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GEOMORPHOLOGY OF GHAGHARA-GANGA
INTERFLUVE BETWEEN FAIZABAD
AND KANPUR REGION
By
M.Sc.
Dhirendra Kumar
SUBMITTED TO THE
UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW
FOR THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of PhilosophyIN
GEOLOGY
CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDY IN GEOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW
LUCKNOW 2260 007, INDIA
2014
Thesis
Dedicated to
My Grand Father
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Geomorphology of Ghaghara-Ganga
interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region” being submitted by Mr. Dhirendra
Kumar to the University of Lucknow, for the award of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Geology, is a record of bonafide research work carried out by him. He
has worked under my guidance for the submission of this thesis, which is to best of
my knowledge, has the requisite standard.
This research work has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of
any degree or diploma.
(Prof. N.L. Chhabra)
Supervisor
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
University of Lucknow
Lucknow
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Geomorphology of Ghaghara-Ganga
interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region” being submitted by Mr. Dhirendra
Kumar to the University of Lucknow, for the award of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Geology, is a record of bonafide research work carried out by him. He
has worked under my guidance for the submission of this thesis, which is to best of
my knowledge, has the requisite standard.
This research work has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of
any degree or diploma.
(Dr. Dhruv Sen Singh)
Co-Supervisor
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
University of Lucknow
Lucknow-226 007
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I feel an honest urge to express my gratitude to the people who have been helpful in
my taking up, pursuance and completion of this research work.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. K. K. Agarwal, Head, Centre of
Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow for providing working facilities in the
department.
I am highly indebted to my supervisor Prof. N. L. Chhabra for his help, co-operation
and providing a pleasing atmosphere for pursuing my research activity. I am highly obliged
to my co-supervisor Dr. Dhruv Sen Singh for his support, expert comments, guidance and
providing highly equipped lab for research work. I want to express my deep sense of
gratitude for his constant thought, provoking discussions, which has helped me to organize
and furnish my research findings. His ideas and guidance has always upgraded my views to
solve various problems related to my research work.
I owe special thanks to Prof. I. B. Singh, his research papers made the research work
easy and his ideas helped me to interpreting the data for my research work.
I offer my thanks to Prof. S. Kumar, Prof. M. P. Singh, Prof. A. K. Jauhri, Prof. A. R.
Bhattacharya, Prof. V. Rai, Dr. S. Sensarma, Dr. A. Mishra, Dr. R. Bali, Dr. Munendra Singh
and Dr. P. Bali, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow for their
constant support.
I offer my sincere thanks to Prof. D. D. Awasthi, Dr. Ajai Arya, Centre of Advanced
Study in Geology, University of Lucknow for their constant motivation and support.
I would like to express my particular appreciation to Mr. Shailendra Kumar
Prajapati for his useful suggestions and constant motivation towards completion of this
work. His critical remarks on findings of research work have helped me to improve my
work. I offer my sincere thanks to Mr. Shamim Ahmad, Mr. Ritesh Kumar, Geologist, Dr.
Amit Kumar Awasthi, Geologist, Geological Survey of India for his constant help and co-
operation.
I owe special thanks to Dr. Biswajeet Thakur, Scientist-‘SC’, Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany, Lucknow for giving initial impulse of remote sensing and GIS techniques
ii
incorporated in my work. He has always shared his views and helped me in the finalization
of my research work. I would like to thank my seniors and associates Dr. Amit Singh, Dr.
Santosh Kumar Sharma, Dr. Yogesh Ray Scientist-‘SC’, NCAOR, Goa and Dr. Vikram
Bhardwaj for their help and co-operation.
I want to express my thanks to my friends, Mr. Chandra Prakash, Mr. Amit Kumar
Verma and Mr. Dharmendra Kumar Jigyasu for their concern and moral support. Special
thanks are expressed to Ms. Manisha Mishra for their help and constant support.
I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks for my juniors Mr.Hemant
Verma, Mr. Gaurav Joshi, Mr. Parijat Mishra, Mr. Vinit Kumar, Mr. Shakti Kumar Yadav, Mr.
Chetan Anand Dubey, Mr. Amit Kumar Mishra, Mr. Ankit Gupta, Mr. Byomesh Yadav and
other research students of the department, who always extended their help whenever
needed and created a pleasurable environment during the tenure of my research work. I
express my thanks to Mr. Neeraj Yadav for preparation of cover page, figures and text
editing. Thanks are due to non-teaching staff, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology,
University of Lucknow for help provided by them, whenever required.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my parents Mr. Virendra Kumar and
Mrs. Chandrawati Devi and my sibling Mrs. Kusum, Mrs. Parul, Mr. Harish Chandra and Mr.
Mukesh for their constant motivation and unconditional support. I am very thankful to my
in-laws Mr. J. P. Arya, Mrs. Shyama Devi, Mrs. Vandana Arya, Ms. Pooja Arya, Ms. Srishti
Verma, Mr. Prateek Verma, Mr. Naveen Kumar and Mr. Ravi Kumar for their help and
support.
I would like to express my special thanks to my life partner Mrs. Vineeta Arya and
my daughter Vidhi for their help and constant support.
I would like special thanks to University Grant Commission, New Delhi for financial
help under the Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship (RGNF) in the form of Junior Research
Fellowship and Senior Research Fellowship.
(Dhirendra Kumar)
CONTENTS Page No.
Acknowledgements i-ii
List of Figures iii-vii
List of Tables viii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-11
1.1 General
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Geomorphology
1.1.3 Subsurface Geology
1.1.4 Neotectonic
1.1.5 River system
1.2 Objectives
Chapter 2 Study Area 12-21
2.1 General
2.2 Climate
2.3 Hydrology
2.4 Geology
2.5 Tectonics
2.6 Lithology
Chapter 3 Methodology 22-33
3.1 General
3.2 Preparation of thematic maps
3.3 Preparation of geomorphological maps
3.4 Morphometric Parameters
3.4.1 Basic Parameters
3.4.2 Derived Parameters
3.4.3 Shape Parameters
3.5 Geomorphic Indices
3.6 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
3.7 Drainage map of the study area
3.8 Slope analysis
3.9 Land use map
Chapter 4 Geomorphology 34-58
4.1 General
4.2 Ganga-Sai Interfluve
4.2.1 Geomorphology
4.3 Sai-Gomati Interfluve
4.3.1 Geomorphology
4.4 Gomati-Ghaghara Interfluve
4.4.1 Geomorphology
4.5 Contour Map
4.6 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
4.7 Slope analysis
Chapter 5 Geomorphic indices 59-105
5.1 General
5.2 Escarpment analysis
5.3 Profile analysis
5.3.1 Longitudinal profile
5.3.2 Transverse profile
5.3.3 Longitudinal profile of the rivers
5.4 Anatomy of valley width and channel width
5.5 Sinuosity indices
Chapter 6 Morphometric analysis 106-126
6.1 General
6.2 Morphometry of Kalyani nadi basin
6.3 Morphometry of Loni nadi basin
6.4 Morphometry of Reth nadi basin
6.5 Morphometry of Behta nadi basin
6.6 Morphometry of Kukrail nala basin
Chapter 7 Land use classification 127-131
7.1 General
7.2 Land use map
7.3 Natural hazards of the area
7.4 Anthropogenic hazards of the area
Chapter 8 Conclusions 132-134
References 135-144
iii
List of Figures
Serial Description Page No.
Figure 1.1: Geographical distribution of Indo-Gangetic foreland basin (1)
Figure 1.2: Map of Ganga Plain showing various regional geomorphic units (5)
Figure 1.3: Map showing broad subdivision of Ganga Plain (7)
Figure 1.4: Map showing subsurface geology, fault and ridges Ganga plain (8)
Figure 1.5: Map showing rivers of Indo-Ganga Plain (11)
Figure 2.1: Study area (12)
Figure 2.2: District map of the study area (13)
Figure 2.3: River Basin map of the study area (14)
Figure 2.4: Map showing Koppen’s climate classification regarding the Indian
sub-continent
(15)
Figure 2.5: Map showing the alluvium or soil of the study area (19)
Figure 2.6: Map showing the major geomorphic units of the study area (21)
Figure 2.7: Pie diagram showing the percentage of T2, T1 and T0 (21)
Figure 3.1: Survey of India toposheets of the study area (23)
Figure 3.2: LANDSAT MSS Imageries 1975 with 60 meter resolution (24)
Figure 3.3: LANDSAT TM+ Imageries 1989-90 with 30 meter resolution (24)
Figure 3.4: LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries 1999-2000 with 30 meter resolution (25)
Figure 3.5: PAN data of LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries with 15 meter resolution (25)
Figure 3.6: The scheme of stream ordering (Strahler, 1952) and measurement of
basin length and other parameters used in morphometric analysis
(26)
Figure 3.7 Drainage map of the study area (33)
Figure 3.8 AWIFS imageries of LISS III (33)
Figure 4.1: Geomorphological map of Ganga-Sai interfluves (36)
Figure 4.2: Satellite imagery (Raster data), showing various geomorphic features (37)
Figure 4.3: Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0 (37)
Figure 4.4: Map showing the abandoned palaeo-channel belt (38)
Figure 4.5: Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Ganga River (40)
Figure 4.6: Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Sai nadi (40)
iv
Figure 4.7: Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River (41)
Figure 4.8: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi (41)
Figure 4.9: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ganga River (42)
Figure 4.10: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Loni nadi (42)
Figure 4.11: Geomorphological map of Sai-Gomati Interfluve (43)
Figure 4.12: Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features (44)
Figure 4.13: Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0 (44)
Figure 4.14: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River (46)
Figure 4.15: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River (46)
Figure 4.16: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Gomati River (47)
Figure 4.17: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi (47)
Figure 4.18: Geomorphological map of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluves (48)
Figure 4.19: Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features (49)
Figure 4.20: Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0 (49)
Figure 4.21: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Ghaghara River (51)
Figure 4.22: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Kalyani Nadi (52)
Figure 4.23: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Marha Nadi (52)
Figure 4.24: Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River (53)
Figure 4.25: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ghaghara River (53)
Figure 4.26: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi (54)
Figure 4.27: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Kalyani nadi (54)
Figure 4.28: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Reth nadi (55)
Figure 4.29: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi (55)
Figure 4.30: Contour map of the area (56)
Figure 4.31: Digital Elevation of the area (57)
Figure 4.32: Slope map of the area (58)
Figure 5.1: Escarpment profile of both bank of Behta nadi (60)
Figure 5.2: Escarpment profile of both bank of Gomati River (60)
Figure 5.3: Escarpment profile of both bank of Kalyani nadi (61)
Figure 5.4: Escarpment profile of both bank of Reth nadi (62)
Figure 5.5: Escarpment profile of both bank of Sai nadi (63)
v
Figure 5.6: Escarpment profile of both bank of Loni nadi (64)
Figure 5.7: Index map of longitudinal profile of Ganga-Sai interfluves (65)
Figure 5.7: A and B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively (67)
Figure 5.7: C and D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively (67)
Figure 5.7: E showing longitudinal profile of L5 (68)
Figure 5.8: Index map of longitudinal profile of Sai-Gomati interfluves (69)
Figure 5.8 A and B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively (71)
Figure 5.8: C and D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively (71)
Figure 5.8: E and F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively (72)
Figure 5.9: Index map of longitudinal profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluves (73)
Figure 5.9: A and B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively (75)
Figure 5.9: C and D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively (75)
Figure 5.9: E and F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively (76)
Figure 5.10: Index map of transverse profile of Ganga-Sai interfluves (77)
Figure 5.10: A and B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively (79)
Figure 5.10: C and D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively (80)
Figure 5.10: E and F showing transverse profile of T5 and T6 respectively (80)
Figure 5.10: G and H showing transverse profile of T7 and T8 respectively (81)
Figure 5.10: I and J showing transverse profile of T9 and T10 respectively (81)
Figure 5.11: Index map of transverse profile of Sai-Gomati interfluves (82)
Figure 5.11: A and B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively (84)
Figure 5.11: C and D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively (84)
Figure 5.11: E and F showing transverse profile of T5 and T6 respectively (85)
Figure 5.11: G showing transverse profile of T7 (85)
Figure 5.12: Index map of transverse profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluves (86)
Figure 5.12: A and B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively (88)
Figure 5.12: C and D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively (88)
Figure 5.12: E and F showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively (89)
Figure 5.12: G showing transverse profile of T7 (89)
Figure 5.13: showing longitudinal profile of Ganga and Ghaghara River
respectively
(92)
vi
Figure 5.14: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Gomati River
respectively
(92)
Figure 5.15: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Kalyani nadi
respectively
(94)
Figure 5.16: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Reth nadi
respectively
(94)
Figure 5.17: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Sai nadi
respectively
96
Figure 5.18: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Loni nadi
respectively
(96)
Figure 5.19: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Behta nadi
respectively
(97)
Figure 5.20: Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel
width of Ghaghara River
(98)
Figure 5.21: Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel
width of Ganga River
(99)
Figure 5.22: Bar diagram showing the relationship between valley width and
channel width of Gomati River
(100)
Figure 5.23: Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel
width of Sai nadi
(100)
Figure 5.24: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Gomati River (101)
Figure 5.25: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Sai nadi (102)
Figure 5.26: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Behta nadi (103)
Figure 5.27: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Reth nadi (103)
Figure 5.28: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Kalyani nadi (104)
Figure 5.29: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Loni nadi (105)
Figure 6.1: River basins of the area (106)
Figure 6.2: Drainage map of Kalyani nadi basin (107)
Figure 6.3: Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and
Stream order
(109)
Figure 6.4: View of Kalyani nadi near Masuali area of Barabanki district (110)
vii
Figure 6.5: Drainage map of Loni nadi basin (111)
Figure 6.6: Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and
Stream order
(113)
Figure 6.7: View of Loni nadi near Manghat kera area of Unnao district (114)
Figure 6.8: Drainage map of Reth nadi basin (115)
Figure 6.9: Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and
Stream order
(117)
Figure 6.10: View of Reth nadi near Sharifabad area of Barabanki district (118)
Figure 6.11: Drainage map of Behta nadi basin (119)
Figure 6.12: Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and
Stream order
(121)
Figure 6.13: View of Behta nadi near Rahimabad area (122)
Figure 6.14: Drainage map of Kukrail nala basin (123)
Figure 6.15: Graph between stream numbers (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu)
and Stream order
(125)
Figure 6.16: View of Kukrail nala near Khurram Nagar area (126)
Figure 7.1: Showing land use classes of the area (129)
Figure 7.2: Pie chart showing percentage vise distribution of land use classes (129)
Figure 7.3: Buffer zone map of the study area related to Natural hazard (130)
viii
List of Tables
Serial No. Description Page No.
Table 6.1 Morphometric parameters of Kalyani Nadi Basin (110)
Table 6.2 Morphometric parameters of Loni Nadi Basin (114)
Table 6.3 Morphometric parameters of Reth Nadi Basin (118)
Table 6.4 Morphometric parameters of Behta Nadi Basin (122)
Table 6.5 Morphometric parameters of Kukrail Nala Basin (126)
1
1.1 General
Ganga Plain (popularly known as Ganga ka maidan) is one of the main physiographic
sub-division of Indian peninsula and lies within Indo-Gangetic foreland basin. This plain has
always been a subject of interest, because of its fertile soil and agricultural values. Ganga Plain is
the food capital of India because it directly affects the life of over forty millions people. This
plain is drained by the three major rivers of Indian sub-continent viz. the Ganga, the Indus, and
the Brahmaputra. The sediments of these three rivers give the birth of world‟s most fertile and
vast land. Out of these three rivers only Ganga alone drains about 1.6 billon ton sediments every
year and makes the most fertile land (According the documentary of Animal Planet on Ganga
Plain, River, 2013).
Figure 1.1 Map showing the geographical distribution of Indo-Gangetic foreland basin
2
1.1.1 Introduction
Ganga Plain occupies central position in Indo-Gangetic foreland basin; it occupies an
area about 250,000 Km2 and lies between 77°E to 88°E longitude to 24°N to 30°N latitude. It
extends from Aravalli-Delhi ridge in the west to the Raj Mahal in the east; Himalayan foothills
(Siwalik Hills) in the north to the Bundelkhand -Vindhyan Hill – Hazaribagh plateau in the
South. The length of the Ganga Plain is about 1000 km and width is ranging from 200-450 km, it
is wider in the western part and narrower in the eastern part.
The Indo-Gangetic foreland basin is an active peripheral foreland basin (Dickinson,
1974) formed after the continental-continental collision of Indian plate and Asian plate (Dewey
and Bird, 1970). A foreland basin is a structural basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a
mountain belt. It forms because the immense mass created by crustal thickening associated with
the evolution of a mountain belt causes the lithosphere to bend, by a process known as
lithospheric flexure. The width and depth of the foreland basin is determined by the flexure
rigidity of the underlying lithosphere, and the characteristics of the mountain belt. It receives
sediment eroded by the adjacent mountain belt, filling with thick sedimentary successions that
thin away from the mountain belt.
The Indo-Gangetic foreland basin shows all the major components of a foreland basin
system (DeCelles and Giles, 1996), namely an orogen (the Himalaya), deformed foreland basin
deposits adjacent to the orogen (Siwalik Hills),a depositional basin (Ganga Plain) and peripheral
cratonic bulge (Bundelkhand Plateau) (Singh, 1996). The initiation of this foreland basin started
in the Early Miocene. In the early phase of the foreland basin had small dimensions, with
comparatively minor subsidence (France-Lanord et al., 1983). The foreland basin was more
completely established in the Middle Miocene, after considerable lithosphere flexure and
subsidence of the basin. During the Middle Miocene to Middle Pleistocene (deposition of Lower
to Upper Siwalik Group), the northern part of the Ganga plain was uplifted and thrust
basinwards, and the Ganga basin shifted southward (cratonwards) in response to thrust loading in
the orogen (Singh, 1996). Covey, 1986 applied the term “under-filled basin” to the Ganga
foreland basin at this time, which represents a topographic low between the thrust belt
(Himalaya) and the peripheral bulge. The under-filled condition developed due to an efficient
transport system for the sediment supplied, which removed the bulk of the sediment to the Ganga
delta and Bengal fan.
3
Burbank, 1992 suggested that the Ganga foreland basin has been dominated by transverse river
systems since the Pliocene due to erosionally-driven uplift (symmetric subsidence of the
foreland), whereas the Indus foreland basin is dominated by longitudinal river systems due to
tectonically driven uplift (asymmetric subsidence of the foreland). Large Plio-Pleistocene
sediment fluxes combined with less asymmetric subsidence and uplift of the proximal foreland
led to the progradation of the transverse drainage systems that displaced the Ganga River to the
edge of the foreland basin. The present day river position is consistent with erosion driven uplift
in the adjacent Himalaya. Further, the sediment accumulation rates generally exceeded the
subsidence rates of the foreland throughout the history of the Ganga basin.
1.1.2 Geomorphology
Geomorphological studies of the Ganga Plain had started since the beginning of the nineteen
century. The earlier geomorphological studies were totally based on the field work and the map
provided by the British government. The survey of India finally made the geomorphological
study very authentic and easier by providing the topographical map in 1970-75. The beginning of
satellite era at mid sixties made the study of geomorphic feature very easy and authentic. At
present the topographical map, satellite imageries, aerial photography along with field work are
the main tools for the analysis of the geomorphology of the particular region. The numbers of
workers have given the overview about the geomorphology of Ganga Plain. These are as
follows:
The earlier workers Oldham, (1917), Pascoe, (1917), Pilgrim (1919), Geddes, (1960)
Mukherji, (1963) and Das Gupta, (1975) have identified two major morphostratigraphic
units namely, the newer alluvium (Khadar) and the older alluvium (Bangar). The older
alluvium makes the higher inter-channel areas, while the newer alluvium forms deposits
of the minor river channels and their valleys.
Geddes, (1960) identified the cone and inter-cone (fan and inter-fan areas) in the Bangar
surface of the northern part of Ganga Plain. He also discussed the sea-level changes
might have affected the river channels.
4
Mukherji, (1963) said that the Banger surface contains depositional terraces. Mukherji,
(1963) discussed the role of sea level changes and climate for the origin of depositional
terraces on Banger surface.
Pathak, (1966) identified four distinctive regions in the Ganga Plain from north to south
namely, Bhabar belt, Terai belt, Central Alluvial Plain and Marginal Alluvial Plain.
Das Gupta, (1975) identified river valley terraces in Upper Gangetic Flood Plain.
Kumar and Singh, (1978) have given detailed account of the role of Late Quaternary sea
level changes for the generation of different level of terraces of Gomati River system.
Pal and Bhattacharya, (1979); Saxena et al., (1983); Khan et al., (1988); Philip et al.,
(1991) used the remote sensing techniques for the identification of various geomorphic
feature in Ganga Plain.
Geological Survey of India mapped the geomorphic features of Ganga plain under the
Quaternary mapping programme.
Gopendra Kumar, (1992); Joshi and Bhartiya, (1991); Khan et al., (1987) named the
regional upland surface of the Ganga Plain as a Varanasi older alluvium and Banda older
alluvium, and piedmont fan deposits as a Bhat alluvium.
Sinha et al., (1989); Om Prakash et al., (1989) did the work on the height differences of
mappable unit of North Bihar region.
Singh and Ghosh, (1992, 1994) classified Ganga Plain geographically into two, the
Western Ganga Plain (Uttar Pradesh) and Eastern Ganga Plain (Bihar).
Singh, (1996) divided the Ganga Plain in to six geomorphic units on regional scale
(fig.1.2)
5
Figure 1.2 Map of the Ganga Plain showing various regional geomorphic units
(modified after Singh, 1996).
1-Upland Terrace Surface (T2) - The major part of the Ganga Plain north of the axial river,
shows inter-channel areas highland areas (older alluvium) making the Upland Terrace Surface
with a southern to southeastern regional slope. It is also referred as Bhangar or Older Alluvium.
The Upland Terrace Surface (T2) exhibits the linear narrow sand ridges (bhur), various river
channels, abandoned channel belt, micro-geomorphologic features such as ponds, lakes and
gentle regional ridges. The river channels are mostly incised in this surface. This surface is
beyond the reach of floods by overtopping of the river channels. However, flooding and water
stagnation takes place by rainwater controlled by local relief.
2-Marginal Plain Upland Surface (MP) -These are north and northeasterly sloping surfaces
occurring south of the axial river. This surface is mostly classified with Older Alluvium or
Bhangar. This is considered as a separate geomorphic surface, because it is made up of slightly
coarser sediments derive from the cratonic source. This surface is considered slightly equivalent
6
to T2 surface. Locally this surface has given various names such as: Bundelkhand-Vindhyan (V
surface), Gaya-Mungher (GM surface) and Bhagalpur surface (B surface) by Singh and Ghosh,
(1992, 1994).
3-Megafan Surface (F) -Singh and Ghosh, (1992) identified a number of Megafan surfaces in
northern and central part of the Ganga Plain with the help of remotely sensed data. These
surfaces are relict features, now being modified by various fluvial processes. Major rivers of the
Ganga Plain coming out from the Himalaya make Megafans, namely Kosi Megafan, Gandak
Megafan, Sarda Megafan and Yamuna-Ganga Megafan. They show evidences of several
superimposed events. In their distal part they merge with the T2 surface where it is difficult to
differentiate between the two.
4-River Valley Terrace Surface (T1) -The major rivers of Ganga Plain show development of
broad river valleys in which the present day active river channels, along with their flood plains
are entrenched. The T1 surface located several meters higher than the active flood plain, and is
normally not flooded by the bank overtopping of the river channel. It can be flooded by rain
water and backflow phenomena during flood in the main river. The River Valley Terrace (T1) is
made up of newer alluvium khadar. All the major rivers of the Ganga Plain show development of
broad river valleys in which active river channel and incised flood plain.
5-Piedmont Fan Surface (PF) -This surface is 10-30 km wide belt of coalescing fans,
developed along the foothills of Himalayas and has developed with of 3°- 4° slopes showing
both diverging and converging drainages. The piedmont fan surface includes both Bhabar and
Terai belts. Mostly, two levels are identified on the PF-surface. The lower level is rather flat with
muddy deposits on the top. The upper level is steeper and exhibits rugged topography often
exposing gravels in the gullies. Rivers of PF are mostly gravelly and ephemeral in nature. In low-
lying areas, sluggish and meandering rivers are also present.
6-Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) -It is a youngest geomorphic surface, and present within the
older surface. Active flood plains of most of the rivers of Ganga Plain are rather narrow and
entrenched in the river valleys. These flood plains are poorly developed, narrow and active. This
surface shows a variety of fluvial land forms, including channels, channel bars, levees, meander
cutoffs, ox-bow lakes, swamps, crevasse channels, and a wide range of sediment types are
deposited in different parts. This surface is subjected to annual flooding and after each flood;
many changes in the landforms take place.
7
In general (Singh et al., 1996, Singh, 2001) broadly divide the Ganga Plain in to three major
units: The Piedmont Plain, The Central Plain and The Marginal Alluvial Plain (figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Map showing broad subdivision of Ganga Plain
(modified after Singh et al., 1996, Singh, 2001)
1.1.3 Subsurface Geology
Logging techniques are one of the best tools for understanding the subsurface geology of
particular region. In Ganga Plain most of the information is available on the basis of geological
mapping, gravity anomalies and information from aeromagnetic, seismic, magnetic survey and
borehole data of ONGC and CGWB. This subsurface information is utilized by various workers
to interpret the basement configuration and nature of sedimentary fill (Rao, 1973; Sastri et al.,
1971; Agarwal, 1977; Qureshy et al., 1989; Qureshy and Kumar, 1992; Karunakaran and Rao,
1979; Raiverman, et al., 1983; Lyon-Caen & Molnar, 1985).
8
The thickness of the alluvium is approximately 6 km near the foothill zone and decreases
gradually towards the south (Rao, 1973).Geophysical surveys show that the Ganga basin is
resting over metamorphic basement, exhibits a number of ridges and basins (Figure 1.4). Ganga
basin is characterized by three subsurface ridges, i.e. Delhi-Haridwar ridge in the west, Faizabad
ridge in the middle, and Monghyr-Saharsa ridge in the east (Rao, 1973, Parkash and Kumar,
1991). There are two important depressions in this area, namely the Gandak and the Sarda deep.
There are also a number of basement fault namely, Moradabad fault, Bareilly fault, Lucknow
fault, Patna fault, Malda fault (Sastri et al., 1971; Rao, 1973). In the area between the Delhi-
Hardwar ridge and the Faizabad ridge, the sediments rest on Late Proterozoic unmetamorphosed
sediments, which are the part of Vindhyan basin in the south and the Krol basin in the north. East
of the Monhgyr-Saharsa ridge, the foreland sediments lie on a thick succession of Gondwana
rocks.
Figure 1.4 Map showing subsurface geology, fault and ridges of the Ganga plain
(modified after sastri et al.1971, Rao 1973, GSI 2000).
9
The Ganga basin is traversed by several transverse and oblique subsurface faults (Agarwal, 1977,
Dasgupta et al., 1987, Valdiya, 1976) and the seismic data have shown that many of these faults
are neotectonically active as evidenced by recent seismic activities (major earthquakes in 1833,
1906, 1934 and1987), with the possibility of large earthquakes in the near future (Bilham, 1995).
These longitudinal and transverse faults along with the basement configuration of the Ganga
Plain have long been considered to influence the fluvial processes and sedimentation (Raiverman
et al., 1983, Parkash and Kumar, 1991, Agrawal and Bhoj, 1992, Pant and Sharma, 1993, Ghosh
1994, Parkash et al., 2000).
1.1.4 Neotectonics in the Ganga Plain
The neotectonic activities of the Ganga Plain have been identified by a number of
workers namely, Singh and Rastogi, (1973), Singh and Bajpai, (1989), Mohindra et al., (1992),
Mohindra and Parkash, (1994), Singh and Ghosh, (1994), Srivastava et al., (1994), Misra et al.,
(1994), Kumar et al., (1996), Singh, (1996, 1999, 2001), Singh et al., (1996), Parkash et al.,
(2000) and Agarwal et al., (2002), Singh et al., (2009) and Awasthi and Singh, (2011).
Evidences of neotectonic activity recorded in the Ganga Plain are: displacement of the Siwalik
hills, skewness of fan surfaces, preferential alignment of river channels, deflections in river
courses, distorted meanders, escarpments, asymmetrical terraces and warping on kilometer to
tens of kilometer scale (Singh, 2001; Agarwal et al., 2002). Singh, (2004) have identified three
regional belts in the Ganga Plain, parallel to Himalayan orogen on the basis of previous studies.
The northern belt is under compressional regime, showing thrust sheet movements, blind thrust
buried under the alluvium and conjugate system of strike slip faults (NNE-SSW and SW-SE
direction). The Central Alluvial Plain, between the piedmont zone and axial river characterized
by NW-SE and WNW-ESE and WE trending lineaments, which have controlled the river
channels and acted as normal faults, evidence stands of lithospheric extension. In the southern
part of this belt, main tectonic trend is SW-NE, which has controlled the alignment of river
channel. The zones of extensional tectonics trending in EW direction are reported in the southern
Ganga Plain (Agarwal et al., 2002). Pitambar Pati, B. Parkash, A.K. Awasthi, R.P. Jakhmola,
(2012) give the significant contribution on the neotectonic activity of Ganga Plain with detailed
study of shifting of Kosi River.
10
1.1.5 River system
Ganga Plain is hub of rivers of various dimensions (figure 1.5) into which Ganga River is
the master consequence or trunk river and all the major river of the Ganga Plain fallowed the
flowing trend of master consequence „Ganga‟. The confluence point of Bhagirathi and
Alkahnanda near Devprayag gives the birth of Ganga River and after travelling 2,500 km
distance, it is finally confluence in Bay of Bengal. Singh, 1992 has been classified the rivers of
Ganga Plain in to three categories such as glacier fed rivers of Himalaya, ground water fed rivers
of the Alluvium and rain fed rivers of Peninsular region, on the basis of origin, direction of flow,
dimensions, channel characteristics and hydraulic parameters rivers. Sinha & Friend 1994
proposed another classification scheme for the rivers of Ganga Plain of north Bihar region such
as mountain-fed, foothills-fed and plains-fed.
Ganga, Ghaghara, Grate Gandak, Kosi, Yamuna Sarda, etc. are the major mountain fed
rivers of the Ganga Plain. These rivers make the mega-fan surfaces such as Yamuna-Ganga
mega-fan, Ghaghara mega-fan, Gandak mega-fan, Kosi mega-fan, Sarda mega-fan at the foot hill
of Himalaya (figure 1.2). These rivers exhibits braided and anastomosing river pattern. Migration
of active channel (lateral shifting), migration of braid bars, diversion of river channel, etc are the
some peculiar properties of the mountain-fed river. Most of the workers such as Kapoor, (2003),
Chandra, (1993), Tangri, (1992), Geddes, (1960), Gole and Chitale, (1966), Agarwal and Bhoj,
(1992), Mohindra and Parkash, (1994), Phillip et al., (1989), Jain and Sinha, (2004), Singh and
Awasthi, (2010), etc have been done considerable work on the lateral erosion and the migration
of river channel of the mountain-fed river on the different part of the Ganga Plain. The process of
migration and lateral erosion of river channels is continues throughout the year but monsoon
season influences the process of migration and lateral erosion of river channels at very much
level. Ghaghara, Kosi, and Grate Gandak are some rivers which are notorious for their valley
incision. The textural immaturity of the soil is a main causative factor behind the lateral incision.
The mountain gadi or the sediments of these mountains fed rivers give the birth of one of the
most fertile land in the world.
Gomati, Chhoti Gandak, Sai, Kalyani, etc. are the major ground water fed river of the
Ganga Plain. All the ground water rivers are highly sinuous and exhibit the meandering nature.
The entire ground water fed river has sluggish flow throughout the year except the monsoon
season. Most of the ground water fed rivers have very narrow channel as well as valley width
11
ratio; due to this, the most of the ground water fed river brings the situation of catastrophic flood
in the low lying areas of Ganga Plain during the monsoon season. The Ami and Kuwana river of
Gorakhpur district are the best example of this situation. The ground water fed rivers do not
receive any fresh material from the primary source; they just erode and redistribute the older
alluvium. In other words, they only recycle the sediments. Keller and Printer, (1996)
acknowledged that the resisting forces of the alluvial rivers are greater than driving force, and
therefore river cannot transport all of the available sediments and it flows in a bed of its own
detritus.
Figure 1.5 Map showing rivers of Indo-Ganga Plain
1.2 Objectives
To study the geomorphology of the area
To study the geomorphic indices such as longitudinal profile, transverse profile,
Sinuosity indices, valley width - channel width and escarpment analysis of the study area.
Morphometric analysis of the investigated river basins,
Slope analysis
Land use classification and natural hazards,
12
2.1 General
An “Interfluves are the region of higher land between the two rivers that are in the same
drainage system”. In Indian contest commonly interfluve is known as Doab. Study area;
„Ghaghara-Ganga interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region‟ is a part of Central Ganga
Plain (after Singh et al., 1996, Singh, 2001, figure 1.4) and it falls under the geomorphic unit of
Ghaghara mega fan (Singh, 1996). Geographically the study area is broadly divided into Older
Alluvium or Bangar and Younger Alluvium or Khadar (figure 2.4). It is situated between
80°14‟E to 82°15‟ E longitudes and 26°40‟N to 26°47‟N latitudes (figure 2.1) and covers an area
of about 22,701.35 km2. The entire part of the study area has generally very gentle slope towards
NW-SE.
Figure 2.1 Study area map
RAIBAREIL
13
Study area includes six districts of Uttar Pradesh namely as Unnao, Lucknow, Barabanki, Rai
bareilly, Sultanpur and Faizabad (figure 2.2). The most of the study area is drained by the ground
water fed rivers, small streams and nalas. Gomati, Sai, Kalyani, Loni, Reth, and Behta are the
main ground water fed rivers. In study area Ganga River makes the district boundary with
Unnao-Kanpur and Raibareilly-Fatehpur, while Ghaghara makes the boundary with Barabanki-
Bahraich, Gonda and Faizabad-Gonda, Basti. The Sai nadi makes the district boundary with
Unnao-Lucknow while Gomati River makes the boundary between Lucknow-Barabanki districts.
Study area has been broadly categorized into three basins such as the Ganga basin, the
Gomati basin and the Ghaghara basin out of which Gomati basin contributes more than other
basins (figure 2.3). The Gomati River basin includes the four sub basin such as Kalyani nadi
basin, Reth nadi basin, Behta nadi basin, Kukrail nala basin while Ganga River includes the Loni
nadi basin in the investigated area.
Figure 2.2 District map of the study area
14
Figure 2.3 Map showing river basin of the area
2.2 Climate
Koppen‟s classified the whole Indo-Gangetic Plain into the humid subtropical climate
(Cwa system) (figure 2.4). The Cwa system is a unique classification and it is applicable for
Indo-Gangetic Plain only. Study area experienced the three major seasons annually viz. winter,
summer, and monsoon. All the weather related changes on the study area have been done by the
westerlies wind. The winter season starts from November to February and it downs the mercury
to near about 2°-22°C. Winter season experienced the cold wind of Siberian origin and received
very low rain fall, most of the rainfall of this season is a result of cyclonic disturbances or the
retrieving the monsoon only. Winter season slowdowns the process of weathering (either
chemical or mechanical) and erosion. Summer season started with the beginning of March and
continued up to the mid June. In summer season mercury fluctuated in between 28°-44°C and
15
most part of the Ganga Plain is in the grip of hot local wind famously known as the loo . The
cyclonic rainfall gives some relief to human being in summer season. During this time
weathering and erosional processes is governed mainly by the wind action.
Figure 2.4 Map showing Koppen‟s climate classification regarding the Indian sub-continent
Monsoon season starts from June, when the south-west monsoon comes from Kerala to towards
the Ganga Plain region. Both south-west monsoon and Bay of Bengal monsoon play a
considerable role during the monsoon season in Ganga Plain. The monsoon season is continues
up to the mid September. During this time the humidity is very high and most part of the Ganga
Plain experiences the heavy rain. Heavy rain advances the velocity and sediment supply of the
rivers of Ganga Plain; either it may be ground water fed rivers of the alluvium or the snow fed
rivers of the Himalaya. Heavy rain in the monsoon brings the situation of flood hazard in all
most all of part of the Ganga Plain. Monsoon season may also influence the process of
16
weathering and erosion; this process develops and modifies the most of the geomorphic features
of Ganga Plain.
2.3 River Hydrology
The hydrology of the study area is governed by the two glaciers fed rivers of Himalaya
such as Ghaghara and Ganga along with the ground water fed rivers such Loni, Sai, Gomati and
its tributaries (figure 2.6).
Ghaghara River
Ghaghara river is also known as the Manchu, Kauriala, or Karnali in Nepal and has its
source in Nepal Himalaya .The name Ghaghara is derived from Sanskrit word „Ghaghara‟
meaning “rattling or laughter”. Kauriala river pierces the Himalaya at Shishsa pani and shortly
throws off a branch to the east called Girwa River, which brings down the main discharge.
Kauriala and the Girwa rivers join to form Ghaghara which enters the Ganga plain in the vicinity
of Bichha town. Its total catchment area is 127,950 sq km of which 45% is lying in India.
Ghaghara River valley is exceptionally wide in the middle part of its length and is wider than the
valley formed by Ganga River. The reason for enormous width of Ghaghara river valley is that it
is formed by the merging of independent valley of three important rivers namely the Ghaghara
the axial river and the Sarda and the Sarju River. Emergence of the Ghaghara and the Sarju rivers
on the plains up to the distance where they make their separate valleys on emerging from the
hills Ghaghara, Sarda and Sarju rivers show a low sinuosity braided channel pattern, they are
incised into the piedmont zone and possesses independent valleys. Initially Ghaghara, Sarda and
Sarju rivers follow a north-south channel orientation followed by a right angled east west turn by
all the three rivers along a line indicating lineament control then all the rivers start flowing in a
northwest-southeast direction. The width of Ghaghara River valley varies between 5-20 km .The
width of Sarju River valley is less as compared to the width of Sarda and Ghaghara River valley.
Apart from Sarju and Sarda rivers, Suheli and Jauraha rivers are also minor tributaries of
Ghaghara River which meet on its right side (western side). Suheli River has its catchment in the
Siwalik Hills and Jauraha River exhibits low sinuosity, meandering channel pattern with straight
reaches in between and abrupt changes in the stream orientation. At Banswana Sarda, Ghaghara
and Sarju river valleys merge to form an exceptionally wide valley. The width of Ghaghara River
17
valley varies between 30- 65 km. The right and the left valley margins of Ghaghara River are
highly irregular. The Ghaghara River shows NW-SE orientation for greater part of its channel
length in this part followed by an east west orientation a few kilometres upstream of Faizabad.
Sarda River shows, NW-SE trend initially in this part followed by an E-W orientation. In this
part of the Ghaghara valley the terraces are uniformly developed on either side of the Ghaghara
River. From Faizabad town upto the confluence of Ghaghara and Rapti rivers at Madhubani
about 7 km upstream of Barhaj, Ghaghara river shows low sinuosity, braided channel pattern
with straight reaches in between. The Ghaghara River debouches into Ganga River at Doriganj in
Chhapra town of Bihar.
Under the study area Ghaghara River covers around 128 km length and Barabanki,
Faizabad districts come under this area. The Ghaghara is notorious for their valley widening
through lateral erosion, shifting of their course and flooding of this region. The valley width of
the Ghaghara River ranges between 16 km (near upper part of the Barabanki) to 1.5 km (near
upper part of the Faizabad). The left bank of the Ghaghara River exhibits a number of palaeo-
channel. These channels show the close affinity with the flowing direction of active channel of
Ghaghara River. The river valley of Ghaghara exhibits a number of braid bar under the interfluve
area. Samli nadi, Bahoriya nala, Jyori nala, Marha nadi influence the hydrology of the area.
Ganga River
Ganga River is a national river of India and making trans-boundary with India and
Bangladesh. The Ganga begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers near
Dev Prayag and after travelling the 2525 km long path, empties itself in to Bay of Bengal. In
Ganga Plain the hydrology of Ganga River is influenced by its major or minor tributaries. The
hydrology of the tributaries are as follows: Ghaghara is the major tributary of Ganga contributing
2,990 m3/s (106,000 cu ft/s) water annually, Yamuna contributes about 2,950 m
3/s (104,000 cu
ft/s), Kosi River contributes about 2,166 m3/s (76,500 cu ft/s), Tamsa River contributes 190 m
3/s
(6,700 cu ft/s), Son River contributes about 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s), Gandak River
Contributes about 1,654 m3/s (58,400 cu ft/s), Gomati River contributing about 234 m
3/s (8,300
cu ft/s).
Under the study area Ganga covers an around 128 km length and includes Kanpur, Unnao, and
Raebareli district of Uttar Pradesh. The hydrology of the Ganga is mainly governed by Loni
18
Nadi, Morahi Nadi, Ganda Nala and many small streams. The Ganga River exhibit the wider
valley under the study region.
Gomati River
Gomati is a ground water fed river of the alluvium. It originates from the Gomat tal near
Madho Tanda town of Pilibhit district and confluence in to Ganga near Said Pur in Ghazipur
district. The length of Gomati from its origin to confluence is around 900 km. Length of about
228 km comes under the study area. Kalyani nadi, Reth nadi, Kukrail nala, Betwa nala are the
major left tributaries while Sai nadi, Behta nadi and Loni nala are the right tributary of Gomati
River under the study area. Gomati along with its tributaries follows the meandering path under
the study area. Gomati River has very, sluggish water flow, low runoff and water budget through
out the year, except monsoon season when heavy rain fall increases the discharge of the Gomati
River. The annual discharge of Gomati River is about 7390 x 106 m
3 (Rao, 1975). The heavy rain
increases the velocity and capacity of the Gomati River. Since there is a not much difference
between the valley width and channel ratio of the Gomati River; therefore at the time of heavy
rain, water easily over topes the bank of the river and brings situation of catastrophic flood in the
low lying area of the Gomati River. The highest flood was recorded on 13 September 1894,
when river water rose to a height of 1.4 m above normal high flood level and maximum
discharge was 234,000 cubic feet per second (Chandra,2000). At present about 25 km distance of
the Gomati River from its origin has dried and the experts of the various countries have visited to
save the origin of Gomati. The experts suggest that the heavy silt deposit is the main cause
behind this situation.
Sai nadi
Sai is another important ground water fed river of the study area. It originates from a
pond in village, Bijgwan near Pihani in district Hardoi and confluence in to Gomati River at
Rajepur in Jaunpur district. In mythology, Sai nadi has been pronounced as an Adi Ganga. The
course of the Sai is highly sinuous and covers about 198.898 km length under the study area. The
most part of the Sai is almost dry throughout the year except the monsoon season. At present Sai
nadi also struggling for its existence.
19
2.4 Geology
Since the study area is part of Central Ganga Plain, therefore it contains the Quaternary
alluvium. It is broadly divided in to two geomorphic units or two type of alluvium: (1) Upland
Terrace Surface (T2) or Older Alluvium (Bangar), (2) River Valley Terrace (T1) or Newer
Alluvium (Khadar) (figure 2.5).
Upland Terrace Surface (T2)
The most part of the area are under come in to Upland Terrace Surface (T2) and it
includes about 20,325.61 km2 or 90 percent of total area (figure 2.7)
. This surface exhibits the
linear narrow sand ridges (bhur), various river channels, abandoned channel belt, gullies and
ravine, micro-geomorphologic features such as ponds, lakes and gentle regional ridges. The
rivers of T2 surface are either ground water fed or monsoon fed and the active channels of these
river are either highly sinuous or tortoise. Point bars are one of the most common depositional
features along these channels. Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is the oldest geomorphic surface of
the Ganga Plain and it is made up of fine-grained sediments showing inter-layering of fine sand,
silt, mud with calcrete horizons (Singh, 1996).
Figure 2.5 Map showing the alluvium or soil of the study area
20
River Valley Terrace surface (T1)
The River Valley Terrace (T1) is made up of Newer Alluvium (Khadar). Total area of T1
and T0 is about 1,856.96 km2 (about 8%) and 334.08km
2(about 2%) respectively (figure 2.7).
The upper part of T1 surface of Ghaghara and Ganga River shows the broad river valley. It
shows the number of meander cut off, abandoned channels, linear water bodies etc. The T1
surface of Ganga shows 16 km broad meander cut off under the study area. This surface is made
up of coarse grained sand.
The active channel of Ghaghara and Ganga River exhibits braided nature and braid bar is one of
the most common feature along the channel of these two rivers.
2.5 Tectonics
Tectonically the study area is mainly affected by Faizabad ridge and the Lucknow fault/
Malihabad fault (figure 1.4). These faults influence the geomorphology of the area at some parts.
The Lucknow fault affect the course of Gomati River and Behta nadi while the Faizabad ridge
affects the lower part of the study area.
2.6 Lithology
Study area is composed of loose and unconsolidated material of sand, silt and clay and
most of the sedimentary succession of the study area is intercalation of these materials. The most
of the materials are derived either from primary source or from secondary source. In primary
source weathering and transported material is a part of Himalayan rocks while in secondary
source river erodes and redistribute the older channel or alluvium itself. Some part of the study
area contains the calcrete horizons identified by Singh, 1996.
21
Figure 2.6 Map showing the major geomorphic units of the study area
Figure 2.7 Pie diagram showing the percentage of T2, T1 and T0
22
3.1 General
Methodology deals with the implication of logical method to obtain the result of any
problem. It includes the collection and the preparation of various tools and data sets. Under the
thesis methodology has broadly been divided in two parts. Field verification involves the
collection of photographs of various geomorphic features and Laboratory work involves the
preparation of various maps and calculations with the help of various software.
3.2 Preparation of thematic maps
The first part is a vital part or backbone of any thesis because it deals with the basic
information of the study area. The Survey of India topographical maps from 1973 to 1976 is one
of the best tools for obtaining the basic information of any region. After obtaining the relevant
information of the study area, we can easily prepare the various thematic maps. A Thematic
maps are those which are based on any particular theme of the specific area. Here 48 topotsheets
on 1:50,000 have been used for the study of the desired area (figure 3.1). All the thematic maps
have been prepared with ARC GIS 10 software.
3.3 Preparation of Geomorphological maps
Geomorphological study of the area has been carried out with Survey of India toposheets
on 1:50,000 scales and easily available various satellite imageries. In present work the 48
toposheets and various satellite imageries of different age such as: MSS DATA (1975-76),
LANDSAT TM+ (1989), LANDSAT ETM
+ (2000-2006), PAN DATA of LANDSAT (2000-
2006) and LISS III AWIFS (2011) have been used. The LANDSAT imageries are totally free
and it is easily available on the GLCF (Global Land Cover Facility) website. The LISS III data of
AWIFS is easly available on the site of NRSC (National Remote Sensing Center). For preparing
the geomorphic map, all the raster data (geographically referenced data) were digitized in to
vector data (point, line, and polygon) with the help of ARC GIS 10 software.
The MSS (Multi Spectral Scanning) imageries of 1975 have been used with all four
bands for composing FCC (False Colour Composite) of the study area. The FCC is useful for the
delineation of different geomorphic features. We used Band 3, 2, 1 as a Red, Green, Blue for
making the FCC (figure 3.2).
23
The resolution of MSS imageries is 60 m. The details of the path-row used are p155r42,
p155r41, p154r42 and p154r41 for the preparation of MSS data.
The LANDSAT TM+ (Thematic Mapper) is as an advanced version with resolution of 30
meter with seven bands. The FCC has been prepared with using Band 4, 3, 2 as a Red, Green,
and Blue. The tone and texture of FCC is very useful for the identification of various geomorphic
surface of the study area (figure 3.3).
The LANDSAT ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) is an advanced version of
LANDSAT TM+. The resolution of LANDSAT ETM
+ is 30 meter with 8 bands. The FCC was
prepared with help of band 4, 3, and 2 as Red, Green, and Blue (figure 3.4). The PAN data of
LANDSAT ETM+ (band 8) is a black and white with 15 meters resolution and most suitable for
the delineation of geomorphic features related to water bodies such as river, water saturated tal,
jheel and small bodies (figure 3.5). The PAN data may also very helpful for the differentiation of
major geomorphic surfaces such as T1, T2 and T0.
Figure 3.1 Survey of India toposheets of the study area
24
Figure 3.2 LANDSAT MSS Imageries 1975 with 60 meter resolution
Figure 3.3 LANDSAT TM+ Imageries 1989-90 with 30 meter resolution
25
Figure 3.4 LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries 1999-2000 with 30 meter resolution
Figure 3.5 PAN data of LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries with 15 meter resolution
26
3.4 Morphometric analysis
Morphometric analysis has been broadly categorized into three parameters such as Basic
parameters, Derived parameters and Shape parameters (Mesa, 2006). Topographical maps
(1:50,000) are most authenticated for the study of morphometric analysis.
Figure 3.6 Showing the scheme of stream ordering (Strahler, 1952) and measurement of basin length and other
parameters used in morphometric analysis
27
MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS
Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters
Basin area Bifurcation ratio Elongation ratio
Basin length Stream length ratio Circularity index
Perimeter Stream frequency Form Factor
Stream length Drainage density Elipticity index
Stream order Drainage texture
Basin relief ratio
RHO Coefficient
3.4.1 Basic Parameters
Basin area: It is the entire area considered between the divide line and the outfall with all sub-
and inter-basin area. In fact, since almost every watershed characteristic is correlated with area.
The basin area is the most important parameter in the description of form and processes of the
drainage basin (Garde, 2006).
Basin Length: Basin length is obtained by measuring the longest basin diameter between the
mouth of the basin and most distinct point on the perimeter (Gregory and Walling, 1973).
Perimeter: It is the total length of the drainage basin boundary.
Stream Length (Lu): It is the total length of streams of a particular order.
Stream Order (Nu): Stream ordering refers to the determination of the hierarchical position of
stream within a drainage basin. According to Strahler (1952), ordering of stream begins from the
fingertip tributaries, which do not have their own feeders. Such fingertip streams are designated
as first order streams, two streams when join together from second order stream just below
junction. Similarly two second order streams meet to make stream of third order and process
continues till the trunk stream is given the highest order. The order does not increase if a lower
order stream segment meets a stream segment of higher order. This scheme is popularly known
28
as „stream segment method‟. Stream order is a useful indicator of stream size, discharge and
drainage area (Strahler, 1957).
Slope: The slope angle of a basin is a morphometrical factor of hydrological relevance. Steep
slopes generally have high surface run-off values and low infiltration rates. The basin slope was
calculated by applying the following formula:
Sb = Hmax - Hmin/L
Where, Hmax and Hmin are the maximum and minimum basin heights, respectively; L is the
horizontal length of the basin (figure 3.6).
3.4.2 Derived Parameters
Bifurcation Ratio (Rb): It is the ratio of the numbers of streams of any given order (Nu) to the
number in the next lower order (Nu+1). The bifurcation ratio is related to the branching pattern
of drainage network. It is a dimensionless parameter of the drainage basin and controlled by
drainage density, stream entrance angles (junction angle), litological characteristics, basin shape
and basin area. It is defined as:
Rb = Nu / Nu+1
This is a very important parameter that expresses the degree of ramification of drainage network.
Stream Length Ratio (Rl): It is calculated by following formula:
Rl = Lu / Lu-1
Where, Rl = stream length ratio, Lu = stream length of order „u‟ and Lu-1 = stream segment
length of the next lower order. It has an important relationship with the surface flow discharge
and erosional stage of the basin (Sreedevi et al., 2004).
Stream Frequency (Fs): It was defined by Horton (1945) as the ratio between the total number
of stream segments of all orders in basin and the basin area. It is expressed as:
Fs = Ʃ Nu / A
Where, Ʃ Nu is the total number of stream segments of all orders and A is the basin area. The
general categories of stream frequency are very poor, poor, moderate, high and very high.
Drainage Density (Dd): Horton (1945) defined the drainage density (Dd) as the total length of
streams per unit area of drainage basin. Drainage density is measures the degree of fluvial
29
dissection and it is influenced by numerous factors, among which resistance to erosion of rocks,
infiltration capacity of the land and climatic conditions rank high (Verstappen, 1983).
Dd = Ʃ Lt / A
Where, Ʃ Lt = total length of all the ordered streams, and A = area of the basin
Drainage Texture (T): The drainage texture (T) is an expression of the relative channel spacing
in a fluvial dissected terrain. It depends upon a number of natural factors such as climate,
rainfall, vegetation, rock and soil type, infiltration capacity, relief and stage of development of a
basin (Smith, 1950).
T = Dd x Fs
Where, Dd is drainage density and Fs is stream frequency.
Basin Relief (R): It is the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest point of the
basin.
R = Hmax – Hmin
Where, Hmax and Hmin are the maximum and minimum basin heights, respectively.
Relief Ratio (Rr): It is the ratio between the basin relief (R) and basin length (L). It is a
dimensionless parameter given by Schumm (1963).
Rr = R / L
RHO coefficient (RHO)
This parameter defined as the ratio between stream length ratio (Rl) and the bifurcation ratio
(Rb). It expresses the relationship between the drainage density and the physiographic
development of the basin, allows the evaluation of the storage capacity of the drainage network
(Horton, 1945). It is influenced by natural as well as the anthropogenic influences. The RHO
expresses water storage capacity during flood and the erosion.
RHO = Rl / Rb
3.4.3 Shape Parameters
Elongation Ratio (Re): Elongation ratio (Re) was defined as the ratio between the diameter of a
circle of the same area as the basin (D) and basin length (L) Schumm (1956).
Re = D / L = 1.128 √ A / L
30
Where, A is area of the basin, L is basin length, and 1.128 is a constant. The values of elongation
ratio varies from zero (highly elongated shape) to unity i.e. one (circular shape). Thus, the more
circular shape of the basin gives the higher values of Re and vice versa.
Circularity Index (Rc): The circularity ratio (Miller, 1953; Strahler, 1964) of the basin, is ratio
of the basin area (A) and the area of a circle with same parameter as that of the basin (P).
Rc = 4 Λ Α / P2
Where, Rc is basin circularity, P is basin perimeter, A is area of the basin and 4 is a constant. The
values of circularity index varies from zero (a line) to unity i.e. one (a circle). The higher values
of Rc, the more circular shape of the basin and vice versa.
Form Factor (Ff): Horton (1945) proposed this parameter to predict the flow intensity of a basin
of defined area. The Ff of a drainage basin is expressed as the ratio between the area of the basin
(A) and the squared of the basin length (L2).
Ff = A / L2
The index of Ff shows the inverse relationship with the square of the axial length and as a direct
relationship with peak discharge (Gregory and Walling, 1973).
Elitipcity Index (E): The elipticity Index is an important shape parameter indicating general
shape of the drainage basin.
E = Λ L2 / 4 A
Where, A is the basin area and L is the basin length. The value of elipticity index varies from one
to infinity.
All the morphometric calculation has been made with the help of ARC GIS 10, GOBAL
MAPPER and ERDAS software.
3.5 Geomorphic Indices
Geomorphic indices provide basic reconnaissance tools to identify areas experiencing
rapid tectonic deformation (Keller, 1986). Longitudinal profile, transverse profile, sinuosity
indices, valley width - channel width calculation of rivers and escarpment analysis has been used
to investigate the effects of tectonic activity on the interfluve region. Escarpment Analysis is an
attempt to generate an empirical parameter, which is an important indicator of active tectonics in
the Ganga Plain.
31
The longitudinal and transverse profile of the interfluve area is drawn by plotting elevation
against their respective downward distance. Contour lines and different spot heights on 1:50,000
topographic maps give the whole information about the elevation of the study area.
The sinuosity indices can be calculated by the following formula: OL/EL (Schumm,
1963) where OL means observed (actual) path of a stream and EL expected straight path of a
stream. Sinuosity may help considerably in studying the effect of terrain characteristics on the
river course and vice versa. It also gives the vivid picture of the stage of basin development as
well as landform evolution.
Valley width and channel width calculation has been carried out with the help of Google
earth map. The ratio of valley and channel width helps for the reconstruction of palaeo-
environment of the area.
Escarpment is an excellent example of Neotectonic activity of any area. The analysis of
escarpment has been carried out with the help of toposheets (1:50,000) provided by Survey of
India. The value of „r‟ on both bank of the river against their corresponding downstream
distances, separately for the both banks of the river was plotted for escarpment analysis.
3.6 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
Terrain information is very essential in geomorphic studies. Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) is a term coined to describe methods and processes pertaining to digital terrain data. A
Digital Elevation Model is a type of Digital Terrain Model, recording a topographical
(geomorphometric) representation of the terrain of the earth or another surface in digital format.
The word elevation in Digital Elevation Model is the measurement of height above a datum. It
implies the altitude or elevation of the points contained in the data. Digital Elevation Model
records altitude in a raster format. That is, the map will normally divide the area into rectangular
pixels and store the elevation of each pixel. In that sense, Digital Elevation Model data are
sampled arrays of surface elevations in raster form. Spot heights and contour lines can also be
used to produce Digital Elevation Model. Digital Elevation Model of the study area has been
prepared with the help of SRTM (Shuttle Remote Topographic Mission) data with 90 m
resolution.
32
3.7 Drainage map of the study area
Drainage map have been prepared with the help of Survey of India toposheets (1:50,000)
along with ARC GIS 10 software. Drainage map (figure 3.7) gives the precise idea about the
drainage network, drainage pattern and basin characters of different rivers of any area. Drainage
maps also help in morphometric analysis of the drainage basin or river basin of any particular
area.
3.8 Slope analysis
Slope analysis gives the detail idea about the gradient of any particular region. The slope
analysis of the study area has made with the help of SRTM (Shuttle Remote Topographic
Mission) data easily available on GLCF (Global Land Cover Facility) site. The resolution of the
data is 90 meters. All the process for making the slope map has been done on ARC GIS 10
software. Since the Ganga Plain is a low lying area therefore the slope variation is not very
prominent.
3.9 Land use map
Land use planning is a technique that requires the interpretation of image mainly on the
basis of image classification using Digital Image Processing (DIP). This have been achieved
using image processing software i.e. ERDAS IMAGINE software along with a False Colour
Composite (FCC). The FCC was made on the basis of the image downloaded from the NRSC
(National Remote Sensing Center) official website using the AWIFS of LISS III on the bands 3,
2, 1 as Red, Green, and Blue (figure 3.8). The image classification technique was applied for
supervised classification using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.5 on the aforesaid satellite data. The
Polynomial technique and different signatures on varying pixel levels were used for classifying
different land use categories. The pixels here represent the reflectance values of different objects
on the ground. According to the requirement, six classes were categorized on the basis of their
reflectance values using signature editor. The maximum likelihood algorithm was applied to map
different categories of land use/land cover. The classes are as follows: Agricultural Land, Forest
cover, River/water bodies, waste land, and Habitation mask/settlements.
33
Figure 3.7 Map showing the drainage net work of the area
Figure 3.8 AWIFS imageries of LISS III
34
4.1 General
Geomorphology is a significant branch of geology. This branch deals with the logical study
of land forms and processes that shape them. Geomorphology is a combination of three Greek
words geo means “earth", morfé means "form" and logos mean "knowledge". The
Geomorphological features are the natural scenery on the surface of the earth crust that has been
crafted by his denudating agent such as wind, water and glaciers. Geomorphology of any region
totally depends upon the climate, lithology and tectonics of that region. A number of workers
have given the various concepts and thought for development of the various land form on the
surface of earth. James Hutton, W. M. Davis, W. D. Thornbury are some of the renowned
geomorphologists and have given the various concepts. The some universally accepted concepts
are as follows:
James Hutton gave the concept “the present is key to the past” well known as the
concept of uniformitarianism. This is most fundamental concept in Geology.
W.M. Davis known as the patron of Geomorphology, gave the three major concepts viz.
geographical cycle (known as cycle of erosion), complete cycle of river life (youth
stage, mature stage, old stage) and slope evolution. Davis also identified three basic
factors which control the evolution of landforms. He stated that the „landscape is a
function of structure, process and time‟, which are termed as „trio of Davis‟.
W.D.Thornbury presented the summary of fundamental concepts in geomorphology;
these concepts are:
1. “The same physical processes and laws that operate today, operated throughout
geological time although not necessarily always with the same intensity as now.”
2. “Geologic structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution of land forms and
is reflected in them.”
3. “Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprints upon landforms and each
geomorphic process leave its own characteristic assemblage of landforms.”
4. “As the different erosional agencies act on the earth‟s surface, they produce a
sequence of landforms having distinctive characteristics at the successive stages of
their development.”
35
5. “Geomorphic scale is a significant parameter in the interpretation of landform
development and landform characteristics of geomorphic systems and landscape is a
function of time and space.”
6. “Complexity of geomorphic evolution is more common than simplicity.”
7. “Little of the earth‟s topography is older than Tertiary and most of it no older than
Pleistocene.”
8. “Proper interpretation of present day landscapes is impossible without a full
appreciation of manifold influences of the geologic and climatic changes during the
Pleistocene.”
9. “An appreciation of world climates is necessary to a proper under-standing of the
varying importance of the different geomorphic processes.”
10. “Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with present day landscapes,
attains its maximum usefulness by historical extension.”
Since we all know tha the Ganga Plain is a hub of various types of rivers and all the
geomorphological features of this plain have been crafted mostly by the fluvial processes and
river‟s water is one of the most effective denudating agents of this plain. The geomorphology of
the area is modified by the mountain fed river such as Ghaghara and Ganga along with ground
water fed river Gomati, Sai etc. The Ghaghara and Ganga River reveals the mature stage
topography of entire region and exhibits either as single channel pattern (Braided channel) or
multiple channel patterns (anastomosing channel). According to Leopold and Wolman, 1957 and
Schumm, 1963, 1968 discharge (amount and variability), sediment load (amount and grain size),
width, depth, velocity, slope, bed roughness and bank vegetation density are control the behavior
of these channels. Each of these is affected by climatic and geological variables such as rainfall,
seasonal temperature variation and regional slope. For geomorphological study we divided the
Interfluve area into three:
1 Ganga-Sai interfluve
2 Sai-Gomati interfluve
3 Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve
36
Ganga-Sai Interfluve
Figure 4.1 Geomorphological map of Ganga-Sai interfluve
4.2 General
Ganga-Sai interfluve is a part of Central Ganga Plain. It covers an area of 5,641.23 km2
and includes almost entire part of Unnao and approximately 50 percent part of Raibareilly
district. The interfluve surface includes three regional geomorphic surfaces such as: River Valley
Terrace (T1), Upland Terrace Surface (T2) and Active Flood Plain (T0) (figure 4.1). Figure 4.1
is a vector representation (Point, Line and Polygon) of spatial data (raster data), while figure 4.2
is a satellite imagery of CARTOSET DEM or RASTER DATA only. Each geomorphic surface
of this area contains various micro-geomorphic structures such as ponds, lakes, meander scars,
37
palaeo-channels, ox-bow lakes etc. Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is made up of Older alluvium
(Bangar) and River Valley Terrace (T1) is made up of Newer alluvium (Khadar).
Figure 4.2 Satellite imagery (Raster data), showing various geomorphic features
Figure 4.3 Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0
38
4.2.1 Geomorphology
Upland Terrace Surface (T2)
The Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is an oldest geomorphic unit and its cover 5,275.51 km2
area (78 Percent of the total area). This surface contains one of the most prominent abandoned
channels belt in the form of ponds (tals) and lakes (jheels) either water saturated or dried (figure
4.4). The area of these ponds (tals) and lakes (jheels) ranges from .0035km2 to 7.15 km
2. This
belt runs approximately parallel to the active river channel and covers 1,975.74 km2 areas. The
length of the abandoned channel belt is 150 km and trending towards NW-SE. This belt indicates
the trace of past active river channel. Most of the abandoned channels are dried throughout the
year except the monsoon season. Nowadays the depositional sediments of these abandoned
channels have become an important tool for the palaeohydrologic reconstructions of Ganga Plain
(Singh et al 2003).
Figure 4.4 Map showing the abandoned palaeo-channel belt
39
Since each T2 surface has its own T1 and T0 surface, Loni nadi exhibit the T1 and T0 surface on
the T2 surface of Ganga-Sai interfluve. Loni nadi is a ground water fed river of local origin and
exhibits the meandering behavior with the sinuosity index of 1.92. The Loni has very narrow
channel and it is very difficult to mark T1 surface (figure 4.10). The T1 and T2 surface of Loni
nadi does not make any remarkable geomorphic structure.
River Valley Terrace (T1)
The River Valley Terrace (T1) is made up of Newer alluvium (khadar) and covers
1,464.90 km2 and about 22 percent of the total area. The T1 surface exhibits the Active Flood
Plain Surface (T0) along with the older flood plain. The Ganga-Sai interfluve has following
River Valley Terrace (T1).
1: River Valley Terrace (T1), left bank of Ganga River,
2: River Valley Terrace (T1) of Sai Nadi
1: River Valley Terrace (T1), left bank of Ganga River
The T1 surface of Ganga River exhibit very broad river valley or flood plain ranging
from 1.9 km to 22 km. The SW corner of T1 surface of Ganga River near Unnao exhibit ~16 km
broad meander scar (figure 4.1). This huge meander scar is a representative of the flowing
history of Ganga River. The T1 surface of Ganga River contains some abandoned linear water
bodies and channels, channel bar deposits, sand ridges, some micro geomorphic features such as
small lakes and ponds out of which some are dried and some are water fed.
The Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Ganga River exhibits braided (sinuosity
index1.10) and anastomosing behavior (figure 4.5). The active channel contains the huge
deposits of sands in the form of braid bar, these braid bars behave as a semi permanent island.
2: River Valley Terrace (T1) of Sai Nadi
Sai is a ground water fed river of the alluvium. Sai has very narrow T1 surface ranges 10
m to 1.5 km. The T1 surface of Sai exhibits meander scars, ox-bow lakes, abandoned channels,
sand ridges etc. The geomorphic features of this surface are totally influenced by the monsoon
season and heavy rain crafted most the features.
The Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Sai nadi exhibits meandering behaviour with
sinuosity index of 2.01. The active channel contains crescent shape point bar deposits with
variable size and meander scars etc. (figure 4.6). The point bar deposits more frequently present
40
in the lower segment of the river. Under this region Sai exhibit the excellent example of Yazoo
Type River and flow almost parallel to the Ganga River (figure 4.7).
Figure 4.5 Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Ganga River
Figure 4.6 Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Sai nadi
41
Figure 4.7 Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River
Figure 4.8 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi
42
Figure 4.9 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ganga River
Figure 4.10 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Loni nadi
43
Sai-Gomati Interfluve
Figure 4.11 Geomorphological map of Sai-Gomati Interfluve
4.3 General
The Sai–Gomati interfluve contains the most part of Older alluvium (Bangar) of Ganga
Plain. It includes 5,774.51 km2 area and contains major part of Lucknow, Raibareilly and some
part of Unnao, Barabanki districts. Broadly it contains the three regional geomorphic surfaces;
Upland Terrace Surface (T2), River Valley Terrace (T1) and Active Flood Plain Surface (T0)
(figure 4.11). Most of the geomorphic features of this area have been crafted either by the ground
water fed rivers or the rain water fed rivers and it is totally depended upon the monsoon season.
These two regional geomorphic surfaces may also contain the Active Flood Plain Surface (T0)
having very narrow channel width.
44
Figure 4.12 Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features
Figure 4.13 Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0
45
4.3.1 Geomorphology
Upland Terrace Surface (T2)
This surface includes 5,732.86 km2
or 99 percent of the area (figure 4.13). It exhibits
mainly the micro-geomorphic structure such as lakes and ponds, palaeo-channels, ox-bow lakes,
small ephemeral streams, etc. (figure 4.11 and 4.12). Most of the lakes and ponds of T2 surface
are dried throughout the year except the monsoon season. This surface contains the Active Flood
Plain Surface (T0) of Behta nadi, Loni nala, Naiya nala and Nagwa nala. The channel width of
the Behta nadi is ranging between 20 to 30 m and it exhibits the highly meandering behavior
with the sinuosity index of 3.15. The active channel of Behta nadi does not contain any notable
geomorphic features.
River Valley Terrace (T1)
This surface includes 41.66 km2
or 01percent of the area (figure 4.13). It includes the T1
surface of Sai and Gomati rives along with Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Gomati River.
The width of T1 surface of Gomati is between 10 m to 3.5 km and width of Sai is less than 1 km.
This surface exhibits abundant channels in the form of lakes and ponds, meander scars, ox-bow
lakes etc.
Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Gomati River exhibits meandering behavior with
sinuosity index of 2.21. This channel contains 87 point bar deposits and dimension of these point
bars ranges from 0.005 km2 to 0.23 km
2. These point bars cover total 4.78 km
2 area and exhibits
crescent in shape (figure 4.14 and 4.15). The amount of bar deposit increases in the lower
segment of the river.
The Sai nadi has very narrow T1 surface. This surface contains various micro-
geomorphic features such as ox- bow lakes, sand ridges, ponds and lakes, etc.
46
Figure 4.14 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River
Figure 4.15 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River
47
Figure 4.16 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Gomati River
Figure 4.17 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi
48
Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve
Figure 4.18 Geomorphological map of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve
4.4 General
The Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve includes both older and younger alluvium with
appreciable amount. This region includes the most part of Barabanki, Faizabad along with some
part of Lucknow, Sultanpur and covers 6,391.68 km2 areas. It includes broadly three mega-
geomorphic units or surfaces such as: Upland Terrace Surface (T2) or oldest flood plain, River
Valley Terrace (T1) or older flood plain and Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) (figure 4.18). Each
mega-geomorphic unit has its own micro-geomorphic units in the form of lakes, ponds, ox-bow
lakes, meander scars, Palaeo-channels, sand ridges and ephemeral streams, etc.
49
Figure 4.19 Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features
Figure 4.20 Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0
50
4.4.1 Geomorphology
Upland Terrace Surface (T2)
Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is made up of older alluvium. It covers 5,396.72 km2 or
almost 84 percent of the area (figure 4.20). The surface of T2 contains various dried or water fed
ponds and lakes, sand ridges, meander scars, palaeo-channels, ox-bow lakes, cutoff meanders,
etc. (figure 4.18 and 4.19). This surface includes the T1and T0 surface of Kalyani nadi, Reth
nadi, Marha nadi, Kukrail nala, and Betwa nala. In T2 surface, the path of Reth nadi and Kalyani
nadi is almost parallel with each other and it exhibits the example of Yazoo Type River (figure
4.24).
Kalyani nadi is a ground water fed river and exhibits highly meander or tortoise behavior
with sinuosity index of 2.45. The T1 surface of Kalyani nadi cannot be clearly differentiated with
T2 surface in most part of the region, because the channel of Kalyani nadi has very narrow T1
surface. In some part, the T1 surface of Kalyani exhibits meander scars, ox-bow lakes, linear
sand ridges and channel ridges, etc. The Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Kalyani nadi
exhibits meander scars (figure 4.22). T0 of Kalyani nadi does not exhibit any point bar deposit
from their entire journey.
Reth Nadi is a ground water fed river and it exhibits the meandering behavior with
sinuosity index of 2.13. The T1 and T0 surface of Reth Nadi does not contain any remarkable
geomorphic feature.
Marha nadi is ground water fed river and most part of this river became dry throughout
the year. The course of the river is highly sinuous and exhibits tortoise pattern. T0 surface of this
river exhibits meander scars and sand ridges (figure 4.23).
River Valley Terrace (T1)
River Valley Terrace (T1) contains the younger alluvium deposits or Khadar and it
includes the T1 surface of Ghaghara and Gomati River. T1 includes 994.96 km2 areas, out of
which 800.69km2 (13%) is covered by T1 surface and 194.27 (3%) is covered by the T0 surface
(figure 4.20).
The T1 surface of Ghaghara is very wide and it ranges from 416 m (lower segment of the
river) to 18.22 km (Upper segments of the river).
51
The T1 surface of the Ghaghara contains various geomorphic features such as Ponds, lakes,
linear sand ridges and water bodies, ox-bow lakes, cutoff meanders, small ephemeral streams,
palaeo-channels etc. Most of the geomorphic features show the close affinity with flowing
direction of active channel of Ghaghara River.
Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Ghaghara river exhibits mostly braided behavior
throughout the journey and braid bars are most common deposits along T0 surface. These braid
bars are very huge in dimension and treated as temporary island. At one place the active channel
of Ghaghara River behaves like an anastomosing pattern (figure 4.21).
The River Valley Terrace (T1) of Ghaghara River also exhibits T0 and T1 surface of
Samli nadi, Sote nala, Jyori nala. Samli nadi is one of the minor tributary of the Ghaghara River
and the Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Samli nadi exhibits the point bar deposits in the lower
segment. These point bars deposits exhibit crescent shape and the dimension of point bar
increases in downward direction of T0. Active channel of Samli nadi exhibits meandering
behavior. Figure 4.26 and 4.29 shows the various geomorphic features of Samli nadi.
The T1 of Gomati River has river narrow width ranges from 10 m to 4.88 km. This
surface contains mainly meander scars, ox-bow lakes, cut off meander etc.
Figure 4.21 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Ghaghara River
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Figure 4.22 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Kalyani Nadi
Figure 4.23 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Marha Nadi
53
Figure 4.24 Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River
Figure 4.25 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ghaghara River
54
Figure 4.26 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi
Figure 4.27 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Kalyani nadi
55
Figure 4.28 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Reth nadi
Figure 4.29 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi
56
4.5 Contour map
Contours are the line, joins the point of equal height of any region. The contour map
gives the idea about the height variation of any region/area from the mean sea level. Contour
height makes the platform for the preparation of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and both
contour map and DEM are simultaneously related with each other. Under the study area contour
map has been prepared with the help of Survey of India Toposheet along with SRTM data and
ARC GIS 10 soft ware. Here we prepared contour map with 10 m contour interval which starts
from 80 m (dark red colour) at the lower most part of the region and maximum goes up to 140 m
at the upper most part of the region (black colour) (figure 4.30) . The most part of the area comes
under 100 m to130 m contour height.
Figure 4.30 Contour map of the area
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4.6 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital representation of ground surface topography
or terrain. It is also known as Digital Terrain Model (DTM). It involves the height (Z) factor and
gives the clear idea about the sloping trend of any region. In interfluve area the maximum
elevation goes upto 148 m on upper part and minimum is 71 m on lower part (figure 4.31) and it
indicates that the sloping trend of the study area is towards NW-SE. The elevation of upper part
is ranging from 122.93 m to 148 m and it is frequently found in the older alluvium or T2 surface
of the region. It includes almost more than 70% part of Unnao, 35- 40% part of Lucknow and
20% part of Barabanki districts. The elevation of middle part is ranging from 106.93 m to 122.93
m and it includes both younger and older alluvium of the region. The entire part of Raibareilly,
70-72% part of Barabanki, 55-60% part of Lucknow and 15-20% part of both Sultanpur and
Faizabad districts come within this range. The elevation of the lower part ranges from 71 m to
106.93 m and also includes both younger and older alluvium of the region. It includes almost 2/3
part of Faizabad and Sultanpur districts.
Figure 4.31 Digital Elevation Model of the area
58
4.5 Slope analysis
Slope analysis represents the gradient scenario of any particular area and it is measure
either in percent or in degree. Slope analysis of the study area has been carried out with the help
of SRTM data and ARC GIS 10 software. Since study area is a part of Ganga Plain, therefore it
has very gentle slope which ranges from 0° to 4° (figure 4.32). Most part of the area comes
within 0 to 2 degree slope.
Figure 4.32 Slope map of the area
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5.1 General
Geomorphic indices are one of the most effective tools for the study of tectonics of any
particular area/region. According to Keller, 1986 „Geomorphic indices provides basic
reconnaissance tools to identify areas experiencing rapid tectonic deformation‟. Geomorphic
indices includes the analysis of escarpment (river bank height „r‟), longitudinal and transverse
profile of the area, longitudinal profile, valley width and channel width ratio and sinuosity of the
rivers.
5.2 Escarpment analysis
Escarpment analysis deals with the study of river bank height „r‟ and it gives the detail
knowledge about the neotectonic activity of any area/region. For escarpment analysis we plot
river bank height „r‟ (provided by the Survey of India toposheet) against its corresponding
downstream direction. There are six rivers, whose escarpment analysis has been done.
Escarpment analysis of Behta nadi
Behta nadi is a fourth order tributary of Gomati River. The river bank height „r‟ of both
banks of the Behta nadi gives the considerable variation from one point to another point (figure
5.1). The left bank has lowest 2 m height and maximum goes up to 12 m, while right bank has 2
m and maximum goes up to 8 m near the railway over bridge. The left bank of Behta nadi starts
its journey with 4 m height and travels with 2 m to 6 m height variation almost entire segment.
There are three locations on the left bank of Behta nadi where the value of „r‟ is considerably
high; this is because the first and second order tributaries meet with left of Behta nadi. The
average escarpment heights of right and left banks are 3.8 to 4.9 m respectively; this indicating
that the magnitude of the river incision is low.
Escarpment analysis of Gomati River
The length of Gomati from its origin (Gomat tal near Madho Tanda town of Pilibhit) to
confluence (near Said Pur in Ghazipur) is around 900 km. Under the study area, it covers around
230 km distance. The escarpment height of both banks of Gomati River shows spontaneous high
and lows and profile behaves as a cardiograph (figure 5.2). The river bank height r of right bank
of Gomati River is ranges from 2 m to 22 m while for left bank it is from 2 m to 17 m. The high
60
escarpment value along both bank of Gomati River is due to confluence of 1st, 2
nd, 3
rd, 4
th and 5
th
order tributaries in to Gomati River on various locations with different heights.
Figure 5.1 Escarpment profile of both bank of Behta nadi
Figure 5.2 Escarpment profile of both bank of Gomati River
61
Escarpment analysis of Kalyani nadi
Escarpment analysis of both banks of Kalyani nadi clearly indicates various highs and
lows throughout the entire journey. These highs and lows produce wave like characteristics of
escarpments on both sides of the river (figure 5.3). The escarpment height of the right bank of
Kalyani nadi is fluctuated between 2 m to 10 m while for left bank it is 2 m to 13 m. Right bank
starts their journey with 2 m height and after travelling the 194 km distance, it is finally
confluence into Gomati River with 6 m height. The overall value of the escarpment of right bank
is in between 2 m to 6 m but there are three locations on right bank where the value of r goes up
to 10 m height; this is because tributaries meet with the right bank of Kalyani nadi. The left bank
of Kalyani nadi starts with 2 m height and ends their journey with 3 m height. The maximum
escarpment heights of left bank (13 m and 10 m) are found near Safdarganj area of Barabanki
along the railway over bridge and Kotwa area where the first order stream meets with Kalyani
nadi. The average escarpment heights of right and left banks ranges between 5.3 to 5.7 m ;
indicating that the magnitude of river incision is low.
Figure 5.3 Escarpment profile of both bank of Kalyani nadi
Escarpment analysis of Reth nadi
Escarpment analysis of both banks of Reth nadi shows various ups and downs. These
spontaneous ups and downs produce a cyclic wave like characteristics of escarpments on both
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sides of the river (figure 5.4). The escarpment height of the right bank is between 2 m to 10 m
while for left bank, it is from 2 m to 7 m. The right bank of Reth nadi starts their journey with 3
m height and after travelling 87 km distance; it is finally confluence into Gomati River and end
their Journey with 4 m height. The overall value of escarpment of right bank is fluctuating
between 2 m to 6 m but at one location, 60 km away from the origin (1km away from the
Sharifabad tehsil of Barabanki district) the value of escarpment is 10 m. This is because the 1st
order stream meets with in the left bank of Reth nadi. The left bank of the Reth nadi starts with 2
m height and goes up to the maximum 7 m near Sharifabad tehsil, where 2nd
order stream meet
with Reth nadi. The left bank end their journey with 6 m height near Sekhpur village of
Barabanki district. The average escarpment height of right and left bank is 3.8 and 3.5 m
respectively; indicating that the magnitude of the incision is low for Reth nadi.
Figure 5.4 Escarpment profile of both bank of Reth nadi
Escarpment analysis of Sai nadi
Sai nadi is one of the major tributary of Gomati River. The escarpment profile of both
bank of Sai nadi shows undulation and behaves as a wave motion (figure 5.5). The escarpment
height of right bank of Sai nadi starts its course with 2 m height and maximum goes up to 12 m.
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In most of the area the escarpment height of right bank is varying between 2 m to 6 m but there
are six locations where the escarpment height is more; this is because the 1st and 2
nd tributaries of
right bank meet Sai nadi with high r values. Left bank starts with 2 and maximum goes up to 10
m along the railway over bridge.
Figure 5.5 Escarpment profile of both bank of Sai nadi
Escarpment analysis of Loni nadi
Escarpment analysis of both banks of Loni nadi shows various ups and downs (figure
5.6). These spontaneous ups and downs produce a wave like characteristics of escarpments on
both sides of the river. The escarpment height of the right bank lies between 2 m to 9 m while for
left bank it ranges from 2 m to 7 m. The right bank of Loni nadi starts with 5 m escarpment
height at origin and after travelling the 87.19 km distance it finally confluence into Ganga River
and ends journey with 7 m height. The left bank of the Loni nadi starts with 3 m height at origin
and ends with the same height into Ganga River. The high value of escarpment is due to the
confluence of tributary on the both bank of Loni nadi. The average escarpment height of right
and left bank is 3.8 and 3.9 m respectively; this indicates that the magnitude of the incision of
Loni nadi is low.
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Figure 5.6 Escarpment profile of both bank of Loni nadi
Remarkable features regarding the escarpment of investigated rivers
The lowest value of escarpment of all investigated rivers is 2 m.
High escarpment values are found either at confluence point of the tributaries or along the
railway over bridge.
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5.3 Profile analysis
5.3.1 Longitudinal Profile
Longitudinal Profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve
Longitudinal profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve includes five segments, designated as L1,
L2, L3, L4 and L5 (figure 5.7). Each segment of the profile is running parallel and equidistance
with each other.
Figure 5.7 Index map of longitudinal profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve
Longitudinal Profile L1
L1 is drawn along NW-SE (figure 5.7 A) and AA´ denotes the proximal and distal part of
this profile respectively in a fluvially dominated system. The point height of L1 is ranges from
100 m to 116 m and it includes both younger alluvium and older alluvium of the area. L1 profile
shows the gradual increase and decrease throughout the journey. But at the end of the profile, it
shows sudden decrease in height from 111 m to 100 m. L1 cuts the Morahi nadi at 109 m altitude
66
and Bairajpur nala at 111 m altitude. Total length of the L1 is ~ 40 km and it exhibits SE sloping
trends.
Longitudinal Profile L2
L2 is drawn along BB´ where B represents upper segment and lower segment of the
profile respectively. The point height of L2 is fluctuated in between 100 m to 125.4 m and it
includes the older alluvium of the area only (figure 5.7 B). The upper segment of L2 cuts the
Kalyani nadi, Madni nadi, and Khar nala at high altitude while middle and lower segment of L2
cuts Khanti nala, Samrai nala and Loni nadi on various heights. Total length of L2 is 88.52 km
and exhibits SE sloping trends.
Longitudinal Profile L3
L3 is also drawn parallel to L1 and L2 and it cuts the interfluve in to almost two equal
halves. The point CC´ denotes the proximal and distal part of the L3 respectively. L3 shows the
various ups and downs troughout the journey and fluctuates between 110 m to 126 m. The upper
segments of L3 cuts Madni nadi and Loni nadi at different point height (figure 5.7 C). Middle
segment cuts Loni nadi at some locations on different heights while the lower segment cuts most
of the palaeo-channels. Total length of L3 is 126.20 km with SE sloping trend.
Longitudinal Profile L4
L4 is drawn along DD´ where D denotes proximal and D´ denotes distal part of the profile
respectively. L4 shows the gradual decrease in height at various locations and the height of L4
rangers from 110 m to 129 m (figure 5.7 D). The entire segment of L4 cuts mostly the
geomorphic features such as ponds and lakes at some locations with different point heights. The
total length of L4 is 146.40 km and it also exhibit SE sloping trend.
Longitudinal Profile L5
It is drawn along EE´ where E represents the proximal and E´ represents the distal part.
The profile of L5 shows the gradual increase and decrease throughout the journey. The height
variation of L5 ranges from 105 m to 136 m (figure 5.7 E). The upper segment of the profile cuts
various geomorphic surfaces while the middle and lower segment cuts the Sai nadi at some
locations with different point height. The total length of this segment is 157.50 km with SE
gradient.
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Figure 5.7 A and 5.7 B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively
Figure 5.7 C and 5.7 D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively
68
Figure 5.7 E showing longitudinal profile of L5
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Longitudinal Profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve
The longitudinal profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve contains the six divisions, designated as
L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and L6. These divisions are parallel to each other and they are at equidistance
as well (figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 Index map of longitudinal profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve
Longitudinal Profile L1
L1 is drawn along NW-SE. Two points AA´ represent the proximal and distal part of L1
respectively. The L1 profile clearly indicates the gradual increase and decrease and shows that
there is not much height variation of this section. The minimum height of L1 is 106 m and
maximum goes up to 130 m (figure 5.8 A). The middle segment of L1 cuts the Sai nadi in two
locations at different heights while the lower segment cuts the Naiya nadi at various locations.
The total length of this profile is 125.70 km and it exhibits the SE sloping trend.
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Longitudinal Profile L2
L2 is drawn parallel to L1 and BB´ denotes the upper and lower part respectively. This
profile shows the height variation from 128 m to 108 m with gradually decrease from starting
point to end point (figure 5.8 B). The upper segment of this profile cuts the Nagwa nala and
Kusaila nala at different point height. The middle and lower segment cuts the Bakh nala and
Naiya nala respectively. At some locations it also cuts the some geomorphic features such as
ponds and lakes. The total length of L2 is 132.50 km and it also exhibits SE gradient.
Longitudinal Profile L3
The L3 is drawn along CC´ where C is the proximal and C´ is the distal part of the
profile. The profile of this section does not show much height variation. It starts from 128 m
height and finally ends their journey with 104.2 m (figure 5.8 C). The upper segment of L3 cuts
the some geomorphic features and Behta nadi at different altitude while the rest of the segment
cuts the palaeo-channels only on different altitudes. Total length of L3 is 122 km with SE
sloping trends.
Longitudinal Profile L4
This is drawn along DD´ where D represents the proximal and D´ represent the distal part
of the area. Throughout the journey this profile shows the very steep ups and downs on various
locations (figure 5.8 D). This profile starts their journey with 120 m height and cuts the Gomati
River at the altitude of 109 m, 111.4 m and 106 m respectively. The lower segment of L4 cuts
the Naiya nala at some locations. Total length of the profile is 124 km and exhibits SE sloping
trends.
Longitudinal Profile L5
This profile is dawn along EE´ where E is starting point and E´ is the end point of the
profile. This profile exhibits the height variation from 122 m to 105 m and it‟s clearly exhibits
the steep ups and downs on the various locations (figure 5.8 E). This profile cuts the Gomati
River at 9 locations at some heights while the lower segment cuts the Naiya nala. Total length of
this profile is 130.50 km with SE gradient.
Longitudinal Profile L6
L6 is drawn along FF´ where F represents the starting point and F´ represents the end
point of the profile. The point height of this profile is fluctuated between 100 m to 114 m and it
shows gradual decrease in SE direction (figure 5.8 F). Total length of L6 is 39.48 km.
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Figure 5.8 A and 5.8 B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively
Figure 5.8 C and 5.8 D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively
72
Figure 5.8 E and 5.8 F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively
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Longitudinal Profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve
The longitudinal profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve is drawn along NW-SE and it
includes six segment designated as L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, and L6. These segments are running
parallel and equidistance with each other (figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9 Index map of longitudinal profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve
Longitudinal Profile L1
L1 profile is drawn along AA´ where A is a proximal part of the profile while A´ is distal
part. The proximal part starts its journey with 120 m height, maximum goes up to 125.1 m and
after travelling 82.40 km distance, it finally ends its journey at 100 m height (figure 5.9 A). The
lower segment of L1 cuts the Reth nadi at 112 m elevation and Gomati River at some locations
with different point height. It exhibits SE sloping trend.
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Longitudinal Profile L2
It is drawn along BB´ where B represents the proximal and B´ represent the distal part of
the profile. This profile starts at 129 m height and ends with 95 m height (figure 5.9 B). This
profile shows the continuous decrease from starting to end point. The upper and middle segments
of the profile cut the Reth nadi on few locations while the lower segments cuts the Rari nala and
Gomati River. In the profile it can be seen that though the topography is gentle but still marked
with few upwarps and one downwarp which is probably due to intersection of small order
stream. The total length of the profile is 126.65 km with SE sloping trend.
Longitudinal Profile L3
It is drawn along CC´ and point height of this segment is varying between 88 m to 127 m
height (figure 5.9 C). The upper part of the profile cuts mostly the geomorphic features such as
various lakes and ponds. The middle segment cuts the Kalyani nadi on various locations with
different point height while lower segment cuts the Betwa nala. Total length of this segment is
119.60 km and exhibit SE sloping trends.
Longitudinal Profile L4
L4 is drawn along DD´ and it shows the gradual decrease towards the SE. The point
height of L4 is varies between 100 m to 128 m (figure 5.9 D). The upper and middle segment of
the profile mostly cuts the Kalyani nadi and its tributaries on various locations with different
altitude while the lower segment cuts the geomorphic features. The total length of L4 is 126.70
km.
Longitudinal Profile L5
The profile L5 is also shows the gradual decrease in point height from start point (127 m)
to end point (100 m) towards SE and it is drawn along EE´. L5 cuts the geomorphic surface at
various locations on different altitudes (figure 5.9 E). The length of L5 is 124.65 km.
Longitudinal Profile L6
L6 is drawn along FF´ and it shows various ups and downs throughout its entire journey.
L6 segments mostly cuts the Ghaghara River at various locations with different altitudes. The
maximum height of L6 is 113 m and minimum goes to 97 m (figure 5.9 F). The total length of
L6 is 126 km and it exhibits slope towards SE.
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Figure 5.9 A and 5.9 B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively
Figure 5.9 C and 5.10 D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively
76
Figure 5.9 E and5.9 F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively
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5.3.2 Transverse Profile
Transverse Profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve
Transverse Profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve includes ten segments; which are designated
as T1 to T10. These segments are running parallel to each other (figure 5.10). The all segments
of the transverse profile are drawn along NE-SW.
Figure 5.10 Index map of transverse profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve
Transverse Profile T1
T1 includes 22.06 km length along aa´ where a denotes the starting point and a´ denotes
end point of the profile. This profile starts with 124 m height and maximum goes up to 133 m
height. After reaching the maximum, profile further shows decline and ends its journey at 128 m
height (figure 5.10 A). During its entire journey profile T1 cuts geomorphic features at various
locations. This profile shows sloping trend towards SW.
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Transverse Profile T2
T2 is drawn along bb´ where b is proximal part of the profile while b´ is distal part. The
elevation of this profile ranges between 120 m to 133 m with 29.69 km distance. Profile of T2
shows gradual increase and decrease on various locations, but at one location there is a sudden
change in the point height and it goes from 132 m to 122 m (figure 5.10 B). The entire segment
of T2 cuts only geomorphic surfaces on different altitudes. T2 shows sloping trend towards SW.
Transverse Profile T3
T3 is drawn along cc´ and point height of this profile ranges between 120 m to 128 m
with 37.12 km distance. This profile clearly indicates undulation during its entire journey (figure
5.10 C). T3 cuts geomorphic surfaces on various locations at different altitude. T3 shows sloping
trends towards SW.
Transverse Profile T4
T4 is drawn along dd´ and the profile of this section shows 14 m height variation and
ranges between 113 m to 127 m (figure 5.10 D). The overall segment of T4 cuts most of the
Palaeo-channels on few locations with different point heights. Total length of T4 is 40.62 km and
exhibits SW gradient.
Transverse Profile T5
T5 is drawn along ee´ and elevation ranges between 111 m to 124 m with 41.84 km
distance (figure 5.10 E). Upper segment of T5 cuts the Paleo-channels while the middle and
lower segment cuts Loni nadi and Khar nala respectively at different altitudes. It exhibits
gradient towards SW.
Transverse Profile T6
T6 is drawn along ff´ and height is varying between 109 m to 120 m (figure 5.10 F).
Upper segment of T6 cuts the palaeo-channel while middle and lower segment cuts Loni nadi
and Khanti nala respectively. Total length of T6 is 48.18 km and it exhibits SW sloping trend.
Transverse Profile T7
T7 covers 57.35 km distance along gg´ and point height is varying between 112 m to 118
m (figure 5.10 G). Upper segment of T7 cuts Begi nala and palaeo-channels on few locations
while the middle segment cuts Loni nadi and Kharhi nala on different point height.
Transverse Profile T8
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T8 is drawn along hh´ and point height fluctuates between 108 m to 116 m (figure 5.10
H). Upper segment of this profile cuts Basaha nala while middle segment cuts Loni nadi and its
tributary at some locations. Lower segment of T8 cuts Bairajpur nala with different point heights.
Total length of T8 is 38.45 km.
Transverse Profile T9
T9 is drawn along ii´ and elevation of this profile ranges between 100 m to 115 m (figure
5.10 I). The entire segment of T9 cuts the palaeo- channels at various locations. Total length of
T9 is 27.36 km.
Transverse Profile T10
T10 is drawn along jj´ and elevation of this profile ranges between 100 m to 112 m
(figure 5.10 J). This profile cuts most of the palaeo-channels on different altitude. Total length of
T10 is 26.49 km and it exhibits sloping behavior towards SW.
Figure 5.10 A and5.10 B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively
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Figure 5.10 C and 5.10 D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively
Figure 5.10 E and5.10 F showing transverse profile of T5 and T6 respectively
81
Figure 5.10 G and 5.10 H showing transverse profile of T7 and T8 respectively
Figure 5.10 I and5.10 J showing transverse profile of T9 and T10 respectively
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Transverse Profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve
Transverse Profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve includes seven segments, which are
designated as T1 to T7. These segments are running parallel and equidistant from each other
(figure 5.11). All segments of the transverse profile are drawn along NE-SW.
Figure 5.11 Index map of transverse profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve
Transverse Profile T1
T1 includes 28.18 km length along aa´ where a denotes the starting point and a´ denotes
the end point of the profile. This profile starts at 109 m height and maximum goes up to 126 m
(figure 5.11 A). During its entire journey, profile cuts Jhingi nala, Panjare nala, Behta nadi and
Nagwa nala on various altitudes. The sloping behavior of T1 is towards NE.
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Transverse Profile T2
T2 is drawn along bb´ where b is proximal part of the profile while b´ is distal part. This
profile shows only 8 m height variation throughout the journey and fluctuated in between 118 m
to 126 m (figure 5.11 B). The lower segment of T2 cuts Nagwa nala at various locations. The
total length of this profile is 26.20 km. It exhibits sloping behavior towards NE.
Transverse Profile T3
T3 has been drawn along cc´. The profile of this segment starts with 108 m height and
maximum goes up to 122.1 m (figure 5.11 C). Upper and lower segments of T3 cuts mainly
geomorphic features on different point heights while middle segment cuts Bakh nala. Length of
T3 profile is 37.12 km with NE sloping trend.
Transverse Profile T4
T4 is drawn along dd´ and height is varying between 112 m to 118.6 m (figure 5.11 D).
The upper and middle segment of the profile cuts mostly the geomorphic surfaces on various
locations while lower segment cuts Bakh nala. Total length of this profile is 31.68 km and shows
NE sloping behavior.
Transverse Profile T5
T5 is drawn along ee´ where e is proximal part of the profile while e´ is distal part. The
path of T5 shows various highs and lows during their entire journey. This profile mostly cuts the
geomorphic features and point height is varying between 100 m to 116 m (figure 5.11 E). Total
length of T5 is 51.68 km.
Transverse Profile T6
T6 is drawn along ff´ where f is proximal part of the profile while f´ is distal part. T6
starts with 100 m height and maximum goes up to 116 m height (figure 5.11 F). Upper and
middle segment of T6 cuts Ghagra nala and Naiya nala respectively while lower segment cuts
Kalwanaya nala on different point height. Total length of T6 is 61.49 km.
Transverse Profile T7
T7 includes 57.35 km distance along gg´ where g denotes the starting point and g´
denotes the end point of the profile. Upper part of the profile cuts Kandu nala and Naiya nala
while lower segment cuts Naiya nadi at different point height. The point height of T7 is
fluctuates between 100 m to 111.7 m (figure 5.11 G).
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Figure 5.11 A and 5.11B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively
Figure 5.11 C and 5.11D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively
85
Figure 5.11 E and5.11 F showing transverse profile of T5 and T6 respectively
Figure 5.11 G showing transverse profile of T7
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Transverse Profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve
Transverse profile of this interfluve contains seven segments from T1 to T7. These
segments are drawn along NE-SW and are parallel with each other (figure 5.12).
Figure 5.12 Index map of transverse profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve
Transverse Profile T1
T1 is drawn along aa´ where a is the proximal part of the profile and a´ is the distal part.
T1 starts its course with 110 m and maximum goes up to 126 m (figure 5.12 A). T1 shows
various ups and downs during its entire journey. The upper segment of T1 cuts Sotia nala and
Samli nadi at various altitude while the middle and lower segment cuts Kalyani nadi and Reth
nadi respectively.
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Transverse Profile T2
T2 is drawn along bb´ and it starts its journey at height of 103 m; maximum goes up to
124 m (figure 5.12 B). The upper segment of T2 cuts the Chauka nadi while the middle and
lower segment cuts the Kalyani nadi, Reth nadi and Kukrail nala respectively on various
altitudes. Total length of T2 is 60.81 km.
Transverse Profile T3
It is drawn along cc´ and starting segment of the profile shows sudden increase and
decrease in height while the middle segment shows slightly increasing and decreasing behavior.
The height of T3 is fluctuates between 101 m to 121 m (figure 5.12 C). Middle segments of T2
cuts Kalyani nadi and its tributary (Gari nadi) while the lower segment cuts Reth nadi. Total
length of T3 is 41.18 km.
Transverse Profile T4
T4 is drawn along dd´. The upper segment of the profile cuts the Jori nala while the
middle and lower segment cuts Kalyani nadi and its tributary (Rari nala) at various locations. T4
profile shows sudden ups and downs throughout the journey and height is ranges from 103 m to
117 m (figure 5.12 D). Total length of the profile is 44.91 km.
Transverse Profile T5
T5 is drawn along ee´ and it is fluctuates in between 97 m to 112 m height (figure 5.12
E). T5 has various positive and negative peaks at different locations due to height differences.
The lower segment of this profile cuts Kalyani nadi and Gomati River at various locations with
different point height. Total length of T5 is 36.56 km.
Transverse Profile T6
T6 is drawn along ff´ and the height variation of this profile is fluctuates from 100 m to
107 m (figure 5.12 F). The upper segment of the profile cuts mostly the geomorphic features
while the lower segment cuts the Betwa nala and Gomati River with different altitudes. Total
length of the profile is 39.53 km.
Transverse Profile T7
T7 is drawn along gg´ where g is the proximal part of the profile and g´ is the distal part.
This segment exhibits over all 11 m height difference from beginning to end point (93 m to 104
m) (figure 5.12 G). Upper segment of T7 cuts Marha nadi while lower segment cuts Betwa nala
with different point height. Total length of T7 is 57.44 km.
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Figure 5.12 A and 5.12B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively
Figure 5.12 C and 5.12 D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively
89
Figure 5.12 E and 5.12 F showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively
Figure 5.12 G showing transverse profile of T7
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5.3.3 Longitudinal profile of the rivers
Longitudinal profile is an important geomorphic tool to interpret the evolution of river
undergoing various geotectonic disturbances (Hack, 1973; Seeber and Gornitz, 1983; Schumm,
1986; Rhea, 1993; Schumm, 1993; Merritts et al., 1994; Demoulin, 1998; Holbrookand Schumm,
1999). In other words, the characteristic of longitudinal profile of a river is an important
geomorphic index of tectonic and geologic perturbations. It is a curve with convex and concave
surfaces, the concavity of which increases towards the headwater area. The concave nature of
stream profile is associated with progressive increase in stream discharge in the downstream
direction (Bull and Knuepfer, 1987). The irregularity in the profile is a result of neotectonic and
tributary confluences (Schumm, 1986). At equilibrium condition, the convex upward profile is
formed when river is adjusting to increasing resistance and / or decreasing discharge
downstream. The concave upward profile is exhibited by river where they adjust to decreasing
resistance and / or excessive increasing discharge downstream (Brookfield, 1998). All factors,
such as rocks of different hardness, tributaries, neotectonic movements and discontinuities
causing different stages in the evolution of the profile, account for deviations from the general
form of the profile, without fundamentally modifying it (Radonae et al., 2003).
When a river passes through zones of active tectonics, for example subsidence or
upliftment, its longitudinal profile shows the effects of deformation. A number of studies have
provided useful information related to river profile adjustments against active crustal warping
(Burnett and Schumm, 1983; Ouchi, 1985; Snow and Singerland, 1990). The most prominent
and fundamental effect in crossing a site of deformation, is the up warping in longitudinal profile
of the river relative to average valley gradient (Holbrook and Schumm, 1999). Upwarping may
cause convexity of terraces, valley floor, water surface, mimicking the shape and location of
underlying ridge or other basement features. Restoration of the longitudinal profile to a
consistent grade after deformation is by aggradation or degradation (Ouchi, 1983; 1985; Marple
and Talwani, 1993). In study area the longitudinal profile of the rivers has been drawn with the
help of point heights provided by the Survey of India toposheet along with the ARC GIS 10
software.
91
Longitudinal profile of Ganga River (left bank)
Ganga River covers 135 km distance with SE sloping behavior under the interfluve area.
The profile of Ganga River shows undulation in topography (figure 5.13) and elevation is
varying in between 100 m to 120 m. Kalyani nadi, Khar nala, Morahi nadi debouches in to
Ganga River at higher altitudes while Bairaj nala and Loni nadi debouches with lower altitude.
Lower segment of Ganga River is probably influenced by Faizabad ridge.
Longitudinal profile of Ghaghara River (right bank)
Under the study area Ghaghara River covers 135 km distance from Barabanki to
Faizabad district. The course of Ghaghara starts with 110 m elevation and ends with 93 m and
profile behaves just likes as wave motion throughout (figure 5.13) the journey. Soti nala, Samli
nadi meets with Ghaghara River at high altitude while Joyri nala and Marha nadi meets with low
altitude. The sloping behavior of Ghaghara River is towards SE.
Longitudinal profile of Gomati River (left bank)
The point height of left bank varying between 115 m to 88 m and topographically the
profile of left bank exhibits undulation (figure 5.14). There are four major tributaries namely
Kukrail nala, Reth nadi, Kalyani nadi, and Betwa nala meets with Gomati River on the right
bank.
Longitudinal profile of Gomati River (right bank)
Gomati is a most important ground water fed river of the study area and it covers 230 km
distance. The maximum elevation of right bank is 113 m and minimum goes to 100 m. Right
bank profile starts with 110 m height (figure 5.14). The profile of right bank exhibits slightly
increase and decrease throughout the journey and the lower most part of this area is cut by the
100 m contour at various locations. Behta nadi and Loni nala are the major tributaries of left
bank meeting with in it at different elevations.
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Figure 5.13 showing longitudinal profile of Ganga and Ghaghara River respectively
Figure 5.14 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Gomati River respectively
93
Longitudinal profile of Kalyani nadi (left bank)
Left bank starts with 123 m elevation and ends with 88 m. The left bank of Kalyani nadi
exhibits gradual decrease and increase throughout the journey (figure 5.15) and it passes through
two reserve forest namely Niamatpur reserve forest and Palhri reserve forest. Rari nala and Gari
nadi are the two major tributaries meeting with Kalyani nadi on left bank.
Longitudinal profile of Kalyani nadi (right bank)
The elevation of right bank of Kalyani nadi ranges from 125 m to 100 m and after
travelling 195 km distance, it finally debouches into Gomati River. The profile of the right bank
shows continuous decrease in height since beginning to almost entire segment (figure 5.15).
There are three locations, where profile shows slightly increasing behavior.
Diagnostic property: The gradient of the Kalyani nadi exhibits a diagnostic feature because
initially it exhibit towards SE but ends their journey towards SW.
Longitudinal profile of Reth nadi (left bank)
Left bank starts with 124 m elevation and confluence in to Gomati River with 102 m
elevation. Profile of left bank shows the abrupt change in the point height near the confluence
point and it goes from 116 m to 102 m while the rest of the segment shows very gentle height
variation (figure 5.16).
Longitudinal profile of Reth nadi (right bank)
The elevation of right bank is ranges between 124 m to 103 m and starts its course with 120
m height and after travelling 80 km distance, empties itself into Gomati River with 103 m
height. Profile of the right bank shows slightly decrease and increase topography (figure 5.16).
The Reth nadi shows variable gradient behavior; initially it shows towards SE but near
the confluence point, it turns itself towards SW.
94
Figure 5.15 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Kalyani nadi respectively
Figure 5.16 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Reth nadi respectively
95
Longitudinal profile of Sai nadi (left bank)
Left bank starts with 124 m elevation and ends with 100 m. Topographically the profile
of left bank exhibits undulation (figure 5.17) and shows slope towards SE. During its entire
segment the left bank tributaries of Sai nadi such as Kusalia nala, Kharui nala, Sarhi nala, Basaha
nala meet with it at different elevations.
Longitudinal profile of Sai nadi (right bank)
Sai nadi is one of the major tributary of Gomati River. It originates from a pond in
village, Bijgwan near Pihani (Hardoi district) and confluence in to Gomati River at Rajepur in
Jaunpur district. In the study area right bank starts with 130 m elevation and covers 275 km
distance, after suffering various ups and downs finally ends it 100 m elevation(figure 5.17).
Nagwa nala, Bakh nala, Kalwanaya nala are the right bank tributaries, meeting with Sai nadi at
different point heights.
Longitudinal profile of Loni nadi (left bank)
Profile of left bank starts with 123 m height and goes below up to 100 m near the
confluence point with Ganga River. Left bank also exhibits gradual increase and decrease
throughout entire segment but near the confluence, it exhibits abrupt change in point height just
like right bank (figure 5.18). The major tributary of left bank, Samrai nala meets with Loni nadi
at 110 m elevation.
Longitudinal profile of Loni nadi (right bank)
Loni nadi is a fifth order tributary of Ganga River. The point height of right bank is varying
in between 122 m to 100 m. The overall profile of right bank shows gradual increase and
decrease and after travelling 132 km distance it finally meet with Ganga river. At 110 m height
the major tributary Konti nala meets with right bank of Loni nadi. The confluence point of right
bank shows abrupt change in point height (109 m to 100 m) (figure 5.18).
The gradient of Loni nadi is towards SE.
96
Figure 5.17 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Sai nadi respectively
Figure 5.18 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Loni nadi respectively
97
Longitudinal profile of Behta nadi (left bank)
Left bank starts with 123 m elevation and meets with Gomati River at 119 m elevation
near Sarora ghat. Left bank profile also shows gentle height variation throughout the journey
(figure 5.19).
Longitudinal profile of Behta nadi (right bank)
The right bank starts its course with 127.5 m point height and after travelling 82.17 km
distance, it finally meets with Gomati River at 109 m height. The profile of the right bank shows
various high and low peaks and the lower segment shows abrupt change in point height (figure
5.19 a).
Remarkable features: The gradient of the Behta nadi is towards SE from beginning to middle
segment but from middle segment to its confluence point with Gomati River, it exhibits gradient
towards NE, this because the Lucknow fault interrupt the course of Behta nadi.
Figure 5.19 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Behta nadi respectively
98
5.4 Anatomy of valley width and channel width
Anatomy of valley width and channel width of the rivers gives the clear idea about the
flood history and palaeoclimatic condition of any area/region. In study area there are two glacial
fed and two ground water fed rivers whose valley width and channel width ratio has been
calculated with the help of Google earth maps.
The right bank of Ghaghara River shows that there is much variation in the ratio of valley
width and channel width (figure 5.20). The valley width of right bank is maximum goes up to
more than 6 km and minimum is less than 2 km while the channel width is maximum goes up to
more than 1 km and minimum is 0.20 km. The bar diagram clearly indicates that there are many
high and low value of valley and channel width throughout entire segment and clearly shows the
behavior of Ghaghara River under the area.
Figure 5.20 Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel width of Ghaghara River.
99
The Ganga River also exhibiting the wider valley but it is not much wider than Ghaghara
River. The value of maximum valley width of left bank is more than 3 km and minimum goes to
less than 1 km while the channel width maximum goes up to 0.5 km and minimum is 0.10
km(figure 5.21). Bar diagram shows the undulation in valley width and channel width
throughout entire segment, and also indicates Ganga River flows with in a very narrow channel.
Figure 5.21 Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel width of Ganga River.
Bar diagram of Gomati River clearly indicates that there is not much variation in valley
width and channel width ratio (figure 5.22). The valley width of Gomati River maximum goes up
to more than 0.3 km and minimum is less than 0.1 km while the channel width is maximum goes
up to more than 0.15 km and minimum is less than 0.10 km. The same valley width and channel
width of Gomati River creates havoc in the monsoon season when the heavy discharge and
enough sediment load choked the channel of Gomati River and water easily over tops the valley.
This situation brings the condition of catastrophic flood in the low lying areas.
The valley width and channel width of Sai nadi is also same in most part of the
investigated area (figure 5.23). Sai nadi is almost dry throughout the year but during monsoon
100
period, it receives enormous amount of water. Since the ratio of valley width and channel width
is not much, therefore during the monsoon season the most part of the investigated area also
struggles with catastrophic flood situation.
Figure 5.22 Bar diagram showing the relationship between valley width and channel width of Gomati River.
Figure 5.23 Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel width of Sai nadi.
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5.5 Sinuosity Index
The sinuosity indices are calculated by the following formula: OL/EL (Schumm, 1963)
where OL means observed (actual) path of a stream and EL expected straight path of a stream.
Sinuosity may help considerably in studying the effect of terrain characteristics on the river
course and vice versa. It also gives the vivid picture of the stage of basin development as well as
landform evolution. The sinuosity of any rivers totally depends upon the lithology, tectonics of
the area, sediment load, and velocity of the rivers or simply says dynamics of the river. In Ganga
plain most of ground water fed rivers cut their channel through lateral erosion and exhibits
meandering behavior.
The sinuosity of Gomati River has been calculated at 28 locations and sinuosity index of
the Gomati River is varying from one location to other location (figure 5.24). The lower value of
sinuosity index of Gomati is 1.53 and highest is 13.03 while the average value of sinuosity index
3.57.
Figure 5.24 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Gomati River
102
The sinuosity of Sai nadi has been calculated at 54 locations and the high peaks of bar diagram
suggest that at most of the locations, the value of sinuosity index is more than 3 (figure 5.25).
This indicates that in the study area, the course of Sai nadi is highly meandering. The lower
value of SI for Sai is 1.64 and higher is 6.56.
Figure 5.25 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Sai nadi
Behta nadi is one of the small tributary of Gomati River. The sinuosity of Behta nadi has
been calculated from starting point of the river to the confluence point (more than 50 locations).
The lower value of SI for Behta nadi is 2.23 and higher is 23.19 (figure 5.26) while the average
value of SI is 5.59, which indicates that the course of Behta nadi is highly meander.
Reth nadi is one of the local river of Barabanki districts and sinuosity of Reth nadi has
been calculated at more than 30 locations (from origin of the river to it confluence) and the
sinuosity index of Reth nadi is varying from 2 to 12.28 (figure 5.27). The average value of SI is
4.96, which indicates that the meandering course of Reth nadi.
103
Figure 5.26 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Behta nadi
Figure 5.27 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Reth nadi
104
Kalyani nadi is a fifth order tributary of Gomati River. The sinuosity of Kalyani nadi has been
calculated at more than 45 locations and most of the locations the sinuosity index is high. The
sinuosity index of Kalyani nadi varies from 2.31 to 30.66 (figure 5.28).
Figure 5.28 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Kalyani nadi
Loni nadi is a fifth order tributary of Ganga River. The sinuosity of Loni nadi has been
calculated at more than 25 locations and most of the locations the sinuosity is more. The
sinuosity index of Loni nadi varies from 2.00 to 10.03 (figure 5.29) while the average value of SI
is 4.66.
Sinuosity Index value of all ground water fed rivers is more than 1.5 which indicates that
all the rivers exhibits meandering behavior under the study area.
105
Figure 5.29 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Loni nadi
106
Morphometry of investigated river basins
6.1 General
Morphometry is a combination of two greek words “morph”, means form or shape and
“metron” means measurment. According to J.I. Clarke, 1970 „Morphometry may be defined as
the measurment and mathematical analysis of the confriguration of the earth‟s surface and of the
shape and dimensions of its landforms. Study area incorporates five river basins which cover
2996.35 km2 area (figure 6.1). Of five river basin, four basins are the part of Gomati River, and
remaining one is a part of Ganga River. The morphometric analysis involves all the parameters
of river basins such as: Basic parameters, Derived parameters and Shape parameters.
Figure 6.1 River basins of the area
107
6.1.1 Morphometry of Kalyani nadi Basin
Kalyani nadi is a small stream of local origin. It originates from Fatehpur tehsil of
Barabanki district and confluence into Gomati River as a fifth order tributary near Dwarkapur
village of Faizabad district. Kalyani nadi is a ground water fed river following the tortuous
course. The total length of the Kalyani nadi is about 194 km from its origin to confluence point.
About 101km length of the river is almost dry throughout the year except during monsoon
season. During the rains of year 1872, Kalyani presented a vast volume of water 269 feet (82 m)
broad, 337 feet (103 m) deep, rushing along with a velocity of 9.18 km/hour and with a discharge
of 51,540 cubic feet per second (1,459 m3/s). In ordinary monsoons the highest discharge is
about a quarter less than this.
Figure 6.2 Drainage map of Kalyani nadi basin
108
The Rari nala, Naiya nala and Gari nadi are the important tributary of the Kalyani nadi meeting
at the right bank. There are three reserve forests present on the right bank of the river namely;
Niamatpur reserve forest, Palhrai reserve forest and Zaidpur reserve forest. The doab or
interfluve area of Kalyani-Gomati is 1,46,526 ha and it is one of the best fertile lands. The doab
area is a leading producer of menthol, opium and sugarcane.
Table 6.1 Morphometric parameters of Kalyani Nadi Basin
Basic Parameters
Kalyani nadi basin occupies an area about 1,234.15km2 and perimeter of the basin is
226.76 km. Maximum length (L) of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the
river is 83.16 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 127 m (msl) and 88 m
(msl) respectively. The total numbers of first, second, third, and fourth order tributaries are 372,
70, 11 and 2 respectively. The total length of first, second, third, fourth and fifth-order streams
are 259.76 km, 76.72 km, 48.27 km, 171.23 km and 22.84 km, respectively. The total numbers of
streams of all orders are 456 covering the total length of 578.82 km. The geometric relationship
between log values of stream number (Nu) to stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream
order of the Kalyani nadi is showing in Figure 6.3.
Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Kalyani nadi Basin
Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters
N1 373.0 Rb1 5.25 Re 0.47
N2 071 Rb2 5.91 Rc 0.30
N3 012 Rb3 6.00 Ff 0.17
N4 02 Rb4 2.00 E 4.39
N5 01 Rb 4.79
L1 (km) 261 Rl 2-1 0.50
L2 (km) 131.3 Rl 3-2 0.68
L3 (km) 90.3 Rl 4-3 0.55
L4(km) 73.4 Rl 5-4 0.31
L5(km) 22.9 Rl 0.51
Lt (km) 578.9 Fs (km-2
) 0.37
H (m) 127 Dd (km-1
) 0.47
h (m) 88 T (km-1
) 0.18
R (m) 39
Rr (m km-1
) 0.46
RHO 0.10
109
Figure 6.3 Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and Stream order
110
Derived Parameters
Kalyani nadi basin has low 39 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment
transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Kalyani nadi basin is
0.46 which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion. Average
bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Kalyani nadi basin is 4.80 which fall in the normal range (3-5). Average
stream length ratio (Rl) of Kalyani nadi basin is 1.14. The RHO coefficient of Kalyani nadi basin
is 0.23. The Stream frequency (Fs) of Kalyani nadi basin is 0.37 km-2
indicates highly permeable
alluvium and low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the basin is 0.47 and it reflects
highly permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is 0.18
indicates that the channels are far away from each other.
Shape Parameters
The elongation ratio (Re) of Kalyani nadi basin is 0.24 and it indicates the elongated
shape of the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin is 0.30 indicates elongated shape,
mature topography and support dendritic pattern of drainage network. The form factor (Ff) of the
basin is 0.19. Elipticity index (E) of the basin is 4.39.
Figure 6.4 View of Kalyani nadi near Masuali area of Barabanki district
111
6.1.2 Morphometry of Loni nadi Basin
Loni nadi is a fifth order tributary of Ganga River (locally called as Lon nadi). It
originates near Ibrahimabad village of Unnao district and meets in Ganga River near
Raghunathganj village of Raibareilly district. The Loni nadi is ground water fed river and it
exhibits the meandering behavior. The total length of the Loni nadi is 137 km from its origin to
confluence point and about 44 km distance is almost dry throughout the year. Samrai nala, Konti
nala, Padiyara nala, Pipri nala, Khahi nala and Kura nala are the major tributaries of Loni nadi.
Figure 6.5 Drainage map of Loni nadi basin
112
Table 6.2 Morphometric parameters of Loni nadi Basin
Basic Parameters
Loni is a fifth order river basin with dominance of lower order streams (figure 6.5). The
area of the basin is 1047.63 km2 and perimeter is 181.68 km. Maximum length of the basin
parallel to the main meandering belt from origin to the confluence (end point) of the river,
known as basin length (L), is 71.41 km. The height is maximum towards foothill in the proximal
part 123 m (msl) and minimum in distal part 106 m (msl). The total numbers of first, second,
third and fourth order tributaries are 180, 42, 7 and 2 respectively. The total length of first,
second, third, fourth and fifth order streams are 183 km, 68 km, 90 km, 53 km and 19 km,
respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 239 covering the total length of 413
km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream number (Nu) to stream order and
stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Loni nadi is shown in following figure 6.6.
Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Loni nadi Basin
Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters
N1 184 Rb1 4.18 Re 0.26
N2 044 Rb2 5.50 Rc 0.40
N3 08 Rb3 4.00 Ff 0.20
N4 02 Rb4 2.00 E 1.21
N5 01 Rb 3.92
L1 (km) 183 Rl 2-1 0.37
L2 (km) 68 Rl 3-2 1.32
L3 (km) 90 Rl 4-3 0.58
L4(km) 53 Rl 5-4 0.35
L5(km) 19 Rl 0.65
Lt (km) 413 Fs (km-2
) 0.22
H (m) 123 Dd (km-1
) 0.39
h (m) 106 T (km-1
) 0.08
R (m) 17
Rr (m km-1
) 0.24
Rf 0.20
RHO 0.16
113
Figure 6.6 Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and Stream order
Derived Parameters
Loni nadi basin has low 17 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment
transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Loni nadi basin is 0.24
which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion.
114
Average bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Loni nadi basin is 3.92 which fall in the normal range (3-5).
Average stream length ratio (Rl) of Loni nadi basin is 0.65. The RHO coefficient of Loni nadi
basin is 0.16. The Stream frequency (Fs) of Loni nadi basin is 0.22 km-2
indicates highly
permeable alluvium and low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the basin is 0.39 and it
reflects highly permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is
0.08 indicates that the channels are far away from each other.
Shape Parameters
The elongation ratio (Re) of Loni nadi basin is 0.26 and it indicates the elongated shape
of the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin 0.40 indicates elongated shape, mature
topography and support dendritic pattern of drainage network. The form factor (Ff) of the basin
is 0.20. Elipticity index (E) of the basin is 3.82.
Figure 6.7 View of Loni nadi near Manghat kera area of Unnao district
115
6.1.3 Morphometry of Reth nadi Basin
Reth nadi is a local stream of Barabanki district and Barabanki itself situated on the left
bank of this stream. Reth nadi is a fourth order stream that flows in between the doab or
interfluve area of Gomati-Kalyani. It originates near Nawabganj tehsil of Barabanki district and
after travelling 109 km distance, finally debouches into Gomati River near Sekh pur village of
barabanki district. The entire part of the Reth nadi is almost dry throughout the year, but in
monsoon season, it receives the enough amount of water. Lohsari nala, Jamuria nala and Narwa
nala are the major tributaries of Reth nadi.
Figure 6.8 Drainage map of Reth nadi basin
116
Table 6.3 Morphometric parameters of Reth nadi Basin
Basic Parameters
Reth nadi basin occupies an area of about 391.71 km2 and perimeter of the basin is
117.79 km. Maximum length (L) of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the
river is 49.23 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 124 m (msl) and 102 m
(msl) respectively. The total numbers of first, second, and third order tributaries are 146, 31 and
4 respectively. The total length of first, second, third and fourth order streams are 102.47 km,
75.28 km, 45.09 km 37.09 km and respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 182
covering the total length of 259.93 km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream
number (Nu) to stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Reth nadi is showing
in figure 6.9.
Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Reth nadi Basin
Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters
N1 146 Rb1 4.7 Re 0.45
N2 031 Rb2 7.7 Rc 0.28
N3 04 Rb3 0 4 Ff 0.16
N4 01 Rb 5.46 E 4.86
L1 (km) 102.47 Rl 2-1 0.73
L2 (km) 75.28 Rl 3-2 0.59
L3 (km) 45.09 Rl 4-3 0.82
L4 (km) 37.09 Rl 0.71
Lt (km) 259.93 RHO 0.13
H (m) 124 Fs (km-2
) 0.46
h (m) 102 Dd (km-1
) 0.66
T(km-1
) 0.30
R (m) 22
Rr (m km-1
) 0.44
117
Figure 6.9 Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and Stream order
Derived Parameters
Reth nadi basin has low 22 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment
transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Reth nadi basin is 0.44
which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion.
118
Average bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Reth nadi basin is 5.46. Average stream length ratio (Rl) of
Reth nadi basin is 0.71. The RHO coefficient of Reth Nadi basin is 0.13. The stream frequency
(Fs) of Reth nadi basin is 0.46 km-2
indicate highly permeable alluvium and low relief for basin.
The drainage density (Dd) the basin is 0.66 and it reflects highly permeable and easily erodible
alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is 0.30 indicates that the channels are far away
from each other.
Shape Parameters
The elongation ratio (Re) of Reth nadi basin is 0.45 and it indicates the elongated shape
of the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin 0.35 indicates elongated shape, mature
topography and support dendritic pattern of drainage network. The form factor (Ff) of the basin
is 0.16. Elipticity index (E) of the basin is 4.86.
Figure 6.10 View of Reth nadi near Sharifabad area of Barabanki district
119
6.1.4 Morphometry of Behta nadi Basin
The Behta nadi is a fourth-order tributary of the Gomati River. It originates from the
Behta tal located near Tikari village and meets in the Gomati River at right bank near Sarora
village. The total length of Behta nadi is 86 km from its origin to confluence point. The
Malihabad block situated on the left bank and Kakori block situated on the right bank of this
nadi. The most part of the Behta nadi is almost dry throughout the year except monsoon season.
The Behta nadi basin is an elongated basin.
Figure 6.11 Drainage map of Behta nadi basin
120
Table 6.4 Morphometric parameters of Behta nadi Basin
Basic Parameters
Behta nadi basin occupies an area of about 236.11 km2 and perimeter of the basin is
90.58 km. Maximum length (L) of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the river
is 36.11 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 128 m (msl) and 109 m (msl)
respectively. The total numbers of first, second, and third order tributaries are 95, 22 and 3
respectively. The total length of first, second, third and fourth order streams are 69 km, 22 km,
15 km and 78 km respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 121 covering the
total length of 184 km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream number (Nu) to
stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Behta nadi is shown in following
figure 6.12.
Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Behta nadi Basin
Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters
N1 095 Rb1 4.31 Re 0.47
N2 022 Rb2 7.33 Rc 0.36
N3 03 Rb3 3 Ff 0.18
N4 01 Rb 4.88 E 4.33
L1 (km) 69 Rl 2-1 0.31
L2 (km) 22 Rl 3-2 0.68
L3 (km) 15 Rl 4-3 5.2
L4 (km) 78 Rl 2.06
Lt (km) 184 RHO 0.42
H (m) 128 Fs (km-2
) 0.51
h (m) 109 Dd (km-1
) 0.77
T(km-1
) 0.39
R (m) 19
Rr (m km-1
) 0.52
121
Figure 6.12 Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and Stream order
Derived Parameters
Behta nadi basin has low 19 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment
transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The Relief-ratio (Rr) of Behta nadi basin is
0.52 which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion. Average
bifurcation ratio (Rb) of basin is 4.88. Average stream length ratio (Rl) of basin is 2.06. The
RHO coefficient of Behta nadi basin is 0.42. The stream frequency (Fs) of the basin is 0.51 km-2
indicate highly permeable alluvium and low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the
122
basin is 0.77and it reflects highly permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture
(T) of the basin is 0.39 indicates that the channels are far away from each other.
Shape Parameters
The elongation ratio (Re) of Behta nadi basin is 0.47 and it indicates the elongated shape
of the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin 0.36 indicates elongated shape, mature
topography and support dendritic pattern of drainage network. The form factor (Ff) of the basin
is 0.18. Elipticity index (E) of the basin is 4.33.
Figure 6.13 View of Behta nadi near Rahimabad area
123
6.1.5 Morphometry of Kukrail nala Basin
Kukrail nala is a fourth order tributary of Gomati River. It arises from the west part of the
Kukrail reserved forest and after travelling 25.90 km distance, empties itself into Gomati River
on the left bank. Ruhwa nala is the major tributary of Kukrail nala.
Figure 6.14 Drainage map of Kukrail nala basin
124
Table 6.5 Morphometric parameters of Kukrail nala Basin
Basic Parameters
Kukrail nala basin occupies an area about 86.75 km2 and perimeter of the basin is 49.46
km. Maximum length of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the river (L) is
16.76 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 122 m (msl) and 108 m (msl)
respectively. The total numbers of first, second, and third order tributaries are 77, 14 and 3
respectively. The total length of first, second, third and fourth order streams are 40.55 km, 12
km, 04 km and 23 km respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 95 covering the
total length of 79.55 km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream number (Nu)
to stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Kukrail nala basin is shown in
following figure 6.15.
Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Kukrail nala Basin
Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters
N1 077 Rb1 5.5 Re 0.62
N2 014 Rb2 4.6 Rc 0.44
N3 03 Rb3 3 Ff 0.30
N4 01 Rb 4.36 E 2.54
L1 (km) 40.55 Rl 2-1 0.29
L2 (km) 12 Rl 3-2 0.33
L3 (km) 04 Rl 4-3 5.75
L4 (km) 23 Rl 2.12
Lt (km) 79.55 RHO 0.48
H (m) 122 Fs (km-2
) 1.09
h (m) 108 Dd (km-1
) 0.80
T(km-1
) 0.87
R (m) 14
Rr (m km-1
) 0.83
125
Figure 6.15 Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and Stream order
Derived Parameters
Kukrail nala basin has low 14 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment
transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Kukrail nala basin is
0.83 which indicates low to medium surface run-off and low stream power for erosion. Average
126
bifurcation ratio (Rb) of basin is 4.36. Average stream length ratio (Rl) of basin is 2.12. The
RHO coefficient of Kukrail nala basin is 0.48.
The stream frequency (Fs) of basin is 1.09 km-2
indicate highly permeable alluvium and
low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the basin is 0.80 and it reflects highly
permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is 0.87 indicates
that the channels are far away from each other.
Shape Parameters
The elongation ratio (Re) of Kukrail nala basin is 0.62 indicates the elongated shape of
the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin is 0.44 indicating elongated shape, mature
topography and support dendritic pattern of drainage network. The form factor (Ff) of the basin
is 0.30. Elipticity index (E) of the basin is 2.54.
Figure 6.16 View of Kukrail nala near Khurram Nagar area
127
7.1 General
Land use is the human use of land. Land use planning involves the management and
modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures,
and settlements. It has also been defined as “the arrangements, activities and inputs people
undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it”.
According to United Nation‟s Food and Agriculture Organization Water Development
Division "Land use concerns the products and/or benefits obtained from use of the land as well
as the land management actions (activities) carried out by humans to produce those products and
benefits.
7.2 Land use map
The land use covers both the aspects of natural as well as human activities and is derived
together for relevant prospects. The land use map of the study area has been prepared with the
help of NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre) data and Survey of India toposheet. The
digitization of the features of these raster data into polygon with the help of ARC GIS software,
made easier the land use classification of the area. The area has been broadly divided into
following six classes (figure 7.1) such as:
1- Agriculture and others
2- Water bodies
3- Reserve forest and dense jungle
4- Major habitation
5- Waste land
6- River and drainage network
Agricultural land includes 17904.36 km2 or about 79 percent part of the study area (figure 7.2)
and most part of the agricultural land is either made up of older alluvium (Bangar) or younger
alluvium (Khadar). Figure 7.1 clearly indicates that the area of Barabanki, Faizabad, Sultanpur
and Raibareilly has agricultural land with appreciable amount while the industrialization and
urbanization clearly downs the percentage of agricultural land in Unnao and Lucknow region.
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The water bodies include the 2 percent of the total area (492.64 km2). These are mainly found in
the form of lakes/ponds. The water bodies are frequently found in most part of the area but
abundance of the water bodies are mainly concentrated in Unnao and Raibareilly districts only.
The most of water bodies are dry throughout the year, but during monsoon season, it receives the
water with appreciable amount.
Reserve forest and dense jungle includes about 1 percent part of the area (101 km2). Area
includes nine reserve forests namely Niamatpur, Zaidpur, Palhri, Makdumpur, Pali, Sansarpur,
Manjgaon, Ahaldapur and Kukrail. The most of the reserve forests and dense jungle are situated
along the bank of the rivers.
Major habitation includes 1 percent of the total area (300.7 km2). Lucknow, Barabanki,
Unnao, Faizabad and Sultanpur are the major area which includes the most part of the habitation.
Waste land covers 16 percent of the total area (3704.77 km2).
It includes the sub classes
of salt affected land, gullies/ ravines, scrub land, water logged and river sand etc. The waste land
spread almost all the areas but the concentration of waste land is slightly higher in Unnao,
Lucknow and Sultanpur districts. The urbanization and industrialization are the main causative
factor behind it. The gullies/ravines are confined mainly along the rivers and nalas of the area.
River and drainage network includes 1 percent of the area (144.89 km2). Ghaghara, Ganga,
Gomati and its tributaries makes the drainage network of the area.
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Figure 7.1 Land use map showing various classes
Figure 7.2 Pie chart showing percentage vise distribution of land use classes
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7.3 Natural hazards
The interfluve area suffers two types of natural hazards: (1) Flood (2) Bank erosion.
Since we all know that the flood is the most common natural hazard in the rivers of Ganga Plain
either it may me glacier fed rivers of Himalaya, ground water fed rivers of alluvium or rain water
fed rivers. The situation of flooding is most common during the peak season of monsoon when
discharge, sediment load, and carrying capacity of the rivers of Ganga Plain are very high. Under
the study area, Ghaghara River creates havoc due to flooding and bank erosion. The heavy
discharge during the monsoon season and release of a million gallon of water from the Banbasa
bairage of Nepal, are the two main causative factors behind the flooding of Ghaghara River in
the investigated area. The 6 km buffer zone map related to natural hazards in figure 7.3 clearly
indicates the real scenario of the Ghaghara River.
Figure 7.3: Buffer zone map of the study area related to Natural hazards
The bank erosion on the right bank of the Ghaghara River has mostly been done in the form of
lateral erosion. The lateral erosion is most prominent and effective during the high discharge
period in monsoon season but Singh and Awasthi, 2011 has identified that the lateral erosion is
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also effective even in low discharge period. The textural immaturity of the soil is one of the most
prominent causative factor behind the lateral erosion on the banks of Ghaghara River. Instead of
Ghaghara River, Gomati and Sai also bring the situation of catastrophic flood during the
monsoon season. Since the valley width and channel width ratio of Gomati and Sai is almost
same at various locations and during the high discharge the water easily crosses the banks and
creates the havoc in low lying areas.
7.4 Anthropogenic hazards
At present all the rivers of Ganga Plain suffer with the problem of water pollution very
badly and his master consequence (Ganga River) has already been given the rank of fifth most
polluted river of the world in 2007. In the study area, the water of Ganga and his fifth order
tributary Loni nadi suffer with the contamination of chromium. In these areas, the percentage of
the chromium in water is much higher than the permissible limit of W.H.O. The tannery works
of the surrounding areas are the most causative factor behind the contamination of chromium in
water. Instead of chromium Ganga also suffers with the sewage dumping problem. Most of the
sewage drained directly in to Ganga River without any proper treatment. The sewage dumps give
the birth of coliform bacteria near Kanpur and Unnao districts, the percentage of such bacteria in
water is much higher than the permissible limit. The government has been launched the various
programs to prevent the pollution of the Ganga River. The Ganga Action Plan was one of them
but this plan has totally failed due to the corruption and lack of technical expertise; lack of good
environmental planning; and lack of support from religious authorities. Gomati is another river
which suffers with the problem of contamination of water in study area; it suffers mainly the
problem of dumping of industrial waste related from sugar factories, distilleries and domestic
waste related to sewage and dumping of garbage. The water of Gomati River near Lucknow
region mostly suffers with the problem of oxygen level deficiency and it affects the ecosystem of
aquatic life.
The Ganga Plain is one of the most populous regions in the world. The population density
gives the birth of another type hazard well known as lowering of ground water table and land
subsidence. These two hazards are totally related to excess withdrawal of ground water.
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The Ganga Plain is vast, highly populous and one of the most productive land in the world.
1. Study area „Ghaghara-Ganga interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region‟ is a part of
Central Ganga Plain. Geographically, the area is broadly divided in to two major units:
Bhangar (Older alluvium) and Khadar (Newer alluvium).
2. It is drained mainly by Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghara and their tributaries.
3. The climate of the area is humid subtropical and falls in Cwa system of Koppen‟s
classification. Agriculture and productivity of most part of the area totally depends the
monsoon season only (mid June to September).
4. Lithologically, the area is made up of loose and unconsolidated materials of sand, silt and
clay.
5. Tectonically, the study area is mainly influenced by the Lucknow fault and Faizabad
ridge.
6. Study area reveals the mature stage topography of fluvial system and lateral erosion is
one of the most effective processes governs by all the rivers.
7. Geomorphologically, area has three major geomorphic units namely River Valley
Terrace (T1), Upland Terrace Surface (T2) and Active Flood Plain Surface (T0).
8. Each geomorphic unit contains the micro-geomorphic elements such as ox-bow lakes,
point bars, braid bars, cut-off meanders, sand ridges, ponds and lakes etc. Ganga-Sai
interfluve exhibits the prominent belt of abandoned channel which runs from Unnao to
Raibareilly district. The ground water fed rivers of the area has very narrow T1 surface
and most of the cases, it is not easily identified with satellite imageries while the
mountain fed rivers has its own wider T1 surface.
9. Kalyani nadi and Sai nadi exhibit the example of Yazoo type river (Kalyani runs parallel
with Reth nadi and Sai runs parallel with Ganga River)
10. The contour map suggests that the most of the ground water fed rivers is flowing at
higher level while the mountain fed rivers flowing at low point heights.
11. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) shows the general sloping trend of the area towards
SE and slope ranges from 0 to 4 degree.
12. The morphometric parameters of the river basins suggest that it has low basin relief, low
to medium surface run-off, low sediment transport, low stream power for erosion, highly
permeable and easily erodible alluvium.
133
13. The drainage texture (T) and circularity index (Rc) indicates that channels are far away
from each other and support dendritic pattern of drainage network.
14. The average bifurcation ratio (Rb) of most of the river basins is in the normal range (3-5).
It shows that the drainages are natural and not much influenced by geological structures.
The bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Reth nadi basin is 5.46 which is higher than the normal
range (3-5). This indicates that the basin may influenced by geological structures.
15. Study of geomorphic indices reveals about the tectonics of the area. The longitudinal
profile has been drawn along NW-SE and it shows sudden breaks in slope at various
locations. These sudden breaks exhibit the topographical undulation. Longitudinal profile
exhibits sloping trend towards SE.
16. Transverse profile is drawn along the NE-SW and it shows the variable sloping trends. At
some places it exhibits towards SW and some places it is towards NE.
17. The escarpment analysis exhibits the topographical undulation; this undulation is a result
of tectonic disturbance of Ganga Plain that has happened during 5 to 8 ka. The high
escarpment values of the areas indicate the upwarped character and low escarpment value
indicates the downwarped character respectively. At most of the locations, the high
escarpment value has been observed either at the confluence point of the tributaries with
the main river or along the railway over bridge.
18. The longitudinal profile of the Ghaghara, Ganga, Gomati, Sai and Loni rivers show slope
towards SE direction. The initial course of the Gomati River is influenced by the
Lucknow fault while the lower most segment of Ganga and Ghaghara River is influenced
by the Faizabad ridge.
19. The tributaries of Gomati River exhibits variable sloping behavior. Reth nadi and Kalyani
nadi initially exhibits the slope towards the SE but at confluence point, it exhibits towards
SW while the Behta nadi initially exhibits towards SE but end with NW direction. The
course of Behta nadi is influenced by the Malihabad fault/Lucknow fault near the
Rasulpur.
20. The anatomy of valley width and channel width shows that there is much difference of
valley width and channel width ratio of Ghaghara and Ganga River. The lithology and the
climate are the main causative factor behind the valley widening. Since the Ganga Plain
is made up of loose and unconsolidated material and during the monsoon season, this
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material is easily eroded by the active river channel through lateral erosion and widens its
valley.
21. The sinuosity index (SI) of all ground water fed rivers of the area is more than 1.5 which
indicates that the ground water fed rivers exhibits meandering behavior while the
sinuosity index of Ghaghara and Ganga river is 1.23 and 1.10 respectively which
indicates that they show braided behavior. At some locations the active channel of
Ghaghara and Ganga exhibit anastomosing behavior.
22. The land use map clearly shows that the area is best for cultivation and about 79 percent
of the total areas are come under agricultural land category.
23. Flood hazard zonation map clearly shows that the Ghaghara River is notorious for its
valley widening and flooding under the study area. Instead of Ghaghara River, Gomati
and Sai may also bring the situation of flood. The water of Ganga, Loni and Gomati
rivers is highly contaminated.
135
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