Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Lifelong Development

Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Basic question: What shapes the way we change over time?

Focus on psychological changes across the entire life span Every area of psychology can be looked at from this

perspectivebiological developmentsocial developmentcognitive / perceptual developmentpersonality developmentmoral development

Fundamental Issues: Nature vs. NurtureFundamental Issues: Nature vs. Nurture What is role of heredity vs. environment in

determining psychological makeup?Is your IQ inherited or determined by nutrition and early environment?Is there a ‘criminal’ gene or does poverty lead to criminal behavior?Is sexual orientation a choice or genetically determined?

These are some of our greatest societal debates Mistake to pose as ‘either / or’ questions

Developmental Research MethodsDevelopmental Research MethodsCross-sectional - performance of people of

different age groups is compared Longitudinal - performance of one group of

people is assessed repeatedly over time Sequential - combines cross-sectional and

longitudinal approaches in a single study

Physical and Psychological Development RelatedPhysical and Psychological Development RelatedPhysical development begins at conceptionPhysical maturity sets limits on psychological

abilityvisual system not fully functional at birthlanguage system not functional until much later

Prenatal environment can have lifetime influence on health and intellectual ability

Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development Conception - when a sperm penetrates the ovum Zygote - a fertilized egg Germinal period - first two weeks after conception Embryonic period - weeks three through eight after

conception Fetal period - two months after conception until birth

Promoting Optimum Fetal Development

Promoting Optimum Fetal Development

Professional prenatal care Good nutrition Rest Moderate weight gain – 20-30 pounds Moderate exercise Positive emotional state (support from father) Age of the mother

Negative Prenatal Influences on DevelopmentNegative Prenatal Influences on Development Congenital Defects

Defects that occur during pregnancy caused by teratogens that could possibly be prevented

Teratogen - any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) cluster of defects occurring in infants born to mothers that drink heavily during pregnancyleading cause of mental retardationcan be totally prevented by abstaining from alcohol during pregnancy

Illness German measles and mumps

Hazardous chemicals and infections

Genetic DefectsGenetic Defects Down’s Syndrome

The most common cause of Down syndrome occurs when an infant is born with three, rather than two, copies of the 21st chromosome 47 chromosomes instead of 46Older mothers have an increased risk 45 yr. Old 1 in 30 chance

Huntington’s DiseaseHuntington's disease (Huntington's chorea) is a progressive, degenerative disease that causes certain nerve cells in your brain to waste away.

Tay-SachsFatal genetic disorder that results in progressive destruction of the nervous system. Caused by the absence of a vital enzyme called hexosaminidase-A (Hex-A). Without Hex-A, a fatty substance, or lipid, called GM2 ganglioside accumulates abnormally in cells, especially in the nerve cells of the brain.

Birthing PracticesBirthing Practices Ferdinand Lamaze

Formulated to help ease mothers concern and fear during the birth of her childFathers should take an active role for the same reasons as the mother but also to be supportive and reduce her stressThe breathing exercises and stretching reduce the mother’s anxiety and have been shown to speed recovery

InfluencesInfluences Maternal

Tends to be the caregiverOften the smaller issue disciplinarian

PaternalTends to be the playmateOften the larger issue disciplinarian

For a healthy child both parents should play both roles and have a united front on decisions.

Infant Abilities and PerceptionsInfant Abilities and Perceptions

NeonatesNewborns to the first few weeksThey can smell and taste but have very poor vision and only see grayCan recognize mothers voice

Infant AbilitiesInfant AbilitiesInfants are born with immature visual system

can detect movement and large objects

Other senses function well on day 1will orient to soundsturn away from unpleasant odorsprefer sweet to sour tastes

Born with a number of reflex behaviors

Infant ReflexesInfant ReflexesRooting - turning the head and opening the

mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheekSucking - sucking rhythmically in response to

oral stimulationBabinski - fanning and curling toes when foot

is stroked

Infant ReflexesInfant ReflexesMoro - throwing the arms out, arching the

back and bringing the arms together as if to hold onto something (in response to loud noise or sudden change in position of the head)

Grasping - curling the fingers around an object

Methods for Studying InfantsMethods for Studying InfantsInfant reflexes provide insight into their

mental lifegaze duration related to visual perceptionhead turning related to auditory attentionsucking, reaching, kicking can be used to measure interest

Infant PerceptionInfant Perception Not just a blur or a

buzz In first week

will recognize their mother’s smellwill show preference for novel stimuligaze at face-like pattern rather than similar non face-like pattern

MaturationMaturation Physical growth and development of body All infants follow an orderly sequence Rate varies from child to child Readiness

Child will not mature to next stage until structure is ready no matter how much practice

Head to toe muscular control – Cephalocaudal Extremities muscular control – Proximodistal

Language DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentPreview

Universal Characteristics of Human LanguageCourse of DevelopmentSupports for Language DevelopmentLanguage Learning among Nonhuman Apes

Universal Characteristics of Human Language

Universal Characteristics of Human Language

Psycholinguists study language in connection with human behavior

Language development similar across cultures. What are the common elements?

Morphemes - smallest meaningful units of language content morphemes (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) grammatical morphemes (e.g., articles, conjunctions, some prefixes and suffixes)

Universal Characteristics of Human LanguageUniversal Characteristics of Human Language Phonemes - elementary vowel and consonant

sounds Grammar - rules of language

phonology - how phonemes can be combined to make morphemes morphology -how morphemes can be combined to make words syntax - how words can be combined to make phrases and sentences

Language DevelopmentLanguage Development Infant preference for human speech over other sounds

before 6 months can hear differences used in all languagesafter 6 months begin to hear only differences used in native language

Cooing - vowel sounds produced 2-4 months Babbling - consonant/vowel sounds between 4 to 6

months Even deaf infants coo and babble

Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

MONTH Speech Characteristic

2 Cooing vowel sounds 4 Babbling consonant/vowel 10 Babbling native language sounds12 One-word stage 24 Two-word stage24 + Sentences

Language Development

Supports for Language Development

Supports for Language Development

Chomsky’s language-acquisition device (LAD) - innate foundations for grammar and learning the unique rules of a culture’s language

Language-acquisition support system - aspects of the social world that help infants acquire language (e.g., parentese)

Animal communicationAnimal communication

Can animals learn language? Depends on definition of language.

primate studies--because of articulatory difficulties, many were taught sign language

– can acquire vocabulary with much effort, similar to a child’s learning of first words

– cannot acquire grammar– do not understand turn-taking in conversation– answer questions with words contained in the questions

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Learning, Reasoning and Language Development over the Life Span

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Swiss psychologist who

became leading theorist in 1930’s Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers,

constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world”

These “understandings” are in the form of structures he called schemas

Development of SchemasDevelopment of Schemas

Schemas are frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge

Assimilation - process of taking new information or a new experience and fitting it into an already existing schema

Accommodation - process by which existing schemas are changed or new schemas are created in order to fit new information

Piaget’s approachPiaget’s approach

Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions

Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults

Proposed that development occurs as a series of ‘stages’ differing in how the world is understood

Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2)Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2)Information is gained through the senses and

motor actionsIn this stage child perceives and manipulates

but does not reasonSymbols become internalized through

language developmentObject permanence is acquired

Object PermanenceObject PermanenceThe understanding that objects exist

independent of one’s actions or perceptions of them

Before 6 months infants act as if objects removed from sight cease to exist

Can be surprised by disappearance / reappearance of a face (peek-a-boo)

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Lack the concept of conservationCentrationIrreversibilityEgocentrismAnimismArtificialism

Concept of ConservationConcept of Conservation

Recognition that certain properties of substances remain constant even though their appearance may change

ConservationConservationNumber

In conservation of number tests, two equivalent rows of coins are placed side by side and the child says that there is the same number in each row. Then one row is spread apart and the child is again asked if there is the same number in each.

ConservationConservationLength

In conservation of length tests, two same-length sticks are placed side by side and the child says that they are the same length. Then one is moved and the child is again asked if they are the same length.

ConservationConservation

Substance

In conservation of substance tests, two identical amounts of clay are rolled into similar-appearing balls and the child says that they both have the same amount of clay. Then one ball is rolled out and the child is again asked if they have the same amount.

CentrationCentration Focus on only one part of a problem while

neglecting other important aspects Conservation issues they will focus on the height

of water in a glass and not think about the width of the glass

Children often build towersWhat do they usually focus on?Height and don’t think about width

IrreversibilityIrreversibility

The inability to envision reversing an action. 1 + 2 = 3 Can’t reverse 2 + 1 = 3 How many siblings do you have?

2 How many siblings does your brother have?

1

EgocentrismEgocentrism

Sees the world only through their eyes If they can’t see you; you cannot see them If they can see it; you can see it. Will stand in front of you and the TV If they are hungry, you must be hungry Why is the grass green?

Green is my favorite color

AnimismAnimism

All things are alive Attribute life and consciousness to physical objects Nothing can die and should come back to life Why do trees have leaves?

To keep them warm Where do boats go at night

To sleep silly

ArtificialismArtificialism

Assume that environmental events are human inventions

What makes the rain?Someone emptying a water can

Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)

Understanding of mental operations leading to increasingly logical thought

Have conquered conservationClassification and categorizationLess egocentricInability to reason abstractly or hypothetically

Formal Operational Stage (age 12 - adulthood)Formal Operational Stage (age 12 - adulthood)

Hypothetico-deductive reasoningAdolescent egocentrism illustrated by

the phenomenon of personal fable and imaginary audience

Monopoly play according to PiagetMonopoly play according to Piaget

Sensorimotor stagePuts pieces in mouth and plays with “Chance” cards

Preoperational stagePlays game but makes up own rules and does not understand instructions

Concrete Operational stageFollows rules but is incapable of hypothetical transactions dealing with mortgages, loans and special pacts

Formal Operations stageCan play all aspects of the game

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentKohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Morality in part depends on the appearance of empathy (early signs at 1), shame (age 2), and guilt (around age 3-4)

Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind people’s answers

Proposed three stages, each sub-divided into two for a total of six levels

Levels of Moral ReasoningLevels of Moral ReasoningPreconventional - moral reasoning is based

on external rewards and punishmentsConventional - laws and rules are upheld

simply because they are laws and rulesPostconventional - reasoning based on

personal moral standards

Level 1 and 2: (1) Obedience and Punishment Orientation and (2) Reward

Level 1 and 2: (1) Obedience and Punishment Orientation and (2) Reward

Preconventional MoralityA focus on direct consequencesNegative actions will result in

punishmentsPositive actions will result in rewards

Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and ConformityStage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity

Conventional MoralityGood boy/Good girl

Concerned about how people see youAn attempt to live up to the expectations of

important othersPositive actions will improve relations with

significant othersNegative actions will harm those relationships

Stage 4: Law-and-Order MoralityStage 4: Law-and-Order Morality

Social stability – rule of lawLaw and social order is more important than individual rightsDoing one’s duty by following social norms

To maintain social order, people must resist personal pressures and follow the laws of the larger society

Stage 5: Human-Rights and Social-Welfare Morality

Stage 5: Human-Rights and Social-Welfare Morality

PostconventionalA balance is struck between respect for laws

and ethical principles that transcend specific laws

Laws that fail to promote general welfare or that violate ethical principles can be changed, reinterpreted, or abandoned

Stage 6Stage 6

Behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical principles that tend to be general and universal

High value is placed on justice, dignity and equality

Criticism of Kolberg’s TheoryCriticism of Kolberg’s Theory Carol Gilligan questioned the idea of justice as be the

major force behind morality She felt that women do not place as much importance

on justice as men She suggested that women rely on the importance of

compassion, relationships and commitment She completed more research and was unable to

replicate her earlier research

Social DevelopmentSocial Development

The changing nature of relationships with others over

the life span

Self-awarenessSelf-awareness 9-15 months Red Rouge Test

Red dot on check and realize it in a mirror that the dot is on their face

Social Referencing12 months Child looks to parents in unfamiliar situations

Windows of OpportunityWindows of Opportunity Critical Period

Is there a point at which a child must learn or the opportunity is lostLanguage and attachment

– Mastering a language before puberty– Imprinting

ImprintingRapid and early learning of a permanent behavior patternKonrad Lorenz

– Within 30 hours after hatching must have a parent imprint on the hatchling

Infant AttachmentInfant Attachment

Intense emotional bond between infant and caregiver

Harlow’s Study of AttachmentHarlow’s Study of Attachment

Infant rhesus monkeys were placed with two surrogate mothers, one made of wire and one covered with soft cloth

Milk-producing nipple was attached to either the wire or the cloth mother

Attachment was based on “contact comfort” rather than feeding

Forms of AttachmentForms of AttachmentSecurely attached - explores the room when

mother is present, becomes upset and explores less when mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother returns

Avoidantly attached - a form of insecure attachment in which child avoids mother and act coldly to her

Forms of AttachmentForms of AttachmentAnxious resistant attachment - a form of

insecure attachment where the child remains close to mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort

Ainsworth’s Strange SituationAinsworth’s Strange Situation

Mother-child dyads were observed in a playroom under four conditions:

initial mother-child interactionmother leaves infant alone in playroomfriendly stranger enters playroommother returns and greets child

Baumrind’s Parenting StylesBaumrind’s Parenting Styles

Authoritarian - value obedience and use a high degree of power assertion

Authoritative - less concerned with obedience, greater use of induction

Permissive - most tolerant, least likely to use discipline

Neglectful - completely uninvolved

Erikson’s TheoryErikson’s Theory Biological in belief that there are innate drives to

develop social relationships and that these promote survival (Darwinism)

Divided life span into eight psychosocial stages, each associated with a different drive and a problem or crisis to resolve

Outcome of each stage varies along a continuum from positive to negative

Stage 1 (birth - 1)Trust vs. Mistrust Stage 1 (birth - 1)Trust vs. Mistrust

Infants must rely on others for careConsistent and dependable caregiving and

meeting infant needs leads to a sense of trust

Infants who are not well cared for will develop mistrust

Stage 2 (1-3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Stage 2 (1-3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Children are discovering their own independence Those given the opportunity to experience

independence will gain a sense of autonomy Children that are overly restrained or punished

harshly will develop shame and doubt

Stage 3 (3-5 years)Initiative vs. GuiltStage 3 (3-5 years)Initiative vs. Guilt

Children are exposed to the wider social world and given greater responsibility

Sense of accomplishment leads to initiative, whereas feelings of guilt can emerge if the child is made to feel too anxious or irresponsible

Stage 4 (5-12 years) Industry vs. InferiorityStage 4 (5-12 years) Industry vs. Inferiority

Stage of life surrounding mastery of knowledge and intellectual skills

Sense of competence and achievement leads to industry

Feeling incompetent and unproductive leads to inferiority

Stage 5 (adolescence)Identity vs. ConfusionStage 5 (adolescence)Identity vs. Confusion

Developing a sense of who one is and where s/he is going in life

Successful resolution leads to positive identityUnsuccessful resolution leads to identity

confusion or a negative identity

Stage 6 (young adulthood)Intimacy vs. IsolationStage 6 (young adulthood)Intimacy vs. Isolation

Time for sharing oneself with another person

Capacity to hold commitments with others leads to intimacy

Failure to establish commitments leads to feelings of isolation

Stage 7 (middle adulthood)Generativity vs. Stagnation

Stage 7 (middle adulthood)Generativity vs. Stagnation

Caring for others in family, friends and work leads to sense of contribution to later generations

Stagnation comes from a sense of boredom and meaninglessness

Stage 8 (late adulthood to death)Integrity vs. Despair Stage 8 (late adulthood to death)Integrity vs. Despair

Successful resolutions of all previous crises leads to integrity and the ability to see broad truths and advise those in earlier stages

Despair arises from feelings of helplessness and the bitter sense that life has been incomplete

Adolescent DevelopmentAdolescent Development Gender differences

Early maturation of boys tend to be helpful early on a boy’s life Early maturation of girls tend to speed up the maturity possibly not for their own good

David Elkind’s Social Pressure TheorySociety has pushed adolescents to mature fasterMedia has pushed sexualityBrittany Spears attitude

Other Later DevelopmentOther Later Development

Roger Gould’s Adult Development Theory Daniel Levinson’s Midlife Crisis

Midlife CrisisMidlife Crisis

Menopause

Late AdulthoodLate Adulthood

GerontologyStudy of aging and the elderly

Fluid vs. Crystallized abilitiesFluidCrystallized

Elderly TheoriesElderly Theories Disengagement Theory

Elderly feel as though they have played their part in societyIsolate themselves from world in elderly communitiesSee families only at holidays

Activity TheoryElderly wants to have fun and stay connected to worldThey move close to family and help raise grandchildren

Death and DyingDeath and Dying Elizabeth Kubla-Ross

Theory on the terminally illFive stages of death and dying– Denial

Refuse to except death– Anger

Why me? I am a good person– Bargaining

If I can have just one more month I will– Depression

Realization that there is no escape– Acceptance

Come to the realization that you are about to die and you are ready

Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecology TheoryBronfenbrenner’s Social Ecology Theory

Network of interactions and interdependencies among people, institutions and cultural context