose. It does not reduce Fehling’s solution.It does not reduce Fehling’s solution.

Uses:Uses: Used in Used in syrup preparationsyrup preparation, , tablet manufacturetablet manufacture, , nutriennutrient and t and

demulcentdemulcent . . Sucrose is also used in Sucrose is also used in preparation of dextranpreparation of dextran (a polysaccharide (a polysaccharide

used as plasma substitute) used as plasma substitute)

OCH2OH

HH

OHOH

H

H

OH

H

O

OCH2OH

OH

CH2OHOH

H

H

OH

Sucrose

-D-glucose -D-fructose1 2

Invert Sugar:Invert Sugar:

Sucrose is (d, +) with [Sucrose is (d, +) with []]2020DD = +66.5 = +66.500. On hydrolysis it yeilds . On hydrolysis it yeilds

(+)D-Glucose (+52.5(+)D-Glucose (+52.500)and (-)D-Fructose (-93)and (-)D-Fructose (-9300). The final ). The final [[]]2020

DD of the mixture will be (- 20.4 of the mixture will be (- 20.400). That is why it is called ). That is why it is called

invert sugar.invert sugar.

Uses:Uses:Sweetening agent as it is more sweet than sucrose).Sweetening agent as it is more sweet than sucrose).Adulteration of Honey. It can be detected by test for ClAdulteration of Honey. It can be detected by test for Cl --

Reducing DisaccharidesReducing DisaccharidesMaltoseMaltose

Sources:Sources: It is the main constituent of malt and germinating cereals.It is the main constituent of malt and germinating cereals.

Structure:Structure: It consists of two glucose units, linked by It consists of two glucose units, linked by 1-4. It is hydrolyzed by 1-4. It is hydrolyzed by

maltase enzyme (maltase enzyme (-glucosidase).-glucosidase).

Uses:Uses: Nutrient.Nutrient.

O

OHOH

OH

CH2OHO

OHOH

OH

CH2OH

O

LactoseLactose

Sources:Sources: Lactose is the principal sugar of mammalian milk. It is not present in Lactose is the principal sugar of mammalian milk. It is not present in

higher plants. higher plants.

Structure:Structure: It consists of It consists of galactosegalactose and and glucoseglucose, linked by a , linked by a 1— 41— 4 linkage. It linkage. It

is hydrolysed by Emulsin enzyme. is hydrolysed by Emulsin enzyme.

Uses:Uses: Nutrient.Nutrient. Diluents in tablets.Diluents in tablets.

O O

CH2OH

OH

H

H

H

OH

H

H

CH2OH

H

H

OH

OH

HOH

HH

OHO

-D-glucose-D-galactose

41

Cellibiose:Cellibiose:Components of plant cell walls. It composed of two Components of plant cell walls. It composed of two

glucoseglucose unites linked by a unites linked by a 1— 41— 4 linkage. linkage.

Gentiobiose:Gentiobiose:Composed of two Composed of two glucoseglucose unites linked by a unites linked by a 1— 1—

66 linkage. linkage.

Rutinose:Rutinose:Composed of Composed of glucoseglucose and rhamnose linked by a and rhamnose linked by a

1— 61— 6 linkage. linkage.

Some Synthetic Sucrose DerivativesSome Synthetic Sucrose Derivatives Sucralfate:Sucralfate:

It is basic aluminium salt of the fully sulfated derivative of It is basic aluminium salt of the fully sulfated derivative of sucrose.sucrose.

Uses:Uses: Treatment of peptic and duodenal ulcers. Treatment of peptic and duodenal ulcers. Mechanism: Form protective complexes with proteins.Mechanism: Form protective complexes with proteins.

R= SO3[Al2(OH)5]

OCH2OR

HH

OROR

H

H

OR

H

O

OCH2OR

H

CH2OROR

H

H

OR

Sucralfate

-D-glucose

1 2-D-fructose

Sucrose octaacetate:Sucrose octaacetate: Slightly soluble in water but soluble in alcohol.Slightly soluble in water but soluble in alcohol. Very bitter in taste.Very bitter in taste. Used as denaturant.Used as denaturant.

Lactulose:Lactulose: Prepared by alkaline rearrangement of lactose.Prepared by alkaline rearrangement of lactose. Uses: Laxative in chronic constipation.Uses: Laxative in chronic constipation.

Treatment of systemic encephalopathy.Treatment of systemic encephalopathy. Mechanism of action: It is not digestible. Bacterial flora convert it to Mechanism of action: It is not digestible. Bacterial flora convert it to

lactic and acetic acids that irritate the intestinal wall. Increase lactic and acetic acids that irritate the intestinal wall. Increase acidity of intestine moves ammonia from blood to the intestine for acidity of intestine moves ammonia from blood to the intestine for neutralization.neutralization.

OCH2OH

H

OH

HOH

H

H

OH

HH

OCH2OH

OH

CH2OHOH

H

HO1

413

-D-fructose-D-galactose

Natural sweetnersNatural sweetners

S

NH

O

OO

Saccharin

Aspartame:Aspartame: It is a dipeptide 1500 times more sweet than sucrose.It is a dipeptide 1500 times more sweet than sucrose. It is not stable in alkaline medium or at high temperature.It is not stable in alkaline medium or at high temperature.

Saccharin:Saccharin: 3500 times more sweet than sucrose.3500 times more sweet than sucrose. Doubtful carcinogenic effect.Doubtful carcinogenic effect.

CH2

CH COOCH3HN

C

CH

CH2

COOH

H2N

O

Aspartame

Sorbitol:Sorbitol: Reduction product of glucose.Reduction product of glucose. Half sweetening power of sucrose.Half sweetening power of sucrose.

Glycyrrhizin:Glycyrrhizin: Triterpenoidal saponin obtained from Liquorice.Triterpenoidal saponin obtained from Liquorice. 50 more sweet than sucrose but develop unpleasant taste by time.50 more sweet than sucrose but develop unpleasant taste by time.

Steviol & Stevioside:Steviol & Stevioside: Diterpene and its glycoside obtained from Diterpene and its glycoside obtained from Stevia rebaudianaStevia rebaudiana.. 300 times more sweet than sucrose.300 times more sweet than sucrose. Stable and non calorigenic.Stable and non calorigenic.

OR1

H3C COOR

O

RO

COOH

O

R=R1= H Steviol

R= Glc, R1= Glc-1,2-Glc SteviosideGlycyrrhizin

PolysaccharidesPolysaccharidesHomopolysaccharidesHomopolysaccharides

1-1- StarchStarch Widely distributed plant. The most common commercial sources are rice, Widely distributed plant. The most common commercial sources are rice,

wheat, maize and potato. wheat, maize and potato. Structure:Structure:

It is a glucose polymer composed of two parts:It is a glucose polymer composed of two parts: Amylose (10- 20 %):Amylose (10- 20 %): It consists of 250 -300 D-glucopyranoside units It consists of 250 -300 D-glucopyranoside units

connected by connected by -1,4 linkages in a linear chain. It is soluble in hot water and -1,4 linkages in a linear chain. It is soluble in hot water and

gives a blue colour with iodine solution.gives a blue colour with iodine solution. Amylopectin (80- 90 %): Composed of 1000 or more D-glucopyranoside units Amylopectin (80- 90 %): Composed of 1000 or more D-glucopyranoside units

connected by connected by -1,4 linkages in a branched chain. The linkage at site of -1,4 linkages in a branched chain. The linkage at site of branching is branching is -1,6 linkages (4%). Amylopectin is insoluble in water.-1,6 linkages (4%). Amylopectin is insoluble in water.

Uses:Uses: Dusting powderDusting powder Antidote for iodine poisoning.Antidote for iodine poisoning. Diluents in powders and tablets manufacture.Diluents in powders and tablets manufacture. Nutrient, demulcent, protective and adsorbent.Nutrient, demulcent, protective and adsorbent. Starting material in the manufacture of glucose, liquid glucose, maltose, and Starting material in the manufacture of glucose, liquid glucose, maltose, and

dextrins.dextrins.

soluble starch:soluble starch:

Soluble starch is prepared by heating starch with dilute Soluble starch is prepared by heating starch with dilute HCl at 40 HCl at 40 00C for 30 mins or by maceration of starch for 7 C for 30 mins or by maceration of starch for 7 days in dilute HCl, followed by washing until neutrality days in dilute HCl, followed by washing until neutrality

and drying.and drying.

Uses:Uses: Indicator in iodometric assays.Indicator in iodometric assays.

2- Dextrins2- Dextrins Prepared by Prepared by partial starch hydrolysispartial starch hydrolysis enzymatically or acid enzymatically or acid

hydrolysis.hydrolysis.

Uses:Uses: A source of readily digestible carbohydrates for infantsA source of readily digestible carbohydrates for infants

Substitutes for natural gums as adhesives.Substitutes for natural gums as adhesives.

3- 3- DextranDextran Dextran is obtained from sucrose by the action of a bacterial Dextran is obtained from sucrose by the action of a bacterial

enzyme obtained from enzyme obtained from Leuconostic mesenteroides.Leuconostic mesenteroides.

Uses:Uses: As plasma expander for emergency treatment in cases of shock As plasma expander for emergency treatment in cases of shock

due to hemorrhage, trauma or severe burns.due to hemorrhage, trauma or severe burns. Dextran sulphates can be used as anticoagulants, in treatment of Dextran sulphates can be used as anticoagulants, in treatment of

ulcer and in preparation of sephadexulcer and in preparation of sephadex

4- HAES-sterile (6 or 10%)4- HAES-sterile (6 or 10%) Structure:Structure:

Modified product of starch with average molecular weight 200,000.Modified product of starch with average molecular weight 200,000. It is a spherical branched chain of glucose.It is a spherical branched chain of glucose. Five out of each ten glucose unites are substituted with hydroxyethyl Five out of each ten glucose unites are substituted with hydroxyethyl

groups.groups.

Preparation:Preparation: By controlled hydrolysis of corn starch using serum amylase.By controlled hydrolysis of corn starch using serum amylase. Ethylation is important to protect from rapid metabolism.Ethylation is important to protect from rapid metabolism.

Uses:Uses: Hypovolemia.Hypovolemia. Shock.Shock.

5- Sephadex5- Sephadex Sephadex is a Sephadex is a modifiedmodified dextrandextran. The dextran macromolecules are cross-. The dextran macromolecules are cross-

linked to give a three-dimensional network of polysaccharide chains.linked to give a three-dimensional network of polysaccharide chains. Insoluble in water but absorb water and swell.Insoluble in water but absorb water and swell.

Uses:Uses: In Chromatographic separation. In Chromatographic separation.

6-6- GlycogenGlycogen Reservoir for glucose in the liver.Reservoir for glucose in the liver. Structure similar to amylopectin but more branched.Structure similar to amylopectin but more branched.

7-7- InulinInulin Reserve polysaccharide in some members of the family Compositae. It is a Reserve polysaccharide in some members of the family Compositae. It is a

polymer of fructose (polymer of fructose (-1, 2-fructofuranose).-1, 2-fructofuranose).

Uses:Uses: Culture Media. Culture Media. Test for kidney function.Test for kidney function.

8- Cellulose8- Cellulose Cellulose is the main constituent of Cellulose is the main constituent of cell wallscell walls of plants. of plants. Cellulose is Cellulose is -1, 4 linked glucose.-1, 4 linked glucose. Cellulose can not be digested by mammals.Cellulose can not be digested by mammals.

Powdered cellulose:Powdered cellulose: In chromatographic separations, suspending agent and tablet excipient.In chromatographic separations, suspending agent and tablet excipient.

Cellulose derivatives:Cellulose derivatives:Methyl cellulose:Methyl cellulose:

Prepared by methylation of cellulose with methyl chloride under Prepared by methylation of cellulose with methyl chloride under pressure. It swells in water to produce a viscous, colloidal solution.pressure. It swells in water to produce a viscous, colloidal solution.

It is used to increase the viscosity and to stabilize lotions, suspensions, It is used to increase the viscosity and to stabilize lotions, suspensions, pastes, and ointments. pastes, and ointments.

In ophthalmic preparations as protectant. In ophthalmic preparations as protectant. It is also used It is also used bulk laxativebulk laxative in chronic constipation and in in chronic constipation and in treatment treatment

of obesityof obesity as it gives feeling of fullness. as it gives feeling of fullness. Cellulose acetate phthalate:Cellulose acetate phthalate:

For tablet coating.For tablet coating.

HeteropolysaccharidesHeteropolysaccharides

1-1- Plant GumsPlant Gumsa- Gum Acaciaa- Gum Acacia

Structure:Structure: It consists mainly of It consists mainly of arabinarabin, the calcium salt of , the calcium salt of arabic acid.arabic acid. Gum Gum

acacia contains oxidase enzyme. acacia contains oxidase enzyme. Acid hydrolysis of arabic acidAcid hydrolysis of arabic acid yields yields L-rhamnoseL-rhamnose, , D-galactose, D-galactose,

L-arabinose andL-arabinose and glucuronic acidglucuronic acid Uses:Uses:

stabilizer in emulsionsstabilizer in emulsions and suspending agent. and suspending agent. DDemulcentemulcent

b- Gum Tragacanthb- Gum Tragacanth Structure:Structure:

Composed of D-galactose, L-arabinose, D-xylose, L-Composed of D-galactose, L-arabinose, D-xylose, L-

fucose, and galacturonic acid.fucose, and galacturonic acid. Uses:Uses:

As gum Acacia but better for oxidizable drugs and in As gum Acacia but better for oxidizable drugs and in cosmetics.cosmetics.

C- Guar GumC- Guar Gum Polymer of Galactomannan.Polymer of Galactomannan. Form viscous solution in water.Form viscous solution in water.

Uses:Uses:Binder and disintegratingBinder and disintegrating agent in tablets and as a agent in tablets and as a

thickener thickener in lotions and creams in lotions and creams It It lowers the serum cholesterol and glucoselowers the serum cholesterol and glucose in human. in human.

It is used in certain It is used in certain antihypercholesterimicantihypercholesterimic and and antidiabetic antidiabetic formulations. formulations.

It is also used as an It is also used as an appetite depressantappetite depressant..

2- Agar-Agar2- Agar-Agar

Agar is obtained from red algae.Agar is obtained from red algae. Agar is formed of two main components, agarose and Agar is formed of two main components, agarose and

agaropectin. agaropectin. Agarose is a neutral galactose polymer, free from sulfate.Agarose is a neutral galactose polymer, free from sulfate. Agaropectin is formed of galactose and galacturonic acid Agaropectin is formed of galactose and galacturonic acid

units partially esterified with sulfuric acid. units partially esterified with sulfuric acid.

Uses:Uses:Preparation of bacteriological culture media.Preparation of bacteriological culture media.Emulsifier, thickener for ice cream.Emulsifier, thickener for ice cream.Treatment of ulcers and chronic constipation.Treatment of ulcers and chronic constipation.

3- Alginic Acid3- Alginic Acid

Obtained from Brown algae.Obtained from Brown algae. Alginic acid is mainly composed of D-mannuronic acid Alginic acid is mainly composed of D-mannuronic acid

units, in addition to a small number of L-guluronic acid.units, in addition to a small number of L-guluronic acid. Uses:Uses:

SStabilizer, thickener, emulsifier, deflocculating, tabilizer, thickener, emulsifier, deflocculating, jelling and slimming agentjelling and slimming agent. .

It is used in dentistry, food and cosmetic industries.It is used in dentistry, food and cosmetic industries.It has important pharmaceutical applications in It has important pharmaceutical applications in

formulation of creams, ointments, pastes, jellies and formulation of creams, ointments, pastes, jellies and tablets. tablets.

4- Pectin4- Pectin Obtained from apple pomace and inner portion of citrus rind.Obtained from apple pomace and inner portion of citrus rind. Form viscous solutions in water.Form viscous solutions in water. Composed of arabinose, galactose and galactouronic acid.Composed of arabinose, galactose and galactouronic acid. Average molecular weight 100,000- 250,000.Average molecular weight 100,000- 250,000.

Uses:Uses: Pectin is topically applied as a paste in cases of burns and ulcers. Pectin is topically applied as a paste in cases of burns and ulcers. It is of great importance in treatment of diarrhea and dysentery. It It is of great importance in treatment of diarrhea and dysentery. It

acts as a detoxifying agent by conjugation with toxins. acts as a detoxifying agent by conjugation with toxins. It is used as a gel and emulsion stabilizer and in manufacture of It is used as a gel and emulsion stabilizer and in manufacture of

jellies and jams.jellies and jams.

5- Heparin 5- Heparin Unfractionated Heparin (UH)Unfractionated Heparin (UH)

Obtained from lung and liver tissues of animals.Obtained from lung and liver tissues of animals. HeparinHeparin is a is a highly sulfated, linear polysaccharide highly sulfated, linear polysaccharide formed of repeated 1formed of repeated 1 4 linked glucuronic acids and 4 linked glucuronic acids and

glucosamine residues.glucosamine residues. Average molecular weight 3,000- 30,000.Average molecular weight 3,000- 30,000.

Uses:Uses:Anticoagulant. It is recommended in cases of Anticoagulant. It is recommended in cases of

pregnancy as it is not terratogenic and does not cross pregnancy as it is not terratogenic and does not cross the placenta.the placenta.

Side effects:Side effects:Osteoporosis.Osteoporosis.Laboratory monitoring is essential.Laboratory monitoring is essential.

6- Low Molecular Weight Heparin6- Low Molecular Weight Heparin (LMWH)(LMWH)

Average molecular weight 5,000 Dalton.Average molecular weight 5,000 Dalton. Obtained by hydrolysis of Heparin by Heparinase enzyme at Obtained by hydrolysis of Heparin by Heparinase enzyme at

37 0C for 4- 8 Hr followed by chromatographic purification.37 0C for 4- 8 Hr followed by chromatographic purification.

Uses:Uses:Anticoagulant. Anticoagulant.

Advantage:Advantage:Self administration is possible in most cases.Self administration is possible in most cases.Laboratory monitoring is not required.Laboratory monitoring is not required.