Developmental Theories of Learning Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Developmental Theories of Developmental Theories of LearningLearning

Dr. K. A. KorbDr. K. A. Korb

University of JosUniversity of Jos

OutlineOutline

Overview of DevelopmentOverview of DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of DevelopmentCase’s Central Conceptual StructuresCase’s Central Conceptual Structures

Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos

Jean PiagetJean Piaget

Brilliant SwissBrilliant Swiss PhD in biologyPhD in biology Job administering Job administering

intelligence tests to intelligence tests to children children Intrigued by Intrigued by

children’s mistakes children’s mistakes on teston test

Realized errors Realized errors were systematic were systematic and reflective of the and reflective of the child’s reasoningchild’s reasoning


AssumptionsAssumptions

A small number of mental structures are the A small number of mental structures are the basis for thinking in a variety of domainsbasis for thinking in a variety of domains

Children actively construct mental structures Children actively construct mental structures The nature of mental structures change as The nature of mental structures change as

children move to a new stage in developmentchildren move to a new stage in development Stage: Stage: Thinking and behavior in variety of Thinking and behavior in variety of

situations reflect the basic mental structuresituations reflect the basic mental structure Within a stage, the mental structures are in a state Within a stage, the mental structures are in a state

of equilibriumof equilibrium Disequilibrium forces children to change their Disequilibrium forces children to change their

mental structures and enter a new stage of mental structures and enter a new stage of developmentdevelopment


Characteristics of StagesCharacteristics of Stages Advancement to a new stage represents a Advancement to a new stage represents a

qualitative change in thinkingqualitative change in thinking Changes are abruptChanges are abrupt

Progress through stages in culturally Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequenceinvariant sequence

Each stage includes the cognitive structures Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stageand abilities of the previous stage

Children progress through the stages in Children progress through the stages in exact orderexact order Individual differences in the rate of passing Individual differences in the rate of passing

through through stagesthrough through stages May not reach highest stageMay not reach highest stage


Piaget’s Stages of Piaget’s Stages of DevelopmentDevelopment

AgeAge

(in (in years)years)

Key CharacteristicKey Characteristic

SensorimotorSensorimotor 0-20-2 Thinks via sensesThinks via senses

Pre-Pre-OperationalOperational

2-72-7 Can use mental Can use mental symbolssymbols

Thinks Thinks unidirectionallyunidirectionally

EgocentricEgocentric

Concrete Concrete OperationsOperations

7-117-11 Thinks concretelyThinks concretely

ReversibilityReversibility

Formal Formal OperationsOperations

11+11+ Thinks abstractlyThinks abstractly


SensorimotorSensorimotorStageStage

Sensorimotor: Sensorimotor: Understand the Understand the environment from physical actions environment from physical actions

Reflexes become more adaptive as Reflexes become more adaptive as infants learn to apply movements to infants learn to apply movements to novel situationsnovel situationsBehave in goal-directed mannerBehave in goal-directed manner

A-not-B errorA-not-B error


Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage

From 0;2(3), Laurent evidences a circular reaction From 0;2(3), Laurent evidences a circular reaction which will become more definite and will constitute which will become more definite and will constitute the beginning of systematic grasping; he scratches the beginning of systematic grasping; he scratches and tries to grasp, lets go, scratches and grasps and tries to grasp, lets go, scratches and grasps again, etc. On 0;2(3) and 0;2(6) this can only be again, etc. On 0;2(3) and 0;2(6) this can only be observed during feeding. Laurent gently scratches his observed during feeding. Laurent gently scratches his mother’s bare shoulder. But beginning 0;2(7), the mother’s bare shoulder. But beginning 0;2(7), the behavior becomes marked in the cradle itself. Laurent behavior becomes marked in the cradle itself. Laurent scratches the sheet which is folded over the blankets, scratches the sheet which is folded over the blankets, then grasps it and holds it a moment, then lets it go, then grasps it and holds it a moment, then lets it go, scratches it again and recommences without scratches it again and recommences without interruption.interruption.

Quoted from Piaget (1936, as cited in Miller, 2002)Quoted from Piaget (1936, as cited in Miller, 2002)

Sensorimotor Stage:Sensorimotor Stage:Object PermanenceObject Permanence

Object Permanence:Object Permanence: Object exists even Object exists even when one cannot sense itwhen one cannot sense it Phase 1: If an object disappears, will not search Phase 1: If an object disappears, will not search

for itfor it Phase 2: Only search for object if partially Phase 2: Only search for object if partially

hidden or the object is taken while the child hidden or the object is taken while the child was engagedwas engaged

Phase 3: A-not-B ErrorPhase 3: A-not-B ErrorWill search for an object in its first hiding spotWill search for an object in its first hiding spot

Phase 4: Continue to search for an object until Phase 4: Continue to search for an object until it is foundit is found


Pre-Operational StagePre-Operational Stage

Children enter the Pre-Operational stage Children enter the Pre-Operational stage when they acquire Object Permanencewhen they acquire Object Permanence Reflects the ability to mentally represent objectsReflects the ability to mentally represent objects

Pre-Operations:Pre-Operations: Use symbols to represent Use symbols to represent objects and eventsobjects and events

Egocentrism:Egocentrism: Incomplete differentiation of Incomplete differentiation of self and the worldself and the world Difficulty taking another person’s points of viewDifficulty taking another person’s points of view ““Americans are stupid. If I ask them where the Americans are stupid. If I ask them where the

rue du Mont-blancrue du Mont-blanc is, they cannot tell me.” is, they cannot tell me.” Unidimensionality:Unidimensionality: Focus only on one Focus only on one

dimension of a problemdimension of a problem


Pre-Operational StagePre-Operational Stage


Concrete Operational StageConcrete Operational Stage

Conservation: Conservation: Physical properties of an object stay Physical properties of an object stay the same despite superficial changes in appearancethe same despite superficial changes in appearance Performance on the conservation tasks reflects the Performance on the conservation tasks reflects the

presence or absence of mental operationspresence or absence of mental operations Mental operation:Mental operation: Internalized mental action on an object Internalized mental action on an object

or eventor event


Concrete Operational StageConcrete Operational Stage

Concrete Operations: Concrete Operations: Perform Perform mental operations on mental operations on concrete objectsconcrete objects

Children understand:Children understand:Reversibility:Reversibility: Operations are reversible Operations are reversible

and the object will keep the same and the object will keep the same properties despite transformationsproperties despite transformationsIf pour the water back into the original glass, If pour the water back into the original glass,

there will be the same amountthere will be the same amountClass inclusion:Class inclusion: One category can be One category can be

included in anotherincluded in another


Class InclusionClass Inclusion

E: What is your nationality?E: What is your nationality?C: I am SwissC: I am Swiss

E: How come?E: How come?C: Because I live in SwitzerlandC: Because I live in Switzerland

E: Are you also Genevan?E: Are you also Genevan?C: No, that is not possible. I am already C: No, that is not possible. I am already

Swiss, I cannot also be Genevan.Swiss, I cannot also be Genevan.

Quoted from Miller (2002)Quoted from Miller (2002)

Formal Operational StageFormal Operational Stage

Formal operations:Formal operations: Mental operations are Mental operations are not limited to concrete objects but can also not limited to concrete objects but can also be applied to verbal logical statementsbe applied to verbal logical statements

Children can think abstractlyChildren can think abstractly What would have happened if the British had not What would have happened if the British had not

colonized Nigeria?colonized Nigeria? Plan a systematic approach to solving a Plan a systematic approach to solving a

problem problem Determine which mixture of five colorless liquids Determine which mixture of five colorless liquids

produces a yellow colorproduces a yellow color


Critique of PiagetCritique of Piaget

Characteristics of StagesCharacteristics of Stages Each stage is a qualitative change in cognitionEach stage is a qualitative change in cognition

Catastrophe Theory:Catastrophe Theory: Sudden changes in cognition Sudden changes in cognition may actually represent a gradual progressionmay actually represent a gradual progression

Progress through stages in culturally invariant Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequencesequence

Not all cultures reach Formal OperationsNot all cultures reach Formal OperationsMost adults rarely apply Formal Operations thinkingMost adults rarely apply Formal Operations thinking

Each stage includes the cognitive structures Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stageand abilities of the previous stage

Egocentrism: Children asked to describe one picture Egocentrism: Children asked to describe one picture from a group so well that another child can select the from a group so well that another child can select the described picture (Siegler 1986)described picture (Siegler 1986)

Many Concrete Operations children fail this taskMany Concrete Operations children fail this task


Catastrophe TheoryCatastrophe Theory

Conclusion of PiagetConclusion of Piaget

Contributions of PiagetContributions of PiagetChildren think differently than adultsChildren think differently than adultsFocus on children’s cognitionFocus on children’s cognition

Main research questions:Main research questions:What mental processes cause children What mental processes cause children

to think differently than adults?to think differently than adults?How do children represent their How do children represent their

environment?environment?


Robbie CaseRobbie Case

Similar to PiagetSimilar to PiagetAssumption that children develop in Assumption that children develop in

stagesstagesDevelop more sophisticated mental Develop more sophisticated mental

structures in each stagestructures in each stageDifferent from PiagetDifferent from Piaget

Case incorporated elements of Case incorporated elements of Information Processing Theory into the Information Processing Theory into the stagesstages


Robbie CaseRobbie Case

Advancement to a new stage is the result of Advancement to a new stage is the result of increased capacity in working memoryincreased capacity in working memory Increased efficiency by automatizing processesIncreased efficiency by automatizing processes Brain maturation increases working memory Brain maturation increases working memory

capacitycapacity Each stage is represented by a different Each stage is represented by a different

central conceptual structurecentral conceptual structure Central Conceptual Structures: Central Conceptual Structures: Mental Mental

network of concepts used to represent and network of concepts used to represent and assign meaning to problemsassign meaning to problems

Apply within culturally defined domainsApply within culturally defined domains


Central Conceptual Structure:Central Conceptual Structure:NumbersNumbers

From Case (1996)

Predimensional Stage

Central Conceptual Structure:Central Conceptual Structure:NumbersNumbers

From Case (1996)Unimensional Stage

ItemItem 6 6 yearsyears

8 years8 years 10 10 yearsyears

UnidimensionalUnidimensional

1 number after 71 number after 7 1.001.00 .95.95 1.001.00

Count forwardCount forward .85.85 1.001.00 .95.95

Count backwardCount backward .85.85 1.001.00 1.001.00

OverallOverall .89.89 .97.97 .99.99

BidimensionalBidimensional

Four numbers before 60Four numbers before 60 .30.30 .70.70 .90.90

Which is bigger: 69 or 71Which is bigger: 69 or 71 .35.35 .75.75 .75.75

How many in between 7 and 9How many in between 7 and 9 .25.25 .75.75 .90.90

OverallOverall .28.28 .66.66 .86.86

Integrated BidimensionalIntegrated Bidimensional

Nine numbers after 999Nine numbers after 999 .15.15 .25.25 .50.50

Which difference is bigger: 9 and 6 or 8 Which difference is bigger: 9 and 6 or 8 and 3?and 3?

.00.00 .25.25 .50.50

How much is 36-19?How much is 36-19? .00.00 .25.25 .65.65

OverallOverall .04.04 .24.24 .49.49From Okamoto & Case (1996)

Central Conceptual Central Conceptual StructuresStructures

Case’s stagesCase’s stages Predimensional:Predimensional: Two independent schemas of Two independent schemas of

quantityquantity Non-numerical, CountingNon-numerical, Counting

Unidimensional:Unidimensional: Merged schemas, but Merged schemas, but represent on one dimensionrepresent on one dimension

Bidimensional:Bidimensional: Can compare two mental Can compare two mental number lines togethernumber lines together

Integrated Bidimensional:Integrated Bidimensional: Generalize Generalize relationships to entire number systemrelationships to entire number system

Through developmentThrough development Children consider more elementsChildren consider more elements Elements become more organized into a Elements become more organized into a

structurestructure


Domains of ThoughtDomains of Thought

Numerical:Numerical: Counting and non- Counting and non-numerical representationnumerical representation

Social:Social: Theories of mind and scripts Theories of mind and scripts of the sequence of eventsof the sequence of events

False belief taskFalse belief task

Spatial:Spatial: Represent a 3D object on Represent a 3D object on paper and represent the relative paper and represent the relative locations of objectslocations of objects


A

B

C

D

From Case, Stephenson, Bleiker, & Okamoto (1996)

Implications for InstructionImplications for Instruction

The learning environment should The learning environment should support the stage where the learner support the stage where the learner is atis at

Interaction with peers fosters Interaction with peers fosters cognitive developmentcognitive development

Provide a learning situation in which Provide a learning situation in which the child experiences disequilibriumthe child experiences disequilibrium


Developmental OverviewDevelopmental Overview

Learning Outcomes: More advanced cognitive structures that assist in thinking and accurately representing the environment

Role of the Learner: Actively develop cognitive structures; Experience disequilibrium

Role of the Instructor: Ask probing questions to illustrate the inconsistencies in children’s thinking

Inputs for Learning: Concrete materials to manipulate; Cognitive conflicts that prompt disequilibrium

Process of Learning: Progression through stages of cognitive development


RevisionRevision

Describe Piaget’s four stages of Describe Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development.cognitive development.What teaching modifications should you What teaching modifications should you

make for each stage?make for each stage?Describe Case’s four stages of Describe Case’s four stages of

cognitive development.cognitive development.What teaching modifications should you What teaching modifications should you

make for each stage?make for each stage?


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Developmental Theories of Learning Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos