CHARLES BABBAGE INSTITUTE CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

NEWSLETTER

CBI Vol. 38 No. 2 Fall 2016

In This Issue:

Director’s Desk

2017 Annual Appeal

CBI’s 2nd Computer Security Special Issue

Paul Armer (1924-2016)

The Complete Cortada

News from the Archives

Computer-Based Education in the Cold War (Norberg Grant)

Greenstein Explains How the Internet Became

Commercial

Recent Publications

Featured Photograph

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CHARLES BABBAGE INSTITUTE CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

NEWSLETTER Fall 2016

Vol. 38 No. 2

In This Issue:

Director’s Desk 3

2017 Annual Appeal 5

CBI’s 2nd Computer Security Special Issue 7

Paul Armer (1924-2016) 8

The Complete Cortada 12

News from the Archives 18

Computer-Based Education in the Cold War (Norberg Grant) 19

Greenstein Explains How the Internet Became Commercial 23

Recent Publications 25

Featured Photograph 28

CBI Newsletter Editor: Jeffrey R. Yost

Charles Babbage Institute 211 Andersen Library University of Minnesota 222 21st Avenue South Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

Managing Editor: Kathryn Charlet

Email: cbi@umn.edu Phone: (612) 624-5050

Fax: (612) 625-8054 www.cbi.umn.edu

The Charles Babbage Institute for the History of Information Technology is sponsored by the University of Minnesota and the information technology community. Charles Babbage Institute Newsletter is a publication of the University of Minnesota. The CBI Newsletter reports on Institute activities and other developments in the history of information technology. Permission to copy all or part of this material is granted provided that the source is cited and a copy of the publication containing the copied material is sent to CBI. © Charles Babbage Institute

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Director’s Desk Visibility in the wider world is one of our concerns at CBI. Some years ago, the quip went that CBI was better known in Japan than in Minnesota. An active community of historians of computing had formed in Japan, and CBI successfully did extensive international outreach. This year we welcome Mai Sugimoto of Kansai University for a 12-month research stay; she was previously at CBI on a Fulbright fellowship in 2008-9 and also for a shorter visit in the aftermath of the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, when she led a memorable and moving impromptu seminar for us to share her personal perspective. We continue to cherish international visitors that extend our horizons and enrich our culture. Our reach now encompasses a number of local groups and history initiatives. This September the documentary film “DocuMNtary: The Story of Tech in Minnesota” featured numerous CBI images. Yours truly explains the ins-and-outs of the Minnesota computing scene. Talks to the local community publicized my book, Digital State: The Story of Minnesota’s Computing Industry (University of Minnesota Press 2013), available now online at JSTOR and Kindle.

Contacts in Minnesota computing led to several significant archival connections. In our annual appeal letter I mentioned Mike Svendsen’s small but valuable collection of materials on Univac’s Semiconductor Control Facility. Corporate records identified and organized by historical-minded insiders resulted in the Lockheed Martin Records, 1945-2013 (CBI 238), at nearly 200 linear feet one of CBI’s larger archival collections. Series 1 “Patent Applications” has files ranging from Symbol Detection (1952) and Memory Apparatus and Method (1954) through many electronics, computing, and military topics into the 1980s including patenting

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processes; and Series 2 “Historical Files” has documentation on ERA, Univac, and other topics stretching back to the dawn of Minnesota computing as well as photographs, slides, and film clips. Numerous local and state chapters of national organizations and companies can be located in the alphabetical listing of CBI’s 348 collections or the online keyword finding guide. One caution: the University of Minnesota Libraries has installed a new content management system, so finding research materials can require new strategies. Prospective researchers can always contact Amanda Wick <abwick@umn.edu> for assistance. In connecting to the local Minnesota community, CBI staff have not shortchanged our national and international activities. CBI associate director Jeffrey Yost has taken up several leadership positions in the IEEE, serving as editor-in-chief of IEEE Annals of the History of Computing and more recently as chair of the IEEE Computer Society’s History Committee. I too worked with the IEEE History Committee, and since 2008 have been active with the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and its History Committee, which I chaired for two years. Currently I’m series editor for ACM Books, a new publishing venture, which has already brought out three history titles and this fall will publish Communities of Computing: Computer Science and Society in the ACM, a volume I edited from scholarship that the ACM History Committee supported with its annual fellowship awards. CBI staff, visiting researchers, and graduate students actively contribute to annual meetings of the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) and its computer-history special interest group (SIGCIS). At the 2015 Albuquerque meeting we collectively gave three papers, organized two full SHOT sessions, and participated in numerous additional ways. Attentive SHOT watchers may have seen the late-breaking news of the annual announcement of voting results. I was elected to be incoming vice president/president elect, which entails a two-year term followed by a second two years as SHOT’s president. One way or another, CBI remains at the forefront of making history. Your support through the CBI Friends helps us keep up with the times.

Thomas J. Misa

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October 3, 2016 Dear CBI Friends: Last year in my letter to the CBI Friends, I dazzled you with numbers. I described CBI with nearly 8,000 linear feet of archival collections, 1,000 oral-history transcripts, 10,000 accessible titles, and 10 recently published books or Annals special issues, and more than $1 million in externally sponsored research. But perhaps you’d like to know something of the personal side of CBI. How do we find our archival collections? And what about small and valuable collections at CBI alongside the larger “anchor” collections that we typically put in boldface? Large or small, all CBI collections begin with personal contact. After all, a potential donor is entrusting to CBI’s care one of their most valued legacies. We emphasize the professional attention given to all archival collections, the re-boxing and re-foldering if needed, the preparation of a detailed finding guide (accessible online), and the collection’s permanent and public accessibility. CBI is embedded in the University of Minnesota Libraries, with state-of-the-art climate-controlled storage and a friendly and inviting reading room. Families can visit their loved-one’s collection, any time; the same for researchers from across the country and around the world. One early “anchor” collection—the Edmund Berkeley papers—came to CBI after then-CBI archivist Bruce Bruemmer worked hard to convince Berkeley that, indeed, CBI would be highly interested in the dozens of boxes documenting his career as ACM founder, author, and professional gadfly. Subsequent “anchors” include the papers of software pioneer Marty Goetz, computer scientist Alan J. Perlis, graphics pioneer Carl Machover, IT industry guru Gideon Gartner, and others. Sometimes, as with Charlie Bachman and Walter Anderson, an initial archival donation was added to over the years to create a comprehensive archive. Bachman’s CBI papers document not only his early work creating database management systems and his later standards-setting efforts with ISO, but even more recently his receiving the 2012 National Medal of Technology and Innovation. Large corporate collections, such as Control Data, Burroughs, and Lockheed Martin, also result from building trust with decision-makers over the years. One of my favorite “small” collection stories started in October 2011 when Mike Svendsen walked into CBI, introduced himself, and asked whether we’d ever heard of Univac’s Semiconductor Control Facility (SCF). It happened that Jeff Yost had just prepared a paper for publication on semiconductor strategy and had lamented, in a footnote, that a paucity of available records prevented a proper evaluation of SCF’s accomplishments. Mike had led SCF for a number of years, and generously let me see enough material to write a few pages on SCF and the semiconductor “quality revolution” in my book Digital State: The Story of Minnesota's Computing Industry. Mike mentioned that he wanted to go through the materials himself—

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leading to his 31-page write-up “Semiconductors at Univac” at <vipclubmn.org>—and he duly deposited two boxes of records at CBI in 2014. Thanks to Mike’s attention and care, we have an essential piece in hand to better understand the digital revolution. CBI’s inaugural collection is the Honeywell v. Sperry Rand Records (CBI 1), whose 52 boxes document early computing as well as the landmark court decision that defined the “first computer” in 1973. After using these papers in her biography of Edmund Berkeley, Bernadette Longo told me she found information there that “no one” had ever seen. I agreed, since my own research had turned up an unknown “secret” computer that Pres Eckert and John Mauchly had worked on alongside BINAC. Some 250 collections later, CBI is proudly making accessible archival collections offering exciting new insights in computer history (and facilitating research through the Tomash fellowship and Norberg travel grants). One thing hasn’t changed in 36 years: CBI is still at the forefront of archiving and scholarship in computer history. This year, for all renewing and new CBI Friends, we will send you a volume forthcoming this fall from ACM Books. Communities of Computing: Computer Science and Society in the ACM is the fourth history title in the series1 and the first book-length history of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). The book’s 12 core chapters, plus my editor’s introduction, profile ACM’s notable SIGs, active chapters, and many individual members, setting ACM’s history into a rich social and political context. One key focus is ACM’s role in defining “computer science.” The chapters originated as ACM History Committee fellowship projects, and many draw extensively on CBI’s ACM-related historical collections. Please help us keep CBI’s core activities strong through your contribution to the CBI Friends. Sincerely,

Thomas J. Misa Director, Charles Babbage Institute

1 The first three are: John Cullinane, Smarter Than Their Machines: Oral Histories of Pioneers in Interactive Computing (2014); Bernadette Longo, Edmund Berkeley and the Social Responsibility of Computer Professionals (2015); and Robin Hammerman and Andrew L. Russell, Ada’s Legacy: Cultures of Computing from the Victorian to the Digital Age (2015).

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CBI’s Second “Computer Security” Special Issue The Charles Babbage Institute guest-edited a second IEEE Annals of the History of Computing special issue on computer security (October-December 2016) that will be available shortly. Like the first (April-June 2015), it extends from CBI’s National Science Foundation (NSF)-sponsored computer security history workshop held in July 2014. The issue includes articles from CBI director Thomas Misa, CBI associate director Jeffrey Yost, and co-authored articles by CBI senior research fellow Jim Cortada and University of Colorado’s William Aspray, and UCLA’s Bradley Fidler and University of Toronto’s Quinn DuPont. We are grateful to NSF for sponsoring the workshop and the four year research effort by the institute to advance infrastructure (oral histories, archives, and a wiki) for computer security history. The oral histories and other research on this project serves as the basis for a book I am currently writing on the history of computer security for MIT Press. In the Annals issue, Misa’s article analyzes the origins of the multi-level computer security problem by focusing on research and systems at the RAND Corporation, System Development Corporation (SDC), and the National Security Agency (NSA). He emphasizes that well before the 1970 (Willis H.) Ware Report and the 1967 Spring Joint Computer Conference (SJCC) Ware-led “Computer Security and Privacy” session (what historians and computer security scientists have presented as the beginning of multi-level computer security), pioneering time-sharing systems by SDC (Q-32) and NSA (RYE) were created and deployed. These early-to-mid 1960s systems were the true start (in the classified world) to confronting the multi-level computer security problem and informed Willis Ware and NSA’s Bernard Peter’s sophisticated conceptualization of the problem presented at the SJCC session. Aspray and Cortada’s article concentrates on the early years of Symantec, a longtime leading computer security products and services corporation founded in 1982 by SRI’s Gary Hendrix to develop artificial intelligence software applications. They explore the company’s strategic evolution as it investigated and engaged in R&D and acquisitions in various areas of software applications. Their study offers a rich examination of venture funding, innovation, and merger and acquisition activity in the early personal-computer software industry. In 1990 Symantec acquired Peter Norton Computing, which soon led it to focus on anti-virus software and other areas of computer security. Much of the modest literature in computer security history concentrates on access control technologies and standards to keep unauthorized individuals and malware out of computer systems. In contrast, my article, “The March of IDES,” focuses on the history of intrusion detection expert systems, or automated batch and real-time audit tools to detect intruders or malware. It examines the first influential system, SRI’s Intrusion Detection Expert System (IDES), and its successor, NIDES. The article also discusses NSA’s Computer Misuse and Anomalies Detection research program, as well as the strong leadership contributions of women computer scientists to the intrusion detection field. Fidler and DuPont offer an important historical study of Private Line Interface (PLI), a Bolt, Beranek and Newman-developed cryptography computer security tool (funded by DARPA) for

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use on the ARPANET. They show how PLI—operating between network switches and host computers—was at the “edge” of the network. They indicate that this set a pattern for network cryptography tools at the edge of networks (including the Internet), shaping understandings of contemporary cybersecurity.

Jeffrey R. Yost

Paul Armer (1924–2016) We were saddened to learn of Paul Armer’s passing early in 2016. He had a prominent and varied career in computing, in the nation’s social and political discussions about computing, and not least in helping launch the Charles Babbage Institute, for which he served as executive secretary during the crucial years when CBI was moving from California to Minnesota. Paul’s first career in computing was with the newly formed RAND Corporation, which he joined after wartime service with the U.S. Army Air Corps, a brief stint at United Airlines, and then completing his degree in meteorology at UCLA. He published a very early RAND Memorandum in 1947 with the ungainly title “The Location of the Maximum of a Function of Two Independent Variables When the Dependent and Independent Variables are Measured Without Error.” RAND watchers will recall its founding as a spin-off from Douglas Aircraft in May 1948. In 1952 Armer became head of RAND’s numerical analysis department. During these years at RAND he worked on some of the earliest IBM computers, such as the Card Programmed Calculator, to address aircraft design problems as well as the incidence of mental illness in the United States. He also guided RAND’s largest computer project, the JOHNNIAC based on the design of John von Neumann’s Institute for Advanced Study computer. “We decided to embark on the construction of JOHNNIAC. In early memos, I’m pretty sure Willis talked about building it for $150,000. By the time it computed its first prime number, I think we conservatively had a million dollars invested.” (Armer 1973: 16) JOHNNIAC, operational from 1953 to 1966, was at the heart of RAND’s advanced computational research in programming languages (JOSS) and air-defense systems; its early work on SAGE programming led to the spin-off of the System Development Corporation. Work with the IBM 701 and 704 computers led to Armer’s leadership in the seminal user groups GUIDE and SHARE (for which we have archival records that Paul himself arranged the donation).

Paul Armer, circa 1985

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Armer served as RAND department chair until 1962. As he described it, he persuaded RAND management “to let me switch hats with Willis Ware . . . and I would spend that [next] year in a semi-sabbatical way getting myself refurbished.” (Armer 1973: 5) The unit subsequently evolved into RAND’s computer science department under the leadership of Willis Ware. Armer’s activities moved sideways into engagement with social and political issues in computing, including debates on computing and automation. His RAND publications make clear his contributions to national discussions on technological change, employment, and automation; computing in the Soviet Union; and the “computer utility” movement. His 1968 testimony to the US Senate, “Privacy Aspects of the Cashless and Checkless Society,” raised prescient questions about e-banking long before the actual arrival of e-banking. RAND during the 1960s was quite a place, experiencing a fundamental transition from its Air-Force dominated origins to a wider framing with high-visibility projects in social policy and urban affairs. Partly by accident, Armer helped expand the national conversation about artificial intelligence by hiring MIT philosopher Hubert Dreyfus for a summer in Santa Monica. “It struck me . . . that I ought to mix a philosopher in with these [artificial intelligence] guys, that there were indeed philosophical questions here. I thought maybe the project would gain from having a philosopher around for a while,” Armer told Pamela McCorduck for her book Machines Who Think (second edition 2004: chapter 9). A RAND colleague recommended his brother, who happened to be Hubert Dreyfus. Over the summer Dreyfus drafted, then published as a RAND memo the polemical Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence (1965). Armer later described it as “lousy philosophy” but decided to issue it anyway, and, lo and behold, “it became the best seller of any such paper that RAND put out.” Dreyfus, buoyed by the prestige, went on to be one of the leading philosophically grounded critics of AI. His classic What Computers Can’t Do appeared originally in 1972 and was revised and reissued two decades later. Also at RAND in the 1960s were two original copies of a top-secret history of the Vietnam war, better known today as the Pentagon Papers. Armer and his wife Joan, according to their daughter, were sympathetic to the anti-war movement and friendly with Daniel Ellsberg, who mailed an additional photocopy he had made to the New York Times which began publishing excerpts of the controversial documents in June 1971. The event marked a turning point in the mobilization against the Vietnam War. The full and complete 7,000 pages of the Pentagon Papers were finally released in 2011. After his years at RAND Armer moved to Stanford in 1968, where he directed the university’s computation center for two years and then lectured in the Computer Science Department throughout the 1970s. Even in the early 1960s Armer’s interest in the social effects of computing and automation led him to do course work in economics at UCLA. In the mid-1970s he conceived a book project that he worked on at the Program on Technology and Society at Harvard University and then also at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford. A stream of essays, reports, and Congressional testimony resulted, although (so far as I’m aware) not a book per se. When Erwin Tomash organized the International Charles Babbage Society in California in 1977-78, Paul Armer was one of the insiders in the impressive brain trust that Tomash assembled. Armer accepted the post as Executive Secretary—effectively, acting director—and opened an

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office at 701 Welch Road in Palo Alto (two blocks away was Sand Hill Road, the spine along which venture capital was coalescing). Armer was one of the members of the truly distinguished Advisory Committee that met April 28, 1978, at Rockefeller University under the auspices of its president Joshua Lederberg. The society was renamed “the Charles Babbage Institute” in May 1978, and with determination Armer and Tomash moved to line up support from AFIPS. We have a lovely photograph of Tomash, Armer, and Al Hoagland in June 1979 signing the papers for this historic agreement. It happened that Armer had been president of AFIPS in 1968-69 while Hoagland was the current sitting president.

Even beyond the AFIPS agreement Armer took on numerous organizational tasks for CBI, each of them momentous. Already in September 1978, Armer with a colleague did the very first CBI oral history with Gerhard Dirks, the German inventor of a notable disk drive similar to IBM’s RAMAC. The interview is explicitly mentioned in the inaugural issue of the CBI Newsletter

Paul Armer, Erwin Tomash, and Al Hoagland signing CBI AFIPS agreement, 1979.

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from May 1979. Even though this interview did not see the light of day, it is somehow fitting that Paul Armer’s own oral history done in June 1980 is officially “CBI OH #1.” Armer was also at hand when the CBI Reprint series was taking form, which emerged as a major activity across the 1980s. Possibly the most important activity that he guided was the national search for a permanent university home for CBI, which resulted in CBI moving to the University of Minnesota in 1980, an effort that I have described in an earlier CBI Newsletter article. One contribution that Armer was particularly proud of was his ability and agency in networking. He held numerous leadership positions in ACM, SHARE, and AFIPS, and sought to extend their collaboration with DPMA and other professional societies. He was a founder of Institute for the Future in Menlo Park and an insider with the trade journal Datamation. He liked, as he put it, “to sometimes go see good papers and then work like hell to get that paper published.” At RAND he was close to the Los Angeles office of Datamation, “so every editor from the beginning has always been someone I’ve had access to.” (Armer 1973: 68) He gave an instance of hearing a paper by Lance Hoffman and William Miller and shepherding that into print (see interview with Hoffman at <http://hdl.handle.net/11299/168279>). It happens that CBI’s shelf copies of Datamation, which we regularly consult for its wealth of information, is Armer’s personal copy (with his name embossed on the spine). We salute his many contributions to computing and the history of computing.

Thomas J. Misa SOURCES: Paul Armer interview (1973). Computer Oral History Collection (#5) Smithsonian Institution Press Washington, DC, USA 1999. Available at <http://amhistory.si.edu/archives/AC0196_armer730417.pdf>. Paul Armer interview (1980). Charles Babbage Institute OH 1. Paul Armer obituary: New York Times (26 January 2016). Available at <http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/nytimes/obituary.aspx?pid=177458483>. Paul Armer Collection: National Museum of American History. Finding guide available at <http://amhistory.si.edu/archives/AC0323.pdf>.

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The Complete Cortada Ever since meeting Jim Cortada during my transition to CBI in 2006 and hearing of his unusual publication record, I have been curious about how many books he actually has published over the years. A family get-together for his recent 70th birthday prompted me to aim at a definitive number and complete list of titles. So I looked up “James W. Cortada” on the readily available WORLDCAT website . . . Set aside electronic editions of regularly published book as well as articles and chapters . . . Retained translations of books into Chinese and Spanish and Portuguese . . . . Here are the results.

Thomas J. Misa

1. All the facts: a history of information in the United States since 1870 by James W Cortada. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2016

2. The essential manager: how to thrive in the global information jungle by James W Cortada. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, IEEE Computer Society, 2015

3. La guerra moderna en España: informes del ejército de Estados Unidos sobre la Guerra Civil, 1936 - 1939 by James W Cortada. Barcelona: RBA, 2014

4. The digital flood: the diffusion of information technology across the U.S., Europe, and Asia by James W Cortada. New York / Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012

5. History hunting: a guide for fellow adventurers by James W Cortada. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2012

6. Modern warfare in Spain: American military observations on the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939 by James W Cortada. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2012

7. Information and the modern corporation by James W Cortada. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2011

8. How societies embrace information technology: lessons for management and the rest of us by James W Cortada. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons ; Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society, 2009

9. Xin xi gai bian le Meiguo: qu dong guo jia zhuan xing de liliang by Alfred D Chandler and James W Cortada. Shanghai: Shanghai yuan dong chu ban she, 2008

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10. The digital hand Volume 3: How computers changed the work of American public sector industries by James W Cortada. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2008

11. Origins of nation building in the Iberian Peninsula: the case of early Catalonia by James W Cortada. Arbor Hills Institute Press, 2007

12. The digital hand Volume 2: How computers changed the work of American financial, telecommunications, media, and entertainment industries by James W Cortada. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006

13. The Digital Hand Volume 1: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries by James W. Cortada. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004

14. Una nación transformada por la información: cómo la información ha modelado a Estados Unidos de América desde la época de la colonia hasta la actualidad by Alfred D Chandler and James W Cortada. México: Oxford, 2002

15. The 2002 ASTD training and performance yearbook by John A Woods and James W Cortada. New York / London: McGraw-Hill, 2001

16. The 2001 ASTD training and performance yearbook by James W Cortada and John A Woods. New York / London: McGraw-Hill, 2001

17. Wang luo shi dai de guan li: IBM he qi ta gong si shi ru he cheng gong de by James W Cortada, Thomas S Hargraves and Edward Wakin. Beijing Shi: Sheng huo, du shu, xin zhi san lian shu dian, 2001

18. 21st century business: managing and working in the new digital economy by James W Cortada. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times and Prentice Hall, 2000

19. Management del nuevo siglo: gestión y trabajo en la nueva economía digital by James W Cortada. Amsterdam: Financial Times and Prentice Hall, 2001

20. The quality yearbook 2001 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. New York / London: McGraw-Hill, 2001

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21. A nation transformed by information: how information has shaped the United States from Colonial times to the present by Alfred D Chandler and James W Cortada. Oxford / New York: Oxford University Press, 2000

22. The knowledge management yearbook 2000-2001 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. Boston, MA: Butterworth Heinemann, 2000

23. The quality yearbook 2000 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. London: McGraw-Hill, 2000

24. La era del trabajo en redes: cómo lo hacen IBM y otras compañías by James W Cortada, Thomas S Hargraves, and Edward Wakin. México: Oxford University Press, 2000

25. The 2000 ASTD training and performance yearbook by John A Woods and James W Cortada. New York: McGraw-Hall, 2000

26. Zhi shi gong zuo zhe de xing qi = RISE OF THE KNOWLEDGE WORKER by James W Cortada. Beijing: Xin hua chu ban she, 1999

27. Knowledge management yearbook 1999-2000 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999

28. Publishing intellectual capital: getting your business into print by James W Cortada. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall PTR, 1999

29. The quality yearbook 1999 by James W Cortada and James A Woods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999

30. Into the networked age: how IBM and other firms are getting there now by James W Cortada, Thomas S Hargraves, and Edward Wakin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999

31. The 1999 ASTD training and performance yearbook by John A Woods and James W Cortada. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999

32. The quality yearbook 1998 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998

33. Rise of the knowledge worker by James W Cortada. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998

34. Best practices in information technology: how corporations get the most value from exploiting their digital investments by James W Cortada. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR, 1998

35. The ASTD training & performance yearbook 1997 by John A Woods and James W Cortada. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1997

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36. Second Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing, Computers, and the Information Processing Industry by James W Cortada. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996

37. A bibliographic guide to the history of computer applications, 1950-1990 by James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996

38. Information technology as business history: Issues in the history and management of computers by James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998

39. Can democracy survive in Western Europe? by James N Cortada and James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996

40. The quality yearbook 1996 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996

41. A bibliographic guide to the history of computing, computers, and the information processing industry by James W Cortada. New York: Greenwood Press, 1996; 2nd edition.

42. The quality yearbook 1995 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995

43. The McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of quality terms & concepts by James W Cortada and John A Woods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995

44. TQM: gerência da qualidade total by James W Cortada and Heitor M Quintella. Rio de Janeiro: MAKRON Books do Brasil Editora ; São Paulo: Editora McGraw-Hill, 1994

45. Quality yearbook: 1994 by James W Cortada and John A Woods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994

46. Spain in the nineteenth-century world: essays on Spanish diplomacy, 1789-1898 by James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994

47. TQM for sales and marketing management by James W Cortada. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993

48. Before the computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the industry they created, 1865-1956 by James W Cortada. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993

49. How to become an expert by James W Cortada. IBM Corporation, 1993

50. The computer in the United States: from laboratory to market, 1930 to 1960 by James W Cortada. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993

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51. A bibliographic guide to the history of computing, computers, and the information processing industry by James W Cortada. New York: Greenwood, 1990

52. Archives of data-processing history: A guide to major U.S. Collections by James W Cortada. New York: Greenwood, 1990

53. Historical dictionary of data processing by James W Cortada. New York: Greenwood, 1987

54. EDP costs and charges: finance, budgets and cost control in data processing by James W Cortada. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1983; new edition.

55. Managing DP hardware: capacity planning, cost justification, availability, and energy management by James W Cortada. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1983

56. An annotated bibliography on the history of data processing by James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983

57. 1861 diary of Miss Fannie Page Hume, Orange, Virginia by Fannie Page Hume. Orange County Historical Society (Va.), 1983

58. Historical dictionary of the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939 by James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982

59. Spain and the American Civil War: relations at mid-century, 1855-1868 by James W Cortada. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1980

60. EDP costs and charges: finance, budgets, and cost control in data processing by James W Cortada. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980

61. Spain in the twentieth-century world: essays on spanish diplomacy: 1898-1978 edited by James W Cortada. London: Aldwych Press, 1980

62. The way to win in graduate school by James W Cortada and Vera C Winkler. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979

63. Two nations over time: Spain and the United States, 1776-1977 by James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978

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64. A bibliographic guide to Spanish diplomatic history, 1460-1977 by James W Cortada. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977

65. A select bibliography on Orange County, Virginia by James W Cortada. Orange County Historical Society, 1975

66. Relaciones España–USA 1941-1945 by James W Cortada. Barcelona: DOPESA, 1973

67. Conflict diplomacy: United States-Spanish relations, 1855-1868 by James W Cortada. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Xerox University Microfilms, 1973

68. A select bibliography of materials published outside of Spain on the Franco period of Spanish history, 1939-1971 by James W Cortada. Barcelona, 1971

69. United States–Spanish relations, Wolfram and World War II by James W Cortada. Barcelona: Manuel Pareja, 1971

70. Bibliography of local government records in Orange County, Virginia by James W Cortada. Orange, Va.: Green Publishers, 1969

71. Probated wills: Orange county, Virginia, 1861-1865 by James W Cortada. Orange, Va., Orange County Historical Society, 1966

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News from the Archives Continuing a Legacy Moving into a position vacated by a long-standing predecessor can be a challenge. In my case, it has truly been an honor to follow in Arvid Nelsen’s footsteps as the interim Archivist for CBI. His foundational work to bring attention to hidden voices and social issues in the history of computing, the practical aspects of building and maintaining an amazing print collection, and his strong leadership and involvement within our profession sets a high bar for me. Arvid is greatly missed, but I hope that I can build upon his legacy in shaping the archives and special collections within CBI. Thus far, I have enjoyed getting to know our diverse donor and researcher community and working with colleagues in the College of Science & Engineering to encourage students to utilize primary sources in their research. Research in Focus It has been a busy summer and fall for new researchers at CBI. We’ve had the opportunity to welcome several international visitors, as well as two of our Norberg Fellows (Ekaterina Babintseva and Salem Elzway). A range of our collections have been used – including the Gartner Group Records (CBI 228), our very strong Soviet, Russian, and Eastern Bloc Collection (CBI 148), Sperry Rand Corporation Univac Records (CBI 129), Engineering Research Associates (ERA)-Remington Rand-Sperry Rand Records (CBI 176), the Edmund Berkeley Papers (CBI 50), the Margaret R. Fox Papers (CBI 45), the Mark P. McCahill Papers (CBI 195), and various aspects of the Control Data Corporation Records (CBI 80) and the Burroughs Corporation Records (CBI 90). A Season of Plenty Between April and October, nine wholly new collections and six accruals to existing ones arrived at CBI. There is a wide range in subject matter within the new materials – many of which build on CBI’s traditional strengths in computer security, women in computing, programming languages, and regional computing organizations, as well as a few new areas of collection focus. Of the new collections, the two largest are those donated by former DARPA director Stephen J. Lukasik and Marilou Harrison, who donated the records of her late husband’s (Lee Harrison III) company Computer Image Corporation. The arrival of Stephen Lukasik’s papers provide a remarkable trove of research materials for those interested in cybersecurity, the federal government’s considerable reach across the history of computing, as well as an interesting cache of records documenting the Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP), of which Mr. Lukasik was a member. These materials are currently being processed and we hope to make them available to researchers by next summer. A summary finding aid of the collection is currently available in our finding aid database for anyone interested in a preview of the materials. The records of the Computer Image Corporation are an exciting addition to CBI’s newest collecting focus — the colorful history of the computer generated imaging and animation industry. Brought to CBI with the assistance of Ed Kramer, Joan Collins, and Marilou Harrison, we are thrilled to bring researchers into contact with the groundbreaking work of Lee Harrison III — a true pioneer in analog computer animation. I’m looking forward to sharing some of the

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films from the donation, especially the live action test footage of Scooby Doo from 1973 and very early ad work for Tony the Tiger. In addition to Stephen Lukasik and Marilou Harrison, I would also like to thank recent donors Henrietta Gale and the Internet Legacy Institute, Terry Benzel, Scott Grabow, Lyn Bates, Fred Honhart, Burt Grad, Charles Bachman, the families of Eric Weiss and Christopher Shaw, and Col. Thomas Bailey for their materials — look for these finding aids in Spring 2017.

Amanda Wick

Interim CBI Archivist and Curator

The Development of Computer-Based Education in the Cold War United States and Soviet Union (Norberg Grant) As a recipient of the Norberg Travel Fund, I visited the Charles Babbage Institute in the summer of 2016 to conduct research for my dissertation. My work focuses on the connections between Cold War research policies, behaviorist psychology, and the development of the first computers designed for teaching in the US and the Soviet Union. I began my research on the first teaching computers in the summer of 2015 at the archives of the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign, where I studied collections on one of the first teaching computers, cleverly named with the acronym PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations). Built in 1960 by a group of engineers and mathematicians headed by an electrical engineer Donald Bitzer at the University of Illinois, PLATO provided computerized, interactive, self-paced instruction in sciences and foreign languages. Its distinctive feature was that it allowed students to essentially receive instantaneous reinforcement of correct work as well as assistance when students were having difficulty. In the next twenty years, PLATO went through six revisions involving significant changes in its hardware and software. The transformation in the hardware involved replacing a cathode-ray tube with a touch-sensitive plasma display which included built-in memory. The changes in PLATO’s software were conceptually deeper and reflected important debates about human nature that took place in the scientific communities and in American society during the Cold War.

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The courseware of earlier versions of PLATO made use of behaviorist theories of learning. Yet, beginning in the mid 1960s, Bitzer and his colleagues started to explicitly deny any connection between PLATO and behaviorism. I suggest that the acceptance of behaviorism and a later rejection of this approach reflect the growing competition between behaviorist and cognitivist approaches to human nature in the scientific communities and in American society. As historian of science Jamie Cohen Cole shows, in the mid 20th century, “cognitive science supplanted behaviorism as the hegemonic science of human nature” in the United States.2 The victory of cognitivists was possible due to the deep political connotations that both behaviorism and cognitive science developed. Since behaviorists denied that the self has any insight and, instead, posited that its actions solely depend on external stimuli, a behaviorist conception of the self came to be associated with totalitarianism. Meanwhile, cognitive science provided American society with a model of a democratic self that embodied such cognitive virtues as rationality, creativity, and autonomy. Cohen Cole’s account of mid 20th century American psychology helps to explain Bitzer’s denial of PLATO’s connections with behaviorism: he and his colleagues wanted to protect themselves from public accusations of PLATO promoting cramming, encouraging conformity, devaluing critical thinking and creativity, as well as making use of an ideologically marginal approach to human nature. After my preliminary research of American psychology during the Cold War and its relevance for designing teaching computers such as PLATO, I became interested in whether the Soviet Union had similar ideological debates about the “right” psychological approaches to human nature and if the Soviets ever planned to build, or built, teaching machines that made use of behaviorism – a theory that was much despised by American liberals. In summer 2016, I came with all of these questions to the Charles Babbage Institute where I found myself lucky enough to find an ample amount of information on my topic. My findings at CBI can be divided into two thematic groups: firstly, as I consulted the records of the Control Data Corporation (CDC) and papers of its CEO, William Norris, I learned about CDC’s crucial role in scientific and technical exchanges between the US and USSR as well as its efforts to sell PLATO to the Soviet Union. The second group of my findings contains information on behaviorist theories of learning which are documented by papers of the MOSAIC (Multi-User On-Line System for the Analysis of International Computing) group, an interdisciplinary collaborative effort to study the development and application of electronic

2 Cohen-Cole, Jamie. The Open Mind: Cold War Politics and the Sciences of Human Nature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 142.

Control Data Corporation Learning Center

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digital computing in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and the People’s Republic of China. While some may think the Cold War meant the lack of any contact between the United States and the Soviet Union in the field of science and technology, my study of CDC’s records provides a different perspective on this era. In the early 1970s, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger promoted a number of bilateral agreements in scientific and technological exchanges between the US and the USSR as an attempt to improve relations between the two countries. CDC took advantage of the opportunities that these agreements opened up for academic institutions and high-technology firms. CDC’s executives viewed cooperation in the application of computers to education as potentially “the most significant program carried out under the agreement of 1972.”3 A crucial actor in Soviet and American exchanges in computer-based education, CDC demonstrated the PLATO computer in Moscow in 1973-1974. PLATO was of deep interest to educational leaders in the Soviet Union, especially in the Soviet Ministry of Higher Education. As CDC considered the Soviet Union to be the only major industrial country with the same fundamental objective of education as the US — mainly, the highest quality for the greatest number of people — CDC planned to sell PLATO to the USSR and, most importantly, collaborate with Soviet scientists to develop new teaching techniques as well as work on programming and software development. CDC’s records indicate that while CDC projected the installation of 96,930 PLATO computers in the Soviet Union by 1985, only one PLATO terminal was installed in the USSR in 1978 and that only two more computers were installed in 1982. At CBI I was struck by the amount of papers documenting deep anxiety and sheer anger that Americans (spanning gender and class) expressed about CDC’s technological exchanges with the Soviet Union. Along with selling PLATO, CDC planned on trading to the USSR its Cyber 76 computer. According to CDC’s executives, Soviets would use Cyber 76 for weather forecasting, yet a number of editorials and articles that appeared in American newspapers at that time insisted that Cyber 76 would allow Russians to build better nuclear weapons and more efficient missiles. CDC’s business plans caused a major public uproar and hundreds of American citizens wrote directly to William C. Norris accusing him of supporting totalitarianism and putting their country into danger. Yet, what caught my eye most of all, was a number of letters that made one and the same ideologically fraught claim. Several letters that Norris received claimed that by selling computer technology to the Soviet Union, CDC proved that capitalism is doomed. Such letters cited Lenin’s words about hanging the capitalists with the rope they would sell to the socialists. Viewing technology as an American national asset, the authors of these letters warned CDC that computer technology is that rope with which the Soviet bloc would strangle the West. The second group of my findings involves surveys of Soviet projects in teaching machines documented by MOSAIC records. Soviet interest in teaching machines and programmed instruction originated long before the 1970s when CDC brought PLATO to the Soviet Union. I came across a 1964 survey of the Soviet Union’s development and use of teaching machines which indicates that Soviet interest in behaviorist theories of learning was stimulated by the 1961 visit of influential American behaviorist B. F. Skinner to the USSR. The survey states that Soviet work on teaching machines began in mid 1961 and that by 1964, the Soviets had developed over

3 The Charles Babbage Institute, “Comments for National Science Foundation,” January 1974, Control Data Corporation Records. William C. Norris executive papers, box 10, folder 22.

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40 different types of teaching machines that ranged from simple individual testing devices to complex instructing machines utilizing a digital computer to teach 20 or 30 students simultaneously. Teaching programs were developed for numerous courses, principally foreign languages and technical subjects such as electronic circuit analysis. All Soviet research on programmed instruction was the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher and Specialized Secondary Education of the USSR and of the Commission on Programmed Instruction of the Scientific Council on Cybernetics of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Research on teaching machines in the Soviet Union was part of the research in the field of cybernetics, an area that had received high level governmental endorsement and support. During my visit to CBI I learned that computer-based education and behaviorist theories of learning occupied the minds of people in both halves of the divided world. What’s more, the US and the USSR cooperated in the field of computerized education under the bilateral agreements of the 1970s. These findings provided me with the grounds for a comparative study of Soviet and American projects in teaching computers. Before my visit to CBI, I had no information on any interest in computer-based education in the Soviet Union. Thanks to the Norberg Travel Grant and enormous help of Amanda Wick, the current CBI archivist, I got a hand on material crucial for my dissertation project.

Ekaterina Babintseva University of Pennsylvania

ekatb@sas.upenn.edu

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Shane Greenstein Explains “How the Internet Became Commercial” At CBI we take great pride in the visibility and accomplishments of the CBI–Tomash Fellows, who ever since the naming of Bill Aspray as the inaugural fellow in 1978-79 have formed an unusually prominent cohort in the history of computing. As CBI Newsletter articles often highlight, many of the leaders in the field started their careers as Tomash Fellows. Yet the reach of Tomash Fellows extends far into the wider world. It happens that Stuart Shapiro (Tomash Fellow 1985), who works as Principal Cyber Security and Privacy Engineer at MITRE Corporation, was recently named to be chair of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) U.S. Public Policy Council. Also notable are the Tomash Fellows pursuing careers in schools of management or business. These include William McHenry, Shane Greenstein, Anthony Gandy, and Ian Walsh, who were named Tomash Fellows, respectively, in 1981, 1988, 1989, and 2008. We have avidly followed Shane Greenstein’s path-breaking research on internet-service providers, well known to the CBI community through his chapter in The Internet and American Business (MIT Press 2008), the landmark volume co-edited by Tomash Fellows Bill Aspray and Paul Ceruzzi. Greenstein’s work resulted in distinguished promotions at Northwestern University’s Kellogg School of Management and a recent move to the Harvard Business School, where he co-directs the Digital Initiative and is the MBA Class of 1957 Professor of Business Administration. His latest book, How the Internet Became Commercial: Innovation, Privatization, and the Birth of a New Network (Princeton University Press 2015) was completed with support from Northwestern, Harvard, MIT, and the Kaufmann Foundation. The 17 chapters of The Internet and American Business are useful to consult when looking for slices of the commercial internet, such as search engines, web infrastructure, software delivery, e-commerce, business strategy, virtual communities, as well as case studies of bricks-and-mortar retailing, media, music, and pornography. As a complement, Greenstein provides an analytical narrative centered around several major turning points. The first of these, “The Transition,” pivots on privatization of the internet (1985-95) which includes detailed treatment of the National Science Foundation, the founding of internet

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governance with the Internet Society and IETF, the rise of the Mosaic/Netscape browser and Apache server, and attention to key legislative changes such as the 1991 High-Performance Computing Act and 1996 Telecommunications Act. The second turning point, “The Blossoming,” details the classic story of the World Wide Web, e-commerce, and the run-up to the dot-com boom. Special attention is devoted to Microsoft, AT&T, IBM, and the merger-prone WorldCom as well as Tim Berners-Lee and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). The third, “Exploration and Renewal,” ties together episodes from the more recent history in a particularly satisfying manner. In summary, these chapters deal with the “browser wars” between Microsoft and Netscape, the connection of Wall Street to “irrational exuberance,” the rise of second-generation web companies exemplified by Google, and the technical and legislative steps that led to mobile computing. These chapters give us clearly drawn portraits of how Bill Gates discovered the internet in mid-1995, used Internet Explorer to bolster Microsoft’s dominance, and in time landed in Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson’s courtroom. Of special note is the emergence of “Wi-Fi” with the IEEE’s 802.11 standard, its software adaptation by Apple and Microsoft, and its hardware implementation in Intel’s Centrino microchip. Greenstein’s treatment of Google stresses that firm’s adopting a “second-price” auction for its money-spinning advertisements. Greenstein’s interviews with 29 internet and web notables provide unusual behind-the-scenes insight. Researchers at CBI can follow up with Gordon Cook’s Internet Report (1992-present) and these archival resources: Alex McKenzie Collection of Computer Networking Development Records (CBI 123); John Day Papers (CBI 165); William Blake Archive Project Records (CBI 174); Brian Kahin Papers (CBI 194); Mark McCahill papers (CBI 195), and Gartner Group Records (CBI 228).

Thomas J. Misa

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Recent Publications Agar, Jon. “Putting the Spooks Back In? The UK Secret State and the History of Computing.” Information & Culture 51:1 (2016): 102-124. Akita, Katsuji and Yutaka Hasegawa. “History of COMTRAC: Development of the Innovative Traffic Control System for Shinkansen.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:2 (April-June 2016): 11-21. Amrute, Sareeta Bipin. Encoding Race, Encoding Class: Indian IT Workers in Berlin (Duke University Press, 2016). Aspray, William. Participation in Computing: the National Science Foundation's Expansionary Programs (Springer, 2016). Aspray, William. Race and Computing: A History of Efforts to Broaden Participation of African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians in Computing in the United States (Springer, 2016). Aspray, William. Women and Underrepresented Minorities in Computing: A Historical and Social Study (Springer, 2016). Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo and Andrew Smith. “The Industrial Organization of Hong Kong’s Progression Toward a Cashless Economy (1960-2000s).” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:2 (April-June 2016): 54-65. Beaton, Brian. “How to Respond to Data Science.” Information & Culture 51:3 (2016): 352-272. Beck, John and Ryan Bishop, eds. Cold War Legacies: Systems, Theory, Aesthetics (Edinburgh University Press, 2016). Bernhardt, Chris. Turing’s Vision: The Birth of Computer Science (MIT Press, 2016). Blyth, Tilly. “Exhibiting Information: Developing the Information Age Gallery at the Science Museum.” Information & Culture 51:1 (2016): 1-28. Caroline, Jack. “Meaning and Persuasion: The Computer and Economic Education.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:3 (July-September 2016): 6-9. Cortada, James W. “A Framework for Understanding Information Ecosystems in Firms and Industries.” Information & Culture 51:2 (2016): 133-163. Day, John. “The Clamor Outside as INWG Debated: Economic War Comes to Networking.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:3 (July-September 2016): 58-77. Denning, Peter. “Fifty Years of Operating Systems.” Communications of the ACM 59:3 (March 2016): 30-32.

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Ensmenger, Nathan. “Multiple Meanings of a Flowchart.” Information & Culture 51:3 (2016): 321-351. Fidler, Bradley and Morgan Currie. “Infrastructure, Representation, and Historiography in BBN’s Arpanet Maps.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:3 (July-September 2016): 44-57. Garcia-Vincente, Florencia, Daniel Garcia-Swartz, and Martin Campbell-Kelly. “The History, Geography, and Economics of America’s Early Computer Clusters, Part I: Patterns.” Information & Culture 51:3 (2016): 299-320. Garcia-Vincente, Florencia, Daniel Garcia-Swartz, and Martin Campbell-Kelly. “The History, Geography, and Economics of America’s Early Computer Clusters, Part 2: Explanations.” Information & Culture 51:4 (2016): 445-478. Greenstein, Shane. How the Internet Became Commercial: Innovation, Privatization, and the Birth of a New Network (Princeton University Press, 2015). Gross, Andrew and Emeric Solymossy. “Generation of Business Information, 1937-2012: Moving from Data Bits to Intelligence.” Information & Culture 51:2 (2016): 226-248. Helland, Pat. “The Singular Success of SQL.” Communications of the ACM 59:8 (August 2016): 38-41. Hemmendinger, David. “Two Early Interactive Computer Network Experiments.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:3 (July-September 2016): 12-24. Jones, Allan. “Brains, Tortoises, and Octopuses: Postwar Interpretations of Mechanical Intelligence on the BBC.” Information & Culture 51:1 (2016): 81-101. Kita, Chigusa and Hyungsub Choi. “History of Computing in East Asia.” [Guest Editors’ Introduction] IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:2 (April-June 2016): 8-10. Kizza, Joseph Migga. Ethics in Computing: A Concise Module (Springer, 2016). Lazard, Emmanuel, and Pierre Mounier-Kuhn. Histoire illustrée de l'informatique [Illustrated History of IT] (EDP Sciences, 2016). Lehning, James R. “Technological Innovation, Commercialization, and Regional Development: Computer Graphics in Utah, 1965-1978.” Information & Culture 51:4 (2016): 479-99. Light, Jennifer. “Computing and the Big Picture: A Keynote Conversation.” Information & Culture 51:1 (2016): 125-132. Lin, Ling-Fei. “Design Engineering or Factory Capability? Building Laptop Contract Manufacturing in Taiwan.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:2 (April-June 2016): 22-39.

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Park, Dongoh. “The Korean Character Code: A National Controversy, 1987-1995.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:2 (April-June 2016): 40-53. Partridge, Craig. “The Restructuring of Internet Standards Governance: 1987-1992.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:3 (July-September 2016): 25-43. Peters, Benjamin. How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet (MIT Press, 2016). Pias, Claus and Heinz von Foerster. Cybernetics: The Macy Conferences 1946-1953: The Complete Transactions (Diaphanes, 2016). Prieto-Ñañez, Fabian. “Post-Colonial Histories of Computing.” [Think Piece] IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:2 (April-June 2016): 2-4. Shetterly, Margot Lee. Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race (William Morrow, 2016). Spicer, Dag. “Raymond Tomlinson: Email Pioneer, Part I.” [Interviews] IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:2 (April-June 2016): 72-79. Spicer, Dag. “Raymond Tomlinson: Email Pioneer, Part II.” [Interviews] IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 37:3 (July-September 2016): 78-83. Sumner, James. “Making Computers Boring: Thoughts on Historical Exhibition of Computing Technology from the Mass-Market Era.” Information & Culture 51:1 (2016): 29-53. Valera, Miguel Escobar. “Hacking and Rehearsing: Experiments in Creative Tinkering.” New Theatre Quarterly 32:1 (February 2016): 68-77. Weber, Marc. “Self-Fulfilling History: How Narrative Shapes Preservation in the Online World.” Information & Culture 51:1 (2016): 54-80. Winkler, Jonathan Reed. “Blurred Lines: National Security and the Civil-Military Struggle for Control of Telecommunications Policy During World War II.” Information & Culture 51:1 (2016): 500-531.

Compiled by Jeffrey R. Yost

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Featured Photo

Election vote tallying using Control Data Equipment. Left to right: Wheelock Whitney, Karl Rolvaag, and Dave Moore. Circa 1968.