DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE …web02.gonzaga.edu/comltheses/proquestftp/Togun_gonzaga_0736M_1… · DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

______________________________________________________________________________

A Thesis

Presented to the Faculty in Communication and Leadership Studies

School of Professional Studies

Gonzaga University

______________________________________________________________________________

Under the Supervision of Dr. John Caputo

Under the Mentorship of Dr. Lazarina Topuzova

______________________________________________________________________________

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts in Communication and Leadership Studies

______________________________________________________________________________

By

Zelda Togun

December 2011

DIRECT INSTRUCTION 2


ABSTRACT

This study examined teacher-created instruction and direct instruction using The Muted Group

Theory. The study questions were: RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African

American middle-school children? RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the

academic choices offered to families of African American middle school children? The scope

of the study was limited to classroom observations and interviews of students‘ time-on-task. The

study used qualitative research methods by a non-participant observer. This study used an

ethnographic approach to determine time-on-task for African American middle school students.

Students were observed in a Direct Instruction English Classroom and observed in a teacher-

devised instruction math classroom. A nonprobability sampling method was used. The

qualitative analysis demonstrated the African American students spent more time-on-task in the

direct instruction English class than those same students in the teacher devised instruction Math

class. Based on The Muted Group Theory, the direct instruction English class provided the

students with more voice as to the method preferred, as two-thirds of the group had more time-

on-task using the direct instruction method.


Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 6

The Problem and Study Goal 6

The Importance of the Study 7

Statement of the Problem 7

Definitions of Terms Used 8

Organization of Remaining Chapters 8

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9

Philosophical Assumptions 9

Theoretical Basis 10

The Literature 12

Affirmative Positions 12

Dissenting Positions 14

Rationale 16

Research Questions 16

CHAPTER 3. SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY 18

Scope of this Study 18

Study Population 18

Field Methods 18

The Settings 19

Methodology 19

Unit of Study 20

Anonymity and Confidentiality 20

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Instrumentation 20

Taxonomy 20

CHAPTER 4. THE STUDY 23

Introduction 24

Data Analysis 24

The Classrooms24

Results of the Study 33

Discussion 34

CHAPTER 5. SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS 37

Limitations of the Study 37

Conclusion 38

References 41












CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The Problem and Study Goal

Scholars have historically studied education and communication and noting the

fundamental link between theory and practice. Educational philosophers from Socrates to

Dewey to Freire held the view that education and communication were inexorably linked

(Glander, 2000). A common area of study is the actual communication processes used to make

learning possible. This thesis explores two communication modes of instructional delivery and

their effectiveness in classrooms with African American middle-school students.

All students require instruction in order to grasp learning principles. Instruction may take

the form of teacher-created instruction, traditionally used in kindergarten through grade twelve

(K-12) schools, or direct instruction, a newer method which includes the use of a scripted

curriculum. Luke (1998, cited in Hinchman & Lalik, 2002) noted ―debates about literacy

education were mainly framed around competing instructional approaches to teaching reading

and writing‖ (Hinchman & Lalik, 2002, p.85). Direct instruction with a scripted curriculum is

gaining momentum with educators.

Classroom instruction in K-12 classrooms is a priority in identifying and quantifying

methods to improve student test scores ―[a]s a result of the Comprehensive School Reform

Demonstration (CSRD) program (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). By 2002, over 380

school reform models were adopted with CSRD support‖ (Desimone, 2002). The data presents a

conflict in determining which method results in improved test scores. Instructors may be unable

to select the best instructional methods because ―[o]ur (individual) understanding of what is real

is different. Which is another way of saying that embedded in every tool is an ideological bias, a

predisposition to value one thing over another‖ (Postman, 1992, p.13). A comparative analysis


of traditional self (teacher-created) - devised instruction, and direct instruction will be examined

in this thesis.

The Importance of the Study

At its creation, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was defended as necessary

to further advance the goal of achieving educational equity by holding public schools responsible

for eliminating achievement disparities between high- and low-performing students, especially

between minority and non-minority students (Sunderman, Kim, & Orfield, 2005). Former

President George W. Bush described NCLB as a path to educational transformation, and the key

to racial equality and economic success; his critics denounced the very same law as a plot to

undermine public education (Sunderman, Kim, & Orfield, 2005). NCLB gave Bush

administration officials leverage to impose its preferred method of teaching reading, which is

direct instruction (Sunderman, Kim, & Orfield, 2005). The Bush administration preferred the

teaching method of NCLB, and this preference fuels the debate on which is the better form of

instruction, teacher-created instruction or direct instruction.

Statement of the problem

As teachers continue to seek the best method to educate all students, especially low

performing students, the question to be explored is: Do standardized direct instruction materials

improve educational outcomes for African American middle-school students? This seeks to

allow the African American students to provide the answer themselves based on The Muted

Group Theory. According to Kramarae (2005), Muted Group Theory is one resource that

provides assistance for many people in guiding some of their thoughts and actions about

communication. It is specifically these actions by the African American students that will be

examined in this thesis.


Definitions of Terms Used

For the purposes of clarity the following key terms are defined:

Middle School: Includes grades six, seven and eight.

Teacher Devised Instruction: Any lesson plan that an individual teacher prepares individually.

Direct Instruction: Is a method of restructuring curriculum into strand sequences using precise

wording of teacher presentations (Kozioff, LaNunziata, Cowardin & Bessellieu, 2000, p. 54).

Organization of Remaining Chapters

The thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter 2 presents the literature review and

summarizers what other communication scholars written about the use of direct instruction.

Chapter 2 also presents research studies which have been conducted on the subject.

Chapter 3 defines the methodology used for this research study and the rationale. The

type of participants and unit of study are defined and the length of time allowed for this research

study. Chapter 4 provides research results and a discussion of the findings in the context of the

literature review presented in Chapter 2. Chapter 5 provides the summary, study limitations,

conclusions and recommendations for future studies.


CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Philosophical Assumptions

In today‘s society educators face a constant challenge on how to best educate all

members of society. One variable in the educational arena is culture. How culture is addressed

becomes more difficult as educators are provided with conflicting studies on best instructional

practices. Ritzer (2008) spoke of a way of instituting processes that affect our entire society

called ―McDonaldization‖ (Ritzer, 2008). Ritzer defined McDonaldization as ―the process by

which principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of

American society which affects restaurants business, education, work, healthcare etc.‖ (Ritzer,

2008, p.9). Educators must be mindful of instituting processes that stifle and mute the learning

process as opposed to facilitate it. ―In its most basic form, co-cultural theory lends

understanding into the process by which different members of underrepresented groups enact

certain communicative practices‖ (Orbe, 2006, p. 66).

Stuart Hall and his colleagues developed the field of cultural studies, building on the

theories of Richard Hoggart and Raymond Williams (Gandesha, 2000). Griffin (2006) stated

Hall‘s believes the sole purpose of the mass media is to perpetuate dominance of those with

power, ―resulting in the exploitation of the powerless‖ (p.371). Hall saw communication as a

method to develop meaning through discourse, defined as communication and culture (Griffin p.

375). In Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (1997), Hall describes

an ―anthropological‖ definition of culture: culture is what is unique or shared about a group – a

community, nation, or social group (p. 2). A. Kuskis (Personal Communication, May 6, 2009).


The thesis is routed in Habermas‘ Discourse Ethics (Griffin, 2009). Habermas contended

individuals within a community can agree on a common good to be accomplished for the

community (Griffin, 2009). Habermas stated: ―An ideal speech situation is where participants

are free to listen to reason and speak their minds without fear of constraint or control‖ (Griffin,

2009, p. 231). Habermas cited three requirements for validity of any ethical consensus:

1. Requirement for access. All people affected by the ethical norm being debated can

attend and be heard, regardless of their status.

2. Requirement for argument. All participants are expected to exchange their points of

view in the spirit of genuine reciprocity and mutual understanding.

3. Requirement for justification. Everyone is committed to a standard of

universalization. The acceptance of everyone affected to live by them. (Griffin, 2009,

p. 231).

The current research study is grounded in West‘s Prophetic Pragmatism Philosophy:

―The moral obstacle West wants to overcome is the institutional oppression of ‗the

disadvantaged, degraded, and dejected‘ people who ―face racism, sexual discrimination and

economic injustice‖ (Griffin, 2009, p. 272).

The research study is an attempt to increase cultural understanding as it relates to

educational instructional methods; to expand modes of communication enhancing the

understanding of the message to the receiver. The research goal is to consciously strive to avoid

sending or receiving messages which oppress and stifle. And finally, to ethically promote the

use of communication through the use of words, images, sounds, touch etc., as a way to provide

insight and harmony to individual understanding of the people in the world.

Theoretical Basis


Stuart Hall and colleagues developed the field of cultural studies, building on the theories

of Richard Hoggart and Raymond Williams (Gandesha, 2000). Many of the early studies dealt

with the theorists‘ and students‘ focus on issues of class and race (Davis, 2004, p. 28). Hall and

his students‘ initial focus was to ―articulate their perception of the cultural struggle between the

haves and the have-nots‖ (Griffin, 2006, p. 371).

A theoretical approach derived from Hall‘s cultural studies is The Muted Group Theory

of communication and more specifically The Muted Group Theory across Cultures. According

to Orbe (1995), muting as described in Muted Group Theory can be applied to many cultural

groups (Orbe, 1995). Muted Group Theory suggests that individuals assigned to subordinate

groups have little power in expressing communication needs (Orbe, 2005). The voice of the

subordinate group is often stifled or ‗muted‘ by those in the dominant culture (Kramarae, 2005).

Orbe expands on the muting theory to include ethnic minorities, using the term Co-Cultural

Communication Theory (Orbe, 1995).

In developing a Co-Cultural Communication Theory (Orbe, 2005, p. 65) Orbe focuses on

how different underrepresented group members negotiate their muted group status. According to

the Co-Cultural Communication Theory, constant negotiation includes remaining muted, but also

identifies the diverse ways in which individuals regain a voice (Orbe, 1995).

Kramarae‘s (2005) muted group theory which claims individuals are muted by

controlling language and the rules for its use is worthy of discussion as it relates to classroom

instructional technique and curriculum selection. Educational professionals unwittingly may

select instructional techniques that facilitate muting. Ethically, this practice should be brought to

the forefront of the discussion. Academic theorizing often has political consequences for

pedagogy, as well as for issues and actions external to the classroom (Orbe, 1996). When


instructors are directed to use one instructional technique for African American students, the

instructors are making a decision as to which technique is best without the input of the recipients,

and the decision becomes a form of muting the African American students.

The Literature

Affirmative Positions

Coyne, Zipoli, Chard, Faggella-Luby, Ruby, Santoro, and Baker (2009) stated direct

instruction can be used effectively with students who have varying levels of reading and

comprehension. Various instructional methods can be used to increase and maintain

achievement levels and prompt students to access prior knowledge when decoding words. Coyne

and colleagues‘ research supports the implementation of a direct instruction curriculum for

students achieving at or below grade level (Coyne, et.al., 2009, p. 233).

Shippen et al. (2005) conducted a study on the different effect of two direct instruction

reading programs. The school contained 99% African American students in the middle grades.

One program used overt decoding strategies and one program used covert decoding strategies.

Shippen and colleagues found the students in both studies increased reading ability. The social

validity measures indicated the majority of students believed they benefited from the direct

instruction reading programs. Seventy percent70% of students and teachers believed the

program would be beneficial to other middle schools (Shippen et al., 2005).

Flores and Taylor (2007) focused on students at risk for failing Mathematics. The

researchers used direct instruction previously used for special education students and applied the

same instructional techniques to the general population (Flores & Taylor, 2007). The

participants were thirty students ranging from 12 to 14 years of age, with eleven females and

nineteen males. Eighteen of the students were Hispanic, six of the students were White, and six


of the students were African American. All of the students demonstrated deficits in the area of

basic fractions based on school district progress assessments. The students who participated in

direct instruction lessons outperformed peers on informal and formal measurements (Flores &

Taylor, 2007).

McDonald, Ross, Bol, and McSparrin-Gallagher (2007) conducted a study on ―student

achievement, school climate and pedagogy‖ (p. 271) at three charter schools: an elementary

school, a middle school and a high school. The schools were located in a large urban school

district serving over 100,000 students of which 71% were economically disadvantaged and over

80% were African American (McDonald, et al., 2007). The middle school served 180 students,

and grades six and seven were African American students only (McDonald, et al., 2007). A

direct instruction curriculum was instituted after a supportive environment was established the

previous year. The results were monitored by surveys and observations of the time the students

spent on task in the classroom. The results of the study indicated ―students attending these

charter schools were generally performing higher than their peers who remained in traditional

schools‖ (p. 294). The authors concluded that this form of instruction was beneficial and

increased student post-test scores (McDonald, et al., 2007).

Gentle-Genitty (2009) focused on African American students‘ transition from middle

school to high school and which type of programs facilitated successful transition (Gentle-

Genitty, 2009). Middle school is a time when students face changes, such as changes in teachers,

peer groups, class size, and school location—and from small-group and individualized methods

of instruction to whole class lectures (Gentle-Genitty, 2009). The author concluded such changes

seem to negatively affect African American students disproportionately.


A search was conducted for programs that were defined as a best practice within a

particular field, were age-specific (if the age was defined as a range, the range was designed to

include students 13 to 14 years old), and were implemented in an urban school setting (Gentle-

Genitty, 2009). The school decided to augment their structured curriculum with an additional

structural program implemented throughout the entire school (Gentle-Genitty, 2009). The

program worked with teachers, other participants, parents and individual students to improve

academically (Gentle-Genitty, 2009). Students were divided into three groups: group one

received the structured curriculum in the fifth grade; group two received the structured

curriculum in the sixth grade; and group three, the control group, consisting of students in the

same grades, received no structured curriculum. The results were the groups who received the

structured curriculum in grades five and six showed significant academic increase as compared

to the control group (Gentle-Genitty, 2009).

Dissenting Positions

A dissenting point of view on the merits of direct instruction is presented by Ryder,

Burton, and Silberg (2006). A three-year study of methods of teaching reading was conducted.

Ryder, et al. (2006) found that students who were exposed to direct instruction only scored lower

than students instructed by the traditional teacher-created instruction. Ryder, et al., (2006)

recommended direct instruction be used sparingly. The authors concluded direct instructional

techniques and curriculum lacked sensitivity to issues of poverty, culture, and race.

Pascopella (2001) discussed the Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP) and the concerns

with the curriculum. The populations studied were Hispanic and African American students.

The KIPP program used direct instruction as its only curriculum format. During the 1998-1999

school year, KIPP was reported as ―the highest performing public middle school in the Bronx in


reading and math scores. And the daily attendance rate was 96 percent, the highest in the state‖

(Pascopella, 2001, para.28). The reading and math scores for the Houston program in 2000

showed more KIPP fifth and sixth graders passed than the state average, but less than the district

average. Additionally, more KIPP eighth graders passed at 97% compared to 92% for the

district and 65% for the state (Pascopella, 2001). The authors found some parents were pleased

with the increased academic achievement of the students. The authors also found many educators

did not agree with the methods and disagreed with student achievement results (Pascopella,

2001).

KIPP‘s success was lauded as a model for educational reform; however, some educators

had a different perspective. ―Education expert Alfie Kohn stated such a program turns children

into ‗trained seals‘ that merely follow instructions‖ (Pascopella, 2001, para.32-33). The

mechanical nature of the curriculum was said to reduce the student‘s ability to use critical

thinking skills. An additional concern about the instructional method and classroom

environment revolved around discipline. Pascopella (2001) further quoted Kohn: ―It's not easy

watching kids who are subjected to a level of control that is downright militaristic or turned into

trained seals who have to bark out correct answers on command‖ (para.33).

Educators also voiced concerns over the resources KIPP removed from the local school

district. Richard Izquierdo, president of the school board in Bronx, New York, complained KIPP

forced school buildings to house several programs and schools within buildings designed for a

single school: "Our district was raped; KIPP gets priority for everything including the gym and

auditorium‖ (Pascopella, 2001, para.36).

Peterson (1979) discussed the results of direct instruction and concluded students

performed better on achievement tests and performed at a lower level on ―tests of abstract


thinking‖ (Peterson, 1979, p. 47). Peterson (1979) further stated students demonstrated less

creative thinking and problem solving when taught by direct instruction as the only curriculum

method. Peterson noted the type of learner who responded more favorably to direct instruction,

and indicated that type of student was another factor in the success or failure of direct

instruction. Students who felt that success was determinate on internal factors did less favorably

than students who felt success was determinate on external factors (Peterson, 1979).

Peterson (1979) also noted that large group instruction seemed to produce higher achievement

scores on students who needed additional assistance as compared to students who were gifted

and did well in small groups. Peterson noted the peer-to-peer teaching was a possible

explanation for these achievement differences (Peterson, 1979).

Rationale

The review of research on direct instruction as compared to traditional self-devised

(teacher-created) instruction did not clearly establish one preferred method. The results of the

literature reviewed were not conclusive as to which method was the better method to benefit

African American middle school students. The researchers studied age, economic status,

neighborhood and school systems of this population and the results remain conflicting. An

educator, parent and community member may need additional information to ascertain the best

curriculum to meet the student‘s educational needs.

Research Questions

The following research questions were investigated:

RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African-American middle-school children; and

RQ2: What role does Muted Group Theory play in the academic choices offered to families of

African-American middle school children? Using the ethnographic research approach to


determine which instructional method is best gives the students a voice. The results of this

research can also be factored into decision making by administrators. Educators cannot expect

positive results from an educational program which fails to respect the intended recipients

(Freire, 2009). It is important to note ―theoretical positions have moral implications, and when

we teach them, advocate their use by others, or promote policies based upon them, they have

moral consequences‖ (Shepherd, St. John & Striphas, 2006, p. 19).


CHAPTER 3. SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY

Scope of this Study

The research questions which arose from the literature review are as follows:

RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African American middle-school children?

RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the academic choices offered to families of

African American middle school children?

The scope of the study was limited to classroom observations and interviews specifically

looking at student time-on-task.

Study Population

A school in rural Southwest Oklahoma was selected for this study, meeting the research

criteria. The school has a diverse population, which includes African American, Latino and

Caucasian students. The students met the middle school criteria for sixth grade which is part of

the middle school grades. The school has students who attend a core subject class, English, with

direct instruction. The students then attend another core subject class, Math, with teacher-

devised instruction. The school consists of grades five and six. There are 251 students in the

sixth grade. There are 27 African American students in the sixth grade. Student observations

will be recorded and quantified using non-participant observations.

Field Methods

The research used qualitative research methods, with a daily descriptive journal to record

student observations. Permission was obtained from school administrators to act as a non-

participant observer of one middle school class of students who receive primarily direct

instruction from one teacher in one classroom and follow those students to another classroom

where the students receive teacher created instruction by another teacher.


The Settings

The English classroom teacher used a form of direct instruction. Lessons are pre-selected

novels and pre-compiled, worksheets, vocabulary, homework and assessments. The Math

classroom teacher used a teacher devised instruction plan which that teacher individually creates

and implements. Students were provided with in-class lessons, practice problems, vocabulary,

homework and tests.

Methodology

Previous studies have used the ethnographical approach for this type of research. During

a study on the effectiveness of direct instruction, McDonald, et al., (2007) used surveys and

observations of the time the students spent on task in the classroom (McDonald, et al., 2007).

The research method used in this study was ethnography. Ethnography is used to explain ―how

we come to understand another culture‖ (Rubin, Rubin, Haridakis, & Piele, 2010, p.222). A

nonprobability sampling method was used, consistent with previous studies which focused on

demographic groups similar to the sampling unit. The study was conducted for thirty calendar

days, Monday through Thursday. No observations were conducted on Fridays as testing usually

occurs. According to Rubin et al., (2010) ―those who conduct observational research look and

see how people act in different situations‖ (Rubin et al., 2010 p. 222); therefore observations of

students in their English and Math classes should provide time on task information for both

classes. The data obtained may provide further information as to which instructional method

yields more time on task for the research participants. The informant approach was used to

gather data from the instructors as ―the informant tells you if you have understood what you

think you have understood‖ (Caputo, 2011).


Unit of Study

The classrooms will be described as the culture and unit of study. Observations in this

environment are best suited for real-live communication, in a naturalistic real-life environment

(Caputo, 2011).

Anonymity and Confidentiality

A daily journal was used to record African American students‘ time off task. The

research will be a non-participant observer in the classroom. The informant approach will be

used as ―the informant tells you if you have understood what you think you have understood‖

(Caputo, 2011). The researcher will protect the sources of the information to ensure anonymity

of the school, students, and teachers. The protection of sources and the anonymity of the

participants assure cooperation and lessen the likelihood of the research used punitively.

Instrumentation

Taxonomy

The daily journals were tabulated and the data recorded on daily observation worksheets.

This information was recorded on weekly observation sheets. Taxonomy of the people in the

classrooms, the setting, and the social scene within this culture was developed. The researcher

measured the amount of time (percent) on task per observational period; the term ―on task‖ to be

defined as sitting up in seat and eyes on the teacher, raising hand and contributing to the

discussion. Time ―off task‖ was subtracted, and is defined as: eyes not focused on teacher,

talking to neighbor, reading or writing materials not assigned, moving around the classroom, i.e.,

sharpening pencils, asking permission to go to locker, bathroom, nurse or other school staff

member and other activities that detract from the student‘s learning. The researcher will create a


taxonomy to record observations by coding the actual participant names as flowers. The tables

below were the actual instruments used:

Weekly Calculations Chart

Student Class

Period

Subject Total

Instructional

Time 50

minutes

Total Time

Off Task

Total Time on

Task


Daily Observation Worksheet

Student On Task sitting

with back

against chair

feet on the floor

and eyes on

teacher.

Raising

hand,

asking

questions.

Completing

seat work

assignments.

Talking to

neighbor.

And or

walking

around

classroom.

Total

% on

task.

Total

% off

task.


CHAPTER 4. THE STUDY

Introduction

An ethnographic study was conducted to compare two instructional methods, direct

instruction, or teacher devised instruction and examines which method was more beneficial to

African American students in a rural middle school. According to the Muted Group Theory,

cultural anthropologists practicing ethnography only spoke to leaders of cultures (Jitendra et al.,

2005). ―Data would be used by cultural anthropologists to represent the culture as a whole,

leaving out the perspectives of women, children and other groups made voiceless by culture

hierarchy‖ (Arderner, 1957 p. 2).

Time-on-task has been associated with poor readers and underachievers. Jitendra, Cole,

Hoppes, & Wilson, (2005) performed a study on underachieving middle school students which

consisted of thirty students. The population studied included four culturally diverse students,

three boys and one girl with learning disabilities from a small northeastern school district. The

authors reported poor readers are often learners who are distracted or off-task, and lack task

persistence and self monitoring (Jitendra et al., 2005).

Muting is a form of oppression. Freire states: ―the teacher chooses the program content,

and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it‖ (Freire, 2009, p.73). As administrators

choose which instructional method is best for certain minority groups, including African

Americans, it would be more beneficial to observe the students and see how they respond, or stay

on task using the various instructional methods. This would be a middle school students‘ way of

having their voices heard. Therefore time-on-task or the lack thereof could provide useful

information as to which instructional approach is more embraced by a particular culture, based

on the findings of the current study. Although cultures are not monolithic, there may be subtle

preferences expressed by the actions of those within the culture (Orbe, 2005).


The goal of this study was to observe the students‘ time-on-task, which would

demonstrate a voice as to which method is preferable to them. The study design was developed

to measure how much time African American students spent on-task during fifty minutes in

direct instruction English class and during fifty minutes of teacher-devised instruction Math

class. The findings from the study suggest high rates of time-on-task are positively associated

with students‘ having a voice.

Data Analysis

The data for this study was obtained from one group of students who attended two core

classes: one English class followed by one Math class. There were twenty students, nine

Caucasian students, eight Latino students and three African American students. All study

participants were coded as flowers, protecting confidentiality. The study used a convenience

sample, representing the schools demographic as the total students in the sixth grade were two-

hundred fifty one students. Twenty-seven students in the sixth grade were African American.

The daily ethnographic journals were synthesized into daily observation worksheets, compiled

into weekly calculation sheets and tabulated to total time-on-task of the African American

students in the study.

The Classrooms

The English and Math classrooms are similarly arranged. Smart boards are placed at the

front of each classroom. Each classroom has four computers that the students may use at the

teacher‘s discretion. The students‘ desks are arranged in rows of two or three desks abreast. The

daily objectives are written on a whiteboard, which is located on an adjacent wall. The

whiteboard also contains the daily assignments. In the English class, students have the freedom

of going to the restroom with teacher permission. In the Math class, students write their name on


the whiteboard and take turns going to the restroom. Teacher permission was not required.

Pictures of each classroom are below:

English Classroom

Front of English Classroom


Front and center of English Classroom whiteboard

Math Classroom

Front of Math Classroom


Rear of Math Classroom

Rear of Math Classroom


Behaviors coded as off-task

Walking around room.

Leaving seat to get tissue, blow nose, throw away and return

to seat.

Going to the bathroom.

Getting a drink of water.

Talking to neighbor.

Drawing/writing on whiteboard.

Writing on hand.

Leaving desk to get hand sanitizer.

Sharpening pencil.

Asking or looking for pen or marker.

Standing at desk and removing items from book bag.

Playing with items in or on desk.

Passing and or reading notes.

Moving desk and or chairs.

Drinking water and eyes not on teacher.

Walking around classroom.


Daily Observation Worksheet Totals

English Class

Tulip

Time-off-Task

Carnation

Time-off-Task

Daffodil

Time-off-Task Notes

Monday 10/10 6 4 6

Tuesday

Students were in and

out of

classroom/building,

filming a

commercial. Unable

to record accurate

stats.

Wednesday 9 7 2

Thursday Fall Break

Monday 10/17 2 2 0

Tuesday 4 3 3

Wednesday 2 8 0

Thursday 0 4 6

Monday 10/24 10 2 0

Tuesday 0 4 6

Wednesday 4 4 2

Thursday 0 4 6

Substitute in

classroom.

Monday 10/31 2 1 6

Tuesday 3 2 2

Wednesday 2 2 1

Thursday 3 2 2

Totals 47 49 36

*Time off task represents minutes.

** Students are anonymously referred to as flowers.


Daily Observation Worksheet Totals

Math Class Tulip Carnation Daffodil Notes

Total Time-off-Task Total Time-off-Task Total Time-off-

Task

Monday 10/10 22 13 0

Tuesday Did not use stats, due

to English class.

Wednesday 9 7 2 Students‘ seating

changed.

Thursday Fall Break

Monday 10/17 0 8 4

Tuesday 2 10 4

Wednesday 2 8 0

Thursday 6 7 0

Monday 10/24 10 2 0

Tuesday 0 4 6 Substitute in

classroom.

Wednesday 4 4 2

Thursday 0 4 6 Substitute in

classroom.

Monday 10/31 6 0 2

Tuesday 4 3 3

Wednesday 3 2 2

Thursday 5 3 4

Totals 73 75 35



Time on task was compared between the total time-on-tasks of African American students in the

English class and the total time-on-task of the African American students in the Math class.

Totals

Student Class

Total

Time-

off-

Task

Total

Instructional

Time

%

Time-

off-

Task

%

Time-

on-

Task

Tulip English 47 550 9% 91%

Carnation English 49 550 9% 91%

Daffodil English 36 550 7% 93%

Tulip Math 73 550 13% 87%

Carnation Math 75 550 14% 86%

Daffodil Math 35 550 6% 94%



9% 9%

7%

13% 14%

6%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

Tulip Carnation Daffodil

Tim

e o

ff T

ask

(%)

Student Name

Students Off-Task Time in English and Math

English

Math


Results of the Study

The qualitative analysis demonstrated the African American students spent more time on

task in the direct instruction English class than those same students in the teacher devised

instruction Math class. Therefore the Direct Instructional Method provided more time on task

for African American students in this study.

The results of the research question:

RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African American middle-school children?

RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the academic choices offered to families of

African American middle school children?

91% 91%

93%

87% 86%

94%

82%

84%

86%

88%

90%

92%

94%

96%

Tulip Carnation Daffodil

Tim

e o

ff T

ask

(%)

Student Name

Students On-Task Time in English and Math

English

Math


Discussion

Stuart Hall and other Critical Theorists seek to allow individuals to empower themselves

through their actions (Griffin, 2009). In developing a "Co-Cultural Communication Theory,"

Orbe focuses on how different underrepresented group members negotiate their muted group

status. According to his work, this constant negotiation includes remaining muted, but also

identifies the diverse ways in which individuals gain voice in different contexts (Orbe 1995).

This study sought to give middle-school African-American students a voice in how they actually

received communicative messages from two instructional methods. Orbe (1995) says the act

chosen depends on previous experiences, context; as well as the individual‘s abilities and

perceived costs and rewards. Students may use acceptable ways of behavior such as going to the

bathroom, sharpening a pencil or walking around the room, as opposed to vocalizing they do not

understand the topic being discussed or the context in which it is discussed.

Some examples of these acts that members of muted groups can choose from are:

emphasizing commonalities and downplaying cultural differences, educating others about norms

of the muted group, and avoiding members of the dominant group. Culturally, students may

spend more time-on-task when messages are understood or there is a shared communicative

meaning. The opposing view would be students may spend less time-on-task, when messages

are not understood, or there is a lack of shared communicative meaning.

The lack of shared meaning could also be described as a form of muting. As the students

do not fully participate in the instructional activities and do not vocalize their lack of

understanding of the instruction or their reason for non-compliance. Muting as described in

muted group theory can be applied to many cultural groups. Orbe (1995) stated that research

performed by the dominant white European culture has created a view of African-American


communication ―which promotes the illusion that all African-Americans, regardless of gender,

age, class, or sexual orientation, communicate in a similar manner‖ (p. 2).

This study was conducted to find the better of the two methods, Direct Instruction or

teacher devised instruction when used with African American middle school students. The

actual time the African American students spent on-task during the fifty minutes of classroom

instructional time provided the data to answer which instructional method was preferred by those

students. The students identified as flowers provided the following results: Tulip had a time-on-

task in English class of 91% and a time-on-task in Math class of 87%. Carnation had a time-on-

task in English class of 91% and a time-on-task in Math class of 86%. Daffodil had a time-on-

task in English class of 93% and a time-on-task in Math class of 94%.

According to the results in this study, the research results agree with the process as stated

by Shippen, Houchins, Steventon, and Sartor (2005), direct instruction classes are usually

instructed in small groups and the students are given several opportunities to respond in unison

and individually, with immediate feedback using a specific correction procedure. (Shippen et al.,

2005) This instructional format increased time-on-task significantly with Tulip on task in English

91% of the time as compared to 87% time-on-task in Math class. Carnation‘s time-on-task was

91% in English as compared to 86% time-on-task in Math class. Daffodil had a 93% time-on-

task in English as compared to 94% time-on-task in Math class. Two-thirds of the group

increased their time-on-task using the direct instructional method. Based on the classroom

sample unit of twenty total students in the classroom of which three were African American

students, the Direct Instruction Method provided the greater time on-task than the teacher-

devised instructional method.


The results are similar to McDonald, et al., 2007, who observed African American

middle school students in charter schools. Those students received direct instruction and were

monitored for time-on-task. The charter school students performed higher than their peers who

remained in traditional schools (McDonald, et al., 2007). The results of this study were similar

to Gentle-Genitty (2009) where students were divided into groups. The sixth graders who

received the structured curriculum made substantial academic progress as opposed to the control

group which received teacher devised curriculum (Gentle-Genitty, 2009).

The literature review expressed educator concerns about KIPP‘s methodology of ―turning

children into trained seals‖ (Pascopella, 2001, para. 32-33). This may be a concern for older

students; however, this research observed the students seemed happy to recite the correct answer

with the class in unison.


CHAPTER 5. SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS

Limitations of the Study

A limitation to the qualitative analysis approach is the unit to be sampled may not be

representative of the entire school or school district and therefore sweeping generalizations

cannot be made from this study, as this study group was a relativity small unit; which consisted

of a relatively small group of African American students. Another research limitation was the in

the selection of the schools and school district. The researcher had limited selection of classroom

choices available. The construction of the school district would be a limitation, as there are only

two grade levels per school; other than high school.

This study focused on three middle school African American students. The local middle

school, which uses the term ‗intermediate,‘ hosts two grades, grades five and six. All of the sixth

grade English teachers use direct instruction. Therefore a comparison of direct instruction and

teacher devised instruction in an English class could not be accomplished in this study. In the

junior high school, which hosts grades seven and eight, direct instruction is not used in any

English class. Another limitation is the small percentage of African American students in this

school district. It is important to note studies have been performed using a small percentage of

African American students. Flores and Taylor (2007) conducted a study on failing students

using direct instruction. The authors studied thirty students total, and six students were African

American (Flores & Taylor, 2007).

Ethical Concerns

A limitation in performing an ethnographic research study is it relies on the interpreter

approach and is subjected to those individuals‘ interpretations. In this study, the ethnographic

research approach does not allow for electronic recording. The rationale is an electronic


recording device may artificially stimulate the students to demonstrate inappropriate behavior,

and would thereby be unethical. Such a device could potentially prevent the researcher from

obtaining informed consent from parents and school administrators. Therefore, fewer participants

were studied, recorded and coded manually. Such a limitation may artificially inflate or deflate

percentages of time-on-task, depending upon the classrooms selected. Another ethical concern

would be the perception by teachers of an electronic recording device as having the potential to

be used in a punitive manner. According to Neuman (2006), the ethical researcher must weigh

privacy rights and the needs of the subjects against the needs of the research. ―There must be a

balance between scientific knowledge and those being studied‖ (Neuman, 2006, p. 129).

Future Study or Recommendations

The research design for this thesis was intended to be easily replicated by future research

in instructional method comparisons on middle school African American students. A

longitudinal study which encompasses a larger group of African American middle school

students should be conducted to determine generalizability of the present research findings. It is

also recommended that studies be performed on populations of African American students in

small, rural communities, possibly demonstrating an unintended muting effect on that

population.

Conclusion

The research study sought to answer RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching

African-American middle-school children?

This study on instructional methods sought to demonstrate how the Muted Group Theory

is used in a classroom environment, with African American middle school students expressing a

preference in educational methods. Based on the findings of this study, there may be less muting


in the English core class because the participants were able to communicate in smaller groups as

part of the direct instruction experience. Orbe states several issues are important to African

Americans: stereo-typing, acceptance, emotional expressiveness, authenticity, understanding,

goal attainment, and powerlessness (Hecht et al., 1989 cited by Orbe, 1995). Judging by the

two-to-one ratio, the African-American students were on-task more often when the direct

instruction method was used. The results may demonstrate a sense of belonging or fewer

feelings of isolation on the part of the participants; as whole class instruction allows answers to

be said in unison by the entire class. Daffodil seemed to flourish under both instructional systems

and may be described as an outlier. These results may be used as another factor when

administrators, community leaders, parents and teachers are selecting an instructional method for

African American students.

This study sought to answer RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the

academic choices offered to families of African-American middle school children?

Muted Group Theory is the act of subordinating groups and restricting or nullifying their

communication. Individuals or groups in the dominant position disregard the muted groups‘

experiences and the muted groups‘ ability to contribute to the policy making process regarding

their cultural communication needs (Kramare, 2005). Muted Group Theory further suggests that

a group maintains its dominance by stifling or muting a group‘s speech or ideas (Kramare,

2005). This theory may apply to middle school African American students and their educational

needs when instructional decisions are made by administrators, politicians and individual

educators. Orbe (1995) cites the Hecht el al., approach which seeks to identify interethnic

communication from the African American perspective thereby giving a voice on

communication effectiveness (Orbe, 1995). The fact that a voice would be needed is evidence of


the Muted Group Theory. Hecht el al., (1989) takes an interpretative approach to perceptions of

African American communication. The researchers' objective was to identify an African

American perspective on interethnic communication. African Americans are given a voice to

articulate their perspectives on communication effectiveness

The research study is an attempt to increase cultural understanding as it relates to

educational instructional methods; to expand modes of communication enhancing the

understanding of the message to the receiver. The research goal is to consciously strive to avoid

sending or receiving messages which oppress and stifle. And finally, to ethically promote the

use of communication through the use of words, images, sounds, touch etc., as a way to provide

insight and harmony to individual understanding of the people in the world.

This research study on communication theory and education sought to explain the

preference of one instructional method over another, by the actions of the African American

students. Time on-task may be defined as an expression of understanding and goal attainment,

and time off-task may be defined as an expression of powerlessness (Hecht et. al., 1989).

African American students who have a voice in any communication and exchange of ideas may

enhance the understanding of the message to the receiver.


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