Dictogloss: a classroom based evaluation

Christopher Harwood

Centre for English Language Communication

National University of Singapore

January 12, 20

About the author

Chris Harwood has taught EFL and EAP for over 15 years in Japan, Thailand, Austria, England and Egypt. His research interests are CALL and collaborative learning. He is currently investigating if blogs are a useful platform for process writing with Music students. Chris lectures in EAP at the National University of Singapore.

http://homepage.mac.com/jefftennant/wefla/WEFLA%2004/tematicas/T1/T1_T34.pdf

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Articles should

identify the type of course, describe the level of learners, and identify their learning need(s);

explain the steps or the procedure involved in implementing the activity;

reflect an awareness of current theory and practice in the field;

(preferably) include related screen shots, images, illustrations or links that exemplify their

relevance/pedagogical implications to the ELT classroom;

include any special requirements needed for the activity;

not exceed 2000 words.

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Introduction

Modern English language teaching (ELT) methodology is both eclectic and diverse.

Educators need to consider both pedagogic and second language acquisition (SLA) theories

when thinking about what to do in the classroom. They are now expected to employ a variety

of different methodologies and tasks to both introduce new language and practice and

reinforce existing language. For this reason many classroom procedures and activities

become popular and then go out of fashion, often simply replaced by a new teaching idea or

method. This paper serves as a timely reminder to teachers of the benefits of dictogloss, a

dictation procedure that encourages inductive learning and allows learners to discover or

induce meaning from language through their use of it. The pedagogic and SLA theories that

underpin dictogloss are discussed as well as its benefits and uses with university students.

1. A distinction is made between differences that are acceptable or unacceptable

2.0 Dictogloss - Procedure & Theory

Wajnryb (1990) is credited with helping to develop a new way of dictation known as

dictogloss. In traditional dictation students recreate a dictated text word for word. However,

dictogloss has different procedures and objectives. Learners retain the gist of a short text and

then apply their own linguistic and grammatical knowledge to form a parallel text. The

reconstructed text should approximate meaning as closely as possible and employ some

forms present in the original text. The text length should be no more than seven lines and

content should be determined through considering the learners’ level and grammatical and

lexical needs.

The student generated versions are then considered using three criteria; grammatical

accuracy, textual cohesion (if the created text holds together as a meaningful ‘chunk’ of

language), and logical sense. Alternative forms to the original dictated form are encouraged

as long as they meet these requirements. Wajnryb (1990:7) details four key stages of the

dictogloss procedure:

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Preparation

The teacher introduces a topic and related vocabulary. This can be done using a variety of

techniques: an open class discussion, group brainstorming, question and answer elicitation,

predicting text content from pictures or vocabulary. The important thing is that learners are

engaged with the topic and hopefully interested in it. It is a good idea at this stage to try and

elicit low frequency vocabulary

Harmer (2007) notes, that preparation stages are essential in listening tasks. Providing a

context helps learners to prepare for the kind of information, lexis and ideas they are about to

engage with. Once learners know the context for something, they will be able to predict

possible content and are more likely to engage with the text.Finding out what learners know

already about a topic allows them to activate their current knowledge and vocabulary.

Underwood (1989) supports this idea arguing that in real life we usually have some indication

of what someone might say. That expectation can be reflected in the classroom by activating

the learners’ schemata (background knowledge) with pre-listening tasks.

2.2 Dictation

Wajnryb recommends that learners should listen to the dictation twice and that both readings

should be, as far as possible, identical. The text is read at natural speed with short pauses

between each sentence. Students are told not to write anything the first time, ‘but allow the

words to wash over them’ (1990:8). This is to allow students to get an overall feel for the

passage. On the second listening students should take down notes. At this stage the teacher

should suggest that learners focus on noticing and recording key content or information

words. For example, in the phrase ‘…and the policeman chased the man down the street’ the

key words are policeman, chased, man, and street. The grammar words and, the and down,

are approximated, depending on their knowledge of the language, by the learners when

reconstructing the text at the production stage of the dictogloss.

The dictogloss makes dictation active and task based. It allows learners to engage with the

language in a whole context rather than trying to record words verbatim. The emphasis is on

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text as a semantic unit of language, which makes the procedure particularly relevant and

useful for higher-level learners. Upper-intermediate and advanced students are usually able to

construct grammatically accurate sentences in isolated or discrete item exercises but have

difficulty when trying to piece these sentences together into coherent texts.

Therefore as Wajnrb (1990:19) notes, dictogloss can help develop learner discourse

competence by focussing on, ‘Cross-sentence connections, as well as the various means-

notably, reference, and ellipsis and substitution-by which textual cohesion is established and

maintained in English’. This is achieved by using principles underlying collaborative learning

(Kessler, 1992), interactive learning (Shoemaker & Shoemaker, 1991), and self-directed

learning (Oxford, 1990) in ESL/EFL. In short, allowing learners to hypothesis experiment

and use language in a meaningful way in an appropriate context.

Thornbury (1999:85) evaluates the dictogloss and reports that it ‘provides a useful means for

guiding learners towards noticing the gap between their present competence and their target

competence’. Noticing language (learners discover or induce meaning from language through

their use of it) is a prerequisite for learning and dictogloss allows learners to notice different

things in a safe and non-threatening way.

Note that with larger authentic texts, students may be distracted by genre specific vocabulary.

Pre-teaching of this kind of vocabulary is often necessary when using dictogloss to keep

learners focussed on noticing how the language is used rather than what a particular low-

frequency word means. Alternatively teachers should avoid choosing a text that is too

overloaded with genre specific vocabulary unless it is relevant to your learners’ context.

2.3 Reconstruction

After the second reading learners reconstruct the text using the notes they recorded in stage

two of the dictation. Thornbury (1999) advises that groups of 3-4 students pool their notes

and mental resources and work on reconstructing a version of text. He also suggests one

student acts a scribe and writes down the completed group version of the text.

Swain and Lapkin (1995:375) suggest the benefits of reconstructing the text in this way lie in

the experimenting and hypothesising the learners engage in whilst doing the task. By

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producing the target language learners may, ‘consciously recognise some of their linguistic

problems; it may bring to their attention something they need to discover about their L2’.

This is linked to the prerequisite for learning of noticing language defined in 2.2.

It also promotes communication, collaboration, interaction, and self-directedness on the part

of the students. Learners are responsible for and can monitor their own learning the

reconstruction stage. This encourages learner autonomy, a tenet of the cognitive learning

approach.

The negotiation of meaning involved in these kinds of tasks culturally lends itself to Asian

students. Indeed as Wajnryb (1990) argues, the active learner involvement in the procedure

allows learners to confront their own strengths and weaknesses. However, as Jacobs (2003:7)

notes, ‘Individual accountability is, in some ways, the flip side of equal participation’.

Therefore teachers should be aware that this could result in some learners observing other

learners engaging with the dictogloss and not engaging with the procedure themselves.

2.4 Analysis and error correction

Learners analyse and correct their texts by writing their versions on the board or on OHTs

and comparing these with the work of other groups. The student versions are then compared

to the original text one sentence at a time. Feedback through peer correction and discussion is

then encouraged. The learner errors are noticed, exposed and discussed. As Thornbury

(2001:73) notes feedback and error correction becomes part of the input-output cycle:

text student reconstruction comparison

input output feedback

Learner awareness of their language choice is increased and they become conscious of how

they hypothesised about both the correct and incorrect choices they made during the

reconstruction. Feedback of this nature is thought to be more motivating as students consider

the effectiveness of their language and recognise the need to review the forms they choose

and the decisions they make.

Many learners find the opportunity to self correct or peer correct very motivating. In my

experience Chinese learners of English particularly enjoy the process of identifying and 5

understanding their own errors. Also, in general Middle-Eastern and European learners seem

to respond well to this kind of error correction. However, it should be recognised that these

are generalisations and not all learners are conducive to having errors examined publicly. For

example, Japanese learners are more sensitive to this approach, possibly because they place a

high value on accuracy and think of errors as failure.

3.0 Relevance to learning contexts

According to Thornbury (1997) dictogloss is a procedure useful for adult learners of pre-

intermediate level and above. He suggests, ‘different learners, depending on their state of

their interlanguage, as well as their interest and motivation, will notice different things’ (p:

332). It is therefore useful for general English courses where there is a significant range of

learner levels and interests in a given class. It may also be suitable for classes with students

from different educational backgrounds and learning contexts.

The collaborative nature of the reconstruction stage provides a good opportunity for

individual students to combine their skills. For example, the class used in this evaluation (see

appendix 1111) is comprised of European and Asian learners. The European learners are

relatively forthright and confident with their classroom contributions and can express

themselves with some fluency despite many grammatical inaccuracies. The Japanese,

Malaysian and Chinese learners have less communicative fluency but are more focused on

form and have a higher degree of accuracy with their productive output. Therefore, during the

reconstruction stage of the procedure each student has the opportunity to both contribute to

the collaboration with their language strengths and learn from their peers’ language strengths.

4.0 Objectives of the Evaluation

To explore how dictogloss enables learners to notice the gap between their present language

competence and target competence. This will be achieved by:

(1) Learners comparing their notes with those of their peers.

(2) Learners comparing group-generated versions of the text to the original version.

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Looking at how the class responds to the dictogloss procedure and determining whether,

(3) Learners are engaged and enjoying the learning process.

(4) Learners are motivated to analyse their errors.

(5) To try and establish if the procedure raises student consciousness of their ability and if so

how they react.

4.1 Evaluation Tools & Methodology

The dictogloss text and procedure used in this classroom evaluation is taken from Wajnrb

(1990:70-71) ‘Tips for travellers 2: getting around’ It was felt it would be better to use an

established resource rather than experimenting with producing new material. See lesson plan

timetable fit for reasons for text choice.

A colleague observed the class to identify the use of

-The generic singular – Traveller’s

-Lexical chains – the traveller, the visitor, a tourist

-Present modal should – for advice /deduction

-Infinitive/gerund alternatives- to find/finding, to master/mastering

and noted at each stage when the above appeared in student work. This was done using an

observation task sheet (appendix 4).

Stage 1) Dictation; which forms appear in individual student notes.

Stage 2) Reconstruction; which forms appear in the student’s version of the text.

Stage 3) Analysis and correction: which forms appear in other groups versions of the text.

This was done to identify which forms are noticed at which stage and to understand how

dictogloss may facilitate learning of grammatical and lexical forms.

In addition, students completed a post lesson questionnaire (appendix 2) which asked them to

rate the four stages of the procedure for enjoyment, difficulty and usefulness. Students were

given the opportunity to express any other thoughts in an open ended ‘other thoughts’ section

at the end of the questionnaire.

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5.0 Findings & Discussion

The completed observation task shows that group 1 successfully collaborated on this task. 3

of the 4 students were made aware of forms they had not noted themselves. However, student

1(see appendix 4) recorded the word visitor from sentence 3 of the text but this was not used

in the final group version. It was replaced with he.

All groups recorded to find in their versions but none noticed to master. Although the word

master was noted by one of the members in group 2, she could not place it in the text. Whilst

should for advice was used by group 1 and 3 group 2 replaced it with have to get. In sentence

3 group 3 noticed the use of visitor but groups 1 and 2 used the pronouns he and you in its

place.

In general the class seemed to comprehend the first two sentences more than the second two.

In sentence 4 should for deduction was noticed by group 2 but groups 1 and 3 used are able

to in its place. Also, group 3 used visitor instead of tourist in sentence 4.

Most students were involved and were given the opportunity to contribute notes and

negotiated meaning of the group texts through discussion. However, as one student wrote,

“Sometimes I can’t understand what other students says and also I don’t have a lot of

vocabulary so I can’t speak what I want to tell” (see appendix 2). Other students noted that

listening and note taking is very difficult. Indeed, as I monitored I did notice that group 2 had

two strong and confident learners and two weaker and more reserved learners. This mismatch

resulted in the two stronger students contributing a lot more to the final group version of the

text.

During the analysis and correction stage it was also good to see students who had correct

suggestions rejected by the group receive acknowledgement and apologies from their peers.

As the group versions were written on the IWB alongside the original text I heard “ahh we

said are able to not should”, similar realisations made by all three groups in the analysis of

the text. The concept checking and explanation of grammar at this stage seemed very

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straightforward. The students had engaged with and discovered much of what I had prepared

to check.

Overall I think the dictogloss was a success. The post lesson student questionnaire shows the

students found dictogloss both very useful and enjoyable (see appendix 2). In addition,

although many students noted it was difficult to listen and write at the same time, and that

they did not understand some vocabulary, their perception of this difficulty was reduced

during the group stages. All the groups produced coherent versions of the text, and were able

to identify and self/peer correct much of the lexis and grammar.

5.1 Recommendations

Dictogloss is a very useful teaching tool suitable for learners at all levels. The nature of the

procedure makes it a very flexible classroom tool but further adjustments within the different

stages are also advisable to enable teacher tailor the procedure for the needs of individual

classes dependent on the levels and nationalities in the class. A number of things could be

done to achieve this.

In order to use dictogloss with elementary learners a text may require ‘scaffolding’ (the

building up of target language structure over several TURNS in an interaction, Richards et al.

1992:321) in order for classes to really benefit from the procedure. This might involve pre-

teaching lexis and even reviewing grammar points prior to the reading. Also with pre-

intermediate learners low-frequency vocabulary words could be pre-taught to allow learners

to focus on the whole text without being distracted by low frequency lexis.

However, the collaboration, reconstruction and error analysis stages would still make the

exercise worthwhile. Recycling a text or part of a text that you have previously used as a

reading is also a useful idea

It might also be useful to organise classes so that particularly weak students are not grouped

with very strong and confident students. This should help reduce incidents where individual

contributions at the reconstruction stage are limited by individual personalities.

With advanced learners teachers might consider only one reading making the reconstruction

more of a challenge. Learners note-taking skills would have to speed up and greater

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interaction and collaboration would take place. In addition, the reduced ‘certainty’ of what

was said would lead to more hypothesising and negotiation of meaning during reconstruction.

The use up-to-date and ‘live’ texts from the internet, newspapers and television news reports

would be more motivating for students. Learning how to identify suitable texts for specific

language points would be a necessary and useful exercise for teachers to engage in to provide

classes with texts of this kind.

(2684 words)

References

Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching.: Prentice Hall Regents.

Jacobs, G (2003). Combining Dictogloss and Cooperative learning to Promote language Learning: The Reading matrix Vol. 3

Kessler, C. (Ed.). (1992). Cooperative language learning: A teacher's resource book: Prentice Hall Regents.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know: Heinle & Heinle.

Richards, J. Platt, J & Platt, H.(1992) Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied linguistics. Longman

Shoemaker, C.L. & Shoemaker, F.F. (1991). Interactive techniques for the ESL classroom: Heinle & Heinle.

Swain, M & Lapkin, S (1995) ‘Problems in output and the cognitive process they generate: a step towards second language learning’ Applied Linguistics 16/3: p.371-91

Thornbury, S. (1997). ‘Reformulation and reconstruction: tasks that promote noticing’ ELT Journal Vol 51/14 p326-335

Thornbury, S. (1999). How to teach grammar: Pearson Longman

Thornbury, S.. (2001). Uncovering Grammar: Macmillan Heineman

Underwood, M (1989) Teaching Listening: Longman

Wajnryb, R. (1993). Grammar dictation: Oxford University Press.

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Lesson plan – dictogloss

Class Profile

This multi-lingual group come together twice a week for two hours. There are 12 students in the group 2 men and 10 women. There are eight different nationalities: 3x Japanese, 2x (Chinese) Singaporean, 2x (German)Swiss, I x Dutch, Ix Thai, 1x Ecuadorian, 1x Korean, 1x Malaysian. The learners are all intermediate level with different strengths and weaknesses. They all express the need to practice speaking and pronunciation, with most wanting grammar and vocabulary practice as well. They especially seem to enjoy speaking and pronunciation activities but are generally motivated to complete any task. Most learners work well together, although some are more dominant than others. Most of the students are willing to contribute to group and class discussions.

In order to keep the evaluation manageable the four learners below were focused on during the individual note taking stage. It was thought these learners represent a good cross-section of the class with 2 European and 2 Asian learners. They are generally representative of the different abilities of the class.

Name, age sex , Nationality

Reason for learning Strengths & weaknesses

Joke 50+ (F) Dutch

Living in Singapore Quite weak at listening weak and writing, speaks with some fluency gets confused with tenses

Hisae 38 (F)Japanese

Living in Singapore and future job

Very strong at listening. Focuses too much on grammatical form

Beatrice 45 (F) Swiss

Fun/hobby, Living in Singapore

Quite strong reading and speaking skills, weak writing skills.

Albert 50+(M)Singaporean

Job and career Quite a strong speaker, struggles with writing, particularly tense forms and vocabulary.

Needs

A diagnostic questionnaire (appendix 1) revealed the following information:

Half the class are learning English “to make living in Singapore easier”. Four require it for current or future employment and two students are studying as a hobby /interest.

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9 of the 12 students believed they were weak at using tenses in writing. Also, 7 out of 12 thought they were weak at writing longer texts. A recent writing exercise in class revealed that learners avoid using the present modal should (for advice and deduction) when writing. For example, instead of saying ‘..you should eat more vegetables’, one learner wrote ‘ you must eat more vegetables’. Another learner wrote ‘You can have more energy. .’ These kinds of errors were repeated throughout the class not because students fail to understand the use and meaning of the Modal auxiliary verb. It is that they avoid its use because they do not use a similar word in their L1. A procedure such as dictogloss that draws attention to the use and meaning of form will prove beneficial in helping learners to clarify why should is a more polite/natural way to express probability or give advice.

Main Aims

By the end of the lesson the learners will be better able to distinguish the use of should for advice and should for deduction.

They will have noticed/reviewed their understanding of infinitive/gerund alternatives to find/finding and to master/mastering.

They will have noticed/reviewed their understanding of the generic singular ‘travellers’ and a lexical chain related to this word - tourist, visitor.

Subsidiary Aims

By the end of the lesson the learners will have practiced their speaking comprehension, note-taking and writing skills.

Target forms

1) Should for advice: The visitor should get hold of a transport map of the city and become familiar with the local routes and timetables.

2) Should for deduction: Armed with this knowledge and an innate sense of direction, a tourist should be able to find the way to any part of the city.

3) Infinitive and gerund alternatives; to find/finding and to master/mastering.

4) Generic singular; travellers and lexical chain visitor, tourist

Stage Procedure Aim Int T

Preparation 1) Introduce topic: getting around the city. Ask students how they get around Singapore. What public transport they use and why? Did they find it difficult when they first arrived in Singapore?

Activate Ss schemata about the topic of the class to generate an interest in the

T-S 10

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Has anyone ever been lost in an unfamiliar city? Give students a map of public transport network in Singapore. Ask students to ask and answer questions getting from A to B. Give example: How do I get from the airport to Sixth Avenue? Do as a class on IWB.

2) Ask students to work in pairs and give each other tips for getting around their hometown.

text begin to predict vocabulary.

S-S

Dictation 1 Tell Ss they are going to listen to a normal piece of spoken English at normal speed. They will hear the text twice. The first time they hear it they should not write anything but pay attention to the overall meaning of the text.

Read the text (appendix 3) at normal speed. Pause slightly longer than usual between sentences.

Ss hear the text and notice the main thematic and semantic points of the text.

T-S 2

Dictation 2 Tell Ss they are going to hear the text again. That they must jot down familiar words and phrases as they hear them. Encourage the recording of content or information words to aid memory recall.

Ss hear the text again and record information which will act as scaffolding for the reconstruction stage.

T-S 2

Reconstruction Tell Ss to form groups of 3-4 to pool their notes and work on their versions of the text. Each group appoints a scribe to write down the reconstructed text as it emerges from the discussion.

Monitor groups and be available for questions unrelated to target forms.

Ss reconstruct the text using their productive grammar.

Ss discuss and hypothesis

SS-SS 15-20

Analysis & correction

Invite group members from each group to write their sentences on the board. Examine differences as a class. Manage

Ss analyse and correct their own

S-T-S 20-25

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peer correction/feedback as an open class.

Focus on target language and aspects of discourse as they arise. Elicit correct forms and concept check meaning.

1) Should for advice: The visitor should get hold of a transport map of the city and become familiar with the local routes and timetables.Does the visitor have to get a transport map of the city? NoIs it a good idea to get a transport map of the city? Yes

2) Should for deduction: Armed with this knowledge and an innate sense of direction, a tourist should be able to find the way to any part of the city.Is should used here to give advice? NoDoes this sentence mean that something is expected/predicted? Yes

3) Infinitive and gerund alternatives; to find/finding and to master/mastering. 

Are to find and finding used in a similar way? yesDoes the meaning change if you use an infinitive instead of a gerund? NoIs this true for all gerunds/infinitives? No

4) Generic singular; traveller's and lexical chain visitor, touristIs there one particular traveller? No

Is the text referring to all travellers in general? Yes

5) Check meaning of words:

(n) innate (natural inborn),

(adj) local (having to do with a particular place you are)

(v) to get hold of (to acquire, to obtain)

texts.

Ss compare versions, discuss the language choices made.

Ss refine/discover new language options. And clarify concept/meaning.

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Appendix 1 (Needs analysis questionnaire.)

(1) I am … (a) 20-30 (b) 31-41 (c) 42 -52 (d) 53+

(2) How long have you been learning English?

(a) 1 to 4 years (b) 5-8 years (c) 9 to 12 years (d) 13+ years

(3) Why are you learning English?

(a) Hobby/interest (b) for my job (c) for University (IELTS) (e) Other (please explain)

___________________________________________________

(4) What do you think you are strongest at in English?

___________________________________________________

(5) What do you think you are weakest at in English?

___________________________________________________

(6) What would you like to improve at the most in English?

___________________________________________________

(7) What do most use English for in your daily lives? (You can circle more than one)

(a) Talking with foreign friends and family (b) writing emails/letters

(c) Reading foreign media (newspapers etc) (d) watching TV & films

(e) writing/reading work reports (f) talking with clients face to face.

(g) Talking with clients on the phone

(8) When you learn/study English which do you like to…

(a) to study alone (b) in pairs (c) in groups of 3 or 4 (d) all of (a) (b) and (c)

(9) In class when you are studying English what do you find most useful? For example, using the book, listening to the teacher, writing, group work etc

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____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Appendix 2 (post-lesson student questionnaire & data)

Read the types of task and rate them from 1-4 (Average scores given for each stage)

1= most enjoyable, difficult, useful 4= least enjoyable, difficult, useful

Type of task enjoyable difficulty usefulness

Listening to the teacher and writing notes 1.2 2.3 1.0

Working in a group and writing the speech again with classmates

1.2 2.6 1.3

Looking at other groups work and comparing our ideas as a class

1.2 2.6 1.4

Making sentences using prompts 1.1 2.5 1.0

Other thoughts (Examples of feedback in italic)

If you can, please give the main reasons you thought tasks were most/least,

Enjoyable

“It makes it fun to listen the text and try to understand”

“All tasks are enjoyable”

“Working together is fun”

“This way of learning is more fun and lively. To be able to train oneself to listening and writing ability”

“Working with group is a very efficient. I personally like it very much it gives me a different way to see and learn things”

Difficult

“Could not understand some new words from the sentences”

“It’s hard for me to listen and write at the same time”

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“My listening skill is poor so making notes is difficult for me”

“Sometimes I can’t understand what other students says and also I don’t have a lot of vocabulary so I can’t speak what I want to tell”

“I think it’s quite difficult to listen carefully and understand everything. But it helps that we can using notes”

Useful

“I think it is useful for understanding and also for improving our listening”

“Most useful task is working in a group. It’s very helpful to increase to my vocabulary”

“Making sentences and collecting together is helpful to check my grammar mistakes sometimes. But I think that it take a little long time in class”

“It helps s to learn how to form a short composition from listening. And what to look for when writing a note”

Appendix 3 dictogloss text

(Tips for travellers 2: getting around)

1. One of the traveller’s greatest problems in a new city is to find his or her way to those things that mean survival: food, a place to stay and medical help. 2 Most cities have an intricate network of transport and the visitor’s first task is to master this transport system. 3 The visitor should get hold of a transport map of the city and become familiar with the local routes and timetables. 4 Armed with this knowledge and an innate sense of direction, a tourist should be able to find the way to any part of the city.

Wajnryb (1990:71)

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Appendix 4 Completed Observation task form

(1) Dictation: forms noted by individual students.

Tick () if forms were produced. Replacement/other forms are in italic and bold.

Group 1 students

Sentence 1

Sentence 1a

Sentence 2

Sentence 2a

Sentence 3

Sentence 4

Sentence 4a

Generic singular – ‘Travellers’

Infinitive/gerund alternatives ‘to find/finding

Lexical chain – visitor & ‘this transport system’

Should – for advice

Lexicl chain – ‘visitor’

Should – for deduction

Lexical chain – ‘tourist’

S1

S2

S3

S4

(2) Reconstruction: forms produced by group 1. Tick () if forms are produced.

Group 1

Sentence 1

Sentence 1a

Sentence 2

Sentence 2a

Sentence 3

Sentence 4

Sentence 4a

Generic singular – ‘Travellers’

Infinitive/gerund alternatives ‘to find/finding

Lexical chain – visitor & ‘this transport system’

Should – for advice

Lexicl chain – ‘visitor’

Should – for deduction

Lexical chain – ‘tourist’

Group 1

He Are able to

He

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version

(3) Analysis & Correction: forms by other group versions. Tick () if forms are produced.

Other

Groups

Sentence 1

Sentence 1a Sentence 2

Sentence 2a

Sentence 3

Sentence 4

Sentence 4a

Generic singular – ‘Travellers’

Infinitive/gerund alternatives ‘to find/finding

Lexical chain –visitor& ‘this transport system’

Should – for advice

Lexicl chain – ‘visitor’

Should – for deduction

Lexical chain – ‘tourist’

Group 2

version

You have to get

You

Group 3

version

Are able to

Visitors

Observers other comments

Student 1

Outgoing and confident the learner took on the role of a group leader during reconstruction.

Student 2

Made very few notes, seemed to struggle with the listening and was possibly relying on stronger group members during reconstruction.

Student 3

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Participated well throughout and took on the role of scribe. Good individual notes.

Student 4

Very quiet, made few notes but contributed during the reconstruction stage and had to be prompted by other group members to participate.

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