Developing Intercultural Training Program for Employees in Multicultural Workplaces

by

Sandy Yi-Ling Chou

A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Major: International Human Resource Development

Advisor: Dr. Wei-Wen Chang, Ph.D.

National Taiwan Normal University

Taipei, Taiwan August 2017

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would first like to thank my thesis advisor Dr. Wei-Wen Chang, associate dean

of International Studies and Social Sciences at National Taiwan Normal University.

The door to Prof. Chang’s office was always open whenever I ran into a trouble spot or

had a question about my research or writing. Her wisdom and great sense of humor

inspired me throughout my research for this work.

I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Pai-Po Lee, deputy

secretary general of TaiwanICDF, and Dr. Albert Wang, professor of Department of

Graphic Arts and Communications at National Taiwan Normal University, for their

reading of the manuscript. Without their helpful suggestions and support, this study

could not have been successfully completed.

Furthermore, my deepest appreciation goes to Ms. Pauline Ho, division chief of

TaiwanICDF’s International Education and Training Department, for her generous

support and kindness allowing me to conduct the training program to the managers.

Their passionate participation and input achieved this study.

Finally, I must express my very profound gratitude to my mother, friends and

classmates in IHRD for providing me with unfailing support and continuous

encouragement throughout my years of study and through the process of researching

and writing this thesis. This accomplishment would not have been possible without

them. Thank you!

I

ABSTRACT

The increasing migration and movement of people create more interactions from

interpersonal to international as well as the increasing conflicts and prejudices in society.

Workplaces are composed by people from different backgrounds and diverse

characteristics, how to handle the cultural shock, differences between values and

language barriers becomes critical for organizations. Having employees with sufficient

skills and intercultural competence to work effectively is a significant challenge. In

response to the needs of cultivating talents in global market, intercultural training has

been advocated as a mean to facilitate effective intercultural interactions and to equip

individuals with intercultural competence in dealing with diverse challenges. Although

several types of training programs have been developed, people still argued on the

effectiveness of training. This study aims at developing an effective intercultural

training program for employees in multicultural workplaces. This study made a

hypothesis as participants will demonstrate an improvement on CQ and effectiveness

of communication after receiving the designed training program. The training program

was evaluated after implementation. Needs assessment and a quasi-experimental design

on the training program with pre- & post-survey were included in this study.

Experiential learning theory played as an innovative strategy in structuring the training

program. The program managers from TaiwanICDF and employees in organizations

were the participants in this study because of the similar characteristics of work

experiences in multicultural workplaces. The results of this study showed that after

taking the designed training program, (1) participants have better ability to carry out

appropriate reactions in intercultural settings (behavioral CQ). (2) They perform better

on overall intercultural communication and with good approachability, openness, and

overall comfort level while conversing during the interactions (Interaction Relaxation).

(3) The design of needs assessment helps training program in meeting participants’

needs. (4) Training embedded with experiential learning theory can enhance the

efficacy of training.

Keywords: intercultural competence, intercultural training program, multicultural

workplaces, experiential learning theory (ELT)

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................ I

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................ II

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................. IV

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................ VI

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 1 Background of the Study ...................................................................................1

Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................3

Research Purpose ...............................................................................................4

Research Questions ............................................................................................5

Significance of the Study ...................................................................................5

Definition of Terms ............................................................................................6

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................. 9 Intercultural Competence Development ............................................................9

Employees in Multicultural Workplace .............................................................16

Training Program Development .........................................................................18

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ............................................ 25 Research Approach ............................................................................................25

Research Framework .........................................................................................26

Research Procedure ............................................................................................27

Research Participants and Criteria .....................................................................32

Data Collection ..................................................................................................33

Data Analysis .....................................................................................................35

CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS & RESULTS ................................ 37 Training Needs Assessment and Program Development ...................................39

Descriptive Statistics ..........................................................................................47

Correlations Analysis .........................................................................................53

ANCOVA Analysis ............................................................................................56

Paired T-test .......................................................................................................62

Summary and Discussion ...................................................................................67

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION ................. 71

III

Conclusion .........................................................................................................71

Research Limitations .........................................................................................72

Recommendations for Practitioners ...................................................................73

Suggestions for Future Research .......................................................................74 REFERENCES ....................................................................................... 76

APPENDIX A: NEEDS ASSESSMENT SURVEY ............................... 82

APPENDIX B: PRE- & POST-SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ............. 84

IV

LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1. Examples of Reported Cultural Incidents ............................................. 28

Table 3.2. Implementation of Pre- & Posttest ........................................................ 32

Table 3.3. Training Schedule of Experimental Group ........................................... 34

Table 4.1. Questions in the Second Training and Examples of Participants’

Responses .............................................................................................. 42

Table 4.2. Instructional Process of Developed Training Program ......................... 44

Table 4.3. Corresponding Design to Four Stage of Experiential Learning Theory

(ELT) ..................................................................................................... 46

Table 4.4. Experimental Group: Demographic Information of the Participants

of this Study .......................................................................................... 48

Table 4.5. Control Group: Demographic Information of the Participants of this

Study ..................................................................................................... 49

Table 4.6. Experimental Group: Minimum, Maximum, Mean, and Standard

Deviation of the Data ............................................................................ 50

Table 4.7. Control Group: Minimum, Maximum, Mean, and Standard Deviation

of the Data ............................................................................................. 52

Table 4.8. Cronbach Alpha Values of CQ Scale and IE Scale ............................... 54

Table 4.9. Experimental Group: Mean, Standard Deviation, Reliability and

Correlation on Gender, Tenure, CQ and IE ........................................... 55

Table 4.10. Control Group: Mean, Standard Deviation, Reliability and

Correlation on Gender, Tenure, CQ and IE ......................................... 55

Table 4.11. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances ...................................... 57

Table 4.12. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects_CQ Scale ..................................... 58

Table 4.13. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects_IE Scale ....................................... 58

Table 4.14. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects_Job-related Questions ................. 58

Table 4.15. Estimated Marginal Means on CQ Scale ............................................ 59

Table 4.16. Estimated Marginal Means on IE Scale .............................................. 60

Table 4.17. Estimated Marginal Means on Job-related Questions ......................... 61

Table 4.18. Experimental Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and

Post-survey on CQ .............................................................................. 62

Table 4.19. Experimental Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and

Post-survey on IE ................................................................................ 63

V

Table 4.20. Experimental Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and

Post-survey on Job-related Questions ................................................. 64

Table 4.21. Control Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey

on CQ .................................................................................................. 65

Table 4.22. Control Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey

on IE .................................................................................................... 66

Table 4.23. Control Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey

on Job-related Questions 1~3 .............................................................. 67

VI

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. Theoretical model of the role of trigger events in accelerating cross-

cultural competence ............................................................................... 14

Figure 2.2. Experimental design of study 2 ............................................................. 15

Figure 2.3. ADDIE model ........................................................................................ 18

Figure 2.4. Experiential learning cycle .................................................................... 22

Figure 3.1. Research framework .............................................................................. 27

Figure 3.2. Composition of the employees in organizations .................................... 33

Figure 4.1. Identified themes from needs assessment .............................................. 39

Figure 4.2. Learning points in response to identified themes .................................. 40

Figure 4.3. Images of U.camdemy and online training ............................................ 41

1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the background, statement of the problem, research

purposes, research questions, significance of this study and definitions of terms. The

background describes the characteristics of multicultural workplace. The need of

research on intercultural training programs in organization and significance of this

study are both addressed. Moreover, the research purposes and questions are depicted.

Key terms of this study are defined in the end.

Background of the Study

Cross-border investment, transnational marriages and workers in multinational

organizations are common features in the modern society under globalization. One of

the four aspects identified by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) about

globalization is “migration and movement of people” (IMF, 2000). Based on the

number provided by Ministry of Labor (2016), the foreign workers in Taiwan are

increasing from 338,755 in 2006 to 618,924 in 2016, November. Not only the workforce

is composed with diverse groups but also the schools are recruiting more and more

international students. International students in Taiwan are reached to 38,622 in 2015

academic year since it is only 24,104 four years ago (Ministry of Education, 2016).

The increasing migration and movement of people create more interactions from

interpersonal to international as well as the increasing conflicts and prejudices in society.

An interdisciplinary and policy-oriented research project, Definition and Selection of

Competencies (DeSeCo), carried out by Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD) is trying to answer a critical question: What competencies, apart

from reading, writing, and computing, are necessary for individuals to lead an overall

2

successful life and for society to face the challenges of the present and the future

(Rychen & Salganik, 2003)? There are three competencies suggested in DeSeCo project:

(1) interacting in socially heterogeneous groups, (2) acting autonomously, and (3) using

tools interactively. The first competency includes the ability to relate well to others, to

cooperate, and to manage and resolve conflicts.

With the tendency that workplaces are composed by people from different

backgrounds and diverse characteristics, how to handle the cultural shock, differences

between values and language barriers becomes critical for organizations. Having

employees with sufficient skills and intercultural competence to work effectively with

colleagues, business partners and customers from different cultural backgrounds is a

significant challenge. As the definition addressed by Deardorff (2004), intercultural

competence is “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural

situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p.194).

Lectures, workshops and readings are frequently used in intercultural learning. In

response to the needs of cultivating talents in global market, intercultural training has

been advocated as a mean to facilitate effective intercultural interactions and to equip

individuals with intercultural competence in dealing with diverse and cross-cultural

challenges. More and more organizations, governments and schools invest a big amount

of resources in providing such trainings. In a report published by Society for Human

Resource Management (SHRM) in 2009, “conducting ongoing training to promote

better understanding among employees with different backgrounds and creating

opportunities for employees in minority groups to network with each other” (p.41) is

common practice in promoting diversity to organizations in all regions. Thus, training

is a common tool for organizations to promote intercultural competence. An effective

training became critical for organizations, especially the world economy is blooming

3

and when lots of resources and investments have been allocated in cultivating talents.

Developing an effective intercultural training program for employees in multicultural

workplaces is the main purpose of this study. Practical suggestions for organizations

when designing intercultural training program in multicultural workplaces are provided

as well.

Statement of the Problem

“How to develop an effective intercultural training program?” is the question to be

answered in this study. People with higher intercultural competence are able to

communicate and interact effectively with others. The ability could be improved via

trainings including the important elements such as CQ (known as cultural quotient or

cultural intelligence) and communication skills. CQ is defined as an individual’s

capability to work effectively in diverse cultural settings (Ang & Van, 2008a). With

mentioned background in previous section, providing effective trainings to cultivate

talents in multicultural workplaces is a challenging assignment for organizations.

Intercultural trainings are well discussed in many researches (Batchelder & Warner,

1977; Dolhun, Muñoz, & Grumbach, 2003). However, some researches also indicate

the ineffectiveness and obstacles of training programs. Organizations intend to take

trainings as a shortcut to change employees’ behaviors in a fast pace, yet, leading to

opposite effect or even creating misunderstandings between different groups (Kalev,

Dobbin, & Kelly, 2006; Maister, 2006). When it comes to “culture”, Schein (1992)

divided it into three levels: artifacts, espoused beliefs & values, and underlying

assumptions. Most of the current intercultural training programs are planed with surface

knowledge, such as history, customs and taboos of a specific culture; some emphasize

on introducing the differences between values, such as power distance, individualism,

masculinity, long-term orientation and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 2001); less is

4

touched to the advanced level of underlying assumptions. It is not enough for

individuals only understand the surface behaviors instead of learning the underlying

knowledge which usually leads to prejudices (Kalev, Dobbin, & Kelly, 2006) and plays

as the root influencing individual’s behaviors.

Besides, present researches on intercultural trainings are more likely to take

student as training subjects because of the approachable access (Erez et al., 2013;

MacNab, 2012; Ramsey & Lorenz, 2016). Due to the characteristics between students

in academic environment and employees in workplaces are different, the workplaces

seem to be more stressful, fast-pacing and unpredictable. With above characteristics,

the results from previous mentioned researches may not applied effectively in

workplace. There is a need to investigate the criteria for developing intercultural

trainings in multicultural workplaces. Therefore, the purpose of this study is trying to

answer the remaining questions in organizations.

Research Purpose

This study aims to develop an effective training program so that to equip

employees with intercultural competence and to prevent organizations from wasting

resources. Especially for those individuals who work in a multicultural workplace. This

study attempts to combine the experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984) and the

identified characteristics of multicultural workplace in structuring the intercultural

training program. The effectiveness of training program is evaluated through a quasi-

experimental design. And implications to organizations is provided in order to improve

current design for intercultural training programs.

5

Research Questions

Based on experiential learning theory (ELT) developed by Kolb in 1984, this study

makes a hypothesis as participants will demonstrate an improvement on CQ dimensions

(Ang, Van, & Koh, 2006) and effectiveness of communication after receiving the

designed training program.

Question 1: What are the characteristics of a cultural incident in multicultural

workplace?

Question 2: How to develop an intercultural training program based on identified

characteristics of cultural incidents?

Question 3: What is the training outcomes of the developed intercultural program?

Significance of the Study

Nowadays, keeping a completive edge is one of the priorities for organizations.

Thus, retaining and cultivating talents play a critical role in organizational development.

Trainings are the common way when organizations are trying to achieve operational

objectives. An effective training program can not only help on the talent development

but also save a big amount of expenses. This study uses an experiential learning

approach in developing intercultural trainings in multicultural workplace. From the

developing process, the study elaborate the training elements which need to be take into

concerns when doing a customized intercultural training program. By applying the

trainings in organization, this study provides an empirical analysis on developing an

effective training program for improving individual’s intercultural competence in

multicultural workplaces. The outcomes of this study could be a reference for

organizational development.

6

Definition of Terms

Intercultural Competence

Lustig & Koester (2010) explain, “culture is a learned set of shared interpretations

about beliefs, values, norms and social practices, which affect the behaviors of a

relatively large group of people” (p.25). Deardorff (2004) also defined intercultural

competence as “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural

situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p.194). With

regards to the components of intercultural competence, researchers also have tried to

explain why people result in different outcomes when communicating across cultural

boundaries. Bennett (2004) introduced the Developmental Model of Intercultural

Sensitivity (DMIS) for “generating greater intercultural sensitivity and the potential for

more intercultural competence” (p.75) which supports our standing that intercultural

competence can be developed through a developmental training aims at broadening

worldview.

Cultural Intelligence (CQ)

Cultural intelligence (CQ) is defined as an individual’s capability to work

effectively in diverse cultural settings (Ang & Van, 2008a) as is separated from a

personality trait, CQ represents adjustments a person can make to be effective across

cultures, whereas a personality trait describes what a person will normally do across

time and situations (Ang et al., 2007; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Ang, Van, & Koh (2006)

stated that CQ is composed by four dimensions which are cognitive CQ, motivational

CQ, behavioral CQ and metacognitive CQ. Cognitive CQ represented to the available

cultural norms, practice, routines in different cultures. In the study, the 20-item CQ

scale (Ang et al., 2007) was used for both pre- and post-survey.

7

Employees in Multicultural Workplace

This study recruits participants who are working in the environment with the

addressed characteristics as multicultural workplace. The job content usually includes

interactions with diverse cultural groups. Considering the similarity of job content, this

study cooperates with the program managers of Taiwan International Cooperation and

Development Fund (TaiwanICDF) and the employees in organizations who are tasked

with international affairs, trainings or overseas business in organizations.

Training Program Development

This study employs the ADDIE model in developing the training program with a

theoretical base. Earley and Peterson (2004) commended the existing intercultural

trainings used to assume that the needs of all individuals are similar. In order to better

fit individuals’ needs, a needs assessment is conducted to analyze the characteristics of

multicultural workplace and obstacles occurred to TaiwanICDF program managers

during interactions. According to the result of needs assessment, training program is

designed, implemented and evaluated. Furthermore, the work experiences from

program managers in multicultural workplaces not only provide great resource of case

study but also relate to personal needs in work. The experiential learning theory (ELT)

thence is embedded to the training design to better utilize above material. Feedbacks

from the program managers are taken as the hands-on information in delivering an

effective training program.

8

9

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the study reviews literatures about cultural intelligence,

intercultural competence, employs in multicultural workplace, experiential learning

theory and intercultural training program. More specifically, each term is defined

accordingly and summaries are also addressed at the end of each section.

Intercultural Competence Development

In this section, literatures of intercultural competence and cultural intelligence are

reviewed for providing fundamental concepts for this study to clarify the definitions.

Literatures regard to developing intercultural competence are provided as

developmental examples.

Intercultural Competence

Lustig & Koester (2010) explain, “culture is a learned set of shared interpretations

about beliefs, values, norms and social practices, which affect the behaviors of a

relatively large group of people” (p.25). The statement provides an important concept

that culture is not only expressing externally via behaviors but also existing internally

via our beliefs, values and norms. When communications happen between individuals,

the interpretations are shared and culture is formed. According to this address, the

interactions between cultures can be refer to intercultural communication and the

competence to carry out such activities can be taken as intercultural competence.

Similarly, Deardorff (2004) also defined intercultural competence as “the ability to

communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s

intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (p.194). It refers to proper and suitable

behaviors meet the expectations by a given culture and achieve desired outcomes.

10

Therefore, the knowledge of the given culture, adequate motivations and proper skills

are required during the interactions.

Researchers have dedicated on studies of components of intercultural competence.

Byram (1997) developed a five-category model of Intercultural Communicative

Competence which is composed by attitudes, knowledge, skills of discovery and

interaction, skills of interpreting and relating, and critical cultural awareness. In his

research, attitudes are critical when achieving a successful communication. Knowledge

serves as a tool for communicating effectively between cultures. Skills of discovery and

interaction require the ability to observe gaps between culture and language. Skills of

interpreting and relating require the ability to identify the cultural contents when doing

translation between languages. Critical cultural awareness is related to make critical

judgements. With regards to the components of intercultural competence, researchers

also have tried to explain why people result in different outcomes when communicating

across cultural boundaries. Thus, the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

(DMIS) has been introduced by Bennett (2004) and to explain the pattern of changes in

the underlying worldview.

Cultural Intelligence (CQ)

Cultural intelligence is defined as an individual’s capability to work effectively in

diverse cultural settings (Ang & Van, 2008a) and is composed by four dimensions

which are cognitive CQ, motivational CQ, behavioral CQ and metacognitive CQ (Ang

et al., 2006). Cognitive CQ represented to the available cultural norms, practice,

routines in different cultures. Motivational CQ indicates the willingness to search out

and participate intercultural context and to be motivated to learn more. Behavioral CQ

is the ability to carry out appropriate reactions in intercultural settings. Metacognitive

11

CQ refers to the outcomes when individuals experienced the cross-cultural process and

internalize the knowledge learned from previous experiences then reacts better and

better (Magnusson, Westjohn, Semenov, Randrianasolo, & Zdravkovic, 2013).

Furthermore, Ng, Dyne and Ang (2009) developed a model integrated with CQ and

experiential learning theory and declared CQ can be improved through training in a

multicultural context.

Cultural Intelligence Scale.

In this study, the 20-item CQ scale developed by Ang et al. (2007) is used as a part

of the measurement in both pre- and post-survey. This 7-point Likert type scale (1 =

strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree) assesses the total average score of CQ on the

previous mentioned 4 dimensions. Sample questions are presented as below:

Metacognitive CQ: I am conscious of the cultural knowledge I apply to cross-cultural

interactions.

Cognitive CQ: I know the rules for expressing nonverbal behaviors in other cultures.

Motivational CQ: I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures.

Behavioral CQ: I change my verbal behavior (e.g., accent, tone) when a cross- cultural

situation requires it.

Intercultural Effectiveness Scale.

Not only Byram (1997) pointed out intercultural competence playing an important

role on communications but also Portalla & Chen (2010) further introduced

intercultural communication competence (ICC) with a valid instrument, the

12

intercultural effectiveness scale (IES), for measuring the concept. ICC includes three

dimensions: intercultural awareness, intercultural sensitivity, and intercultural

effectiveness (Chen & Starosta, 1996). Intercultural awareness is the cognitive process

to understand cultural conventions that affect the way of individuals think and behave.

Intercultural sensitivity is a dynamic concept to develop a positive emotion toward

cultural differences and to promote an appropriate behavior when communicating in an

intercultural context (Chen & Starosta, 1997). Intercultural effectiveness refers to

achieving communication goals in intercultural interactions (Portalla & Chen, 2010).

The 20-item intercultural effectiveness scale generated by Portalla & Chen (2010)

is included in a part of the pre- and post-survey in this study. The 5-point Likert type

scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) evaluate ICC with six factors on

interaction relaxation, behavioral flexibility, interaction management, message skills,

identity maintenance and interactant respect. Sample questions are presented as below:

Interaction relaxation: I find it is easy to talk with people from different cultures.

Behavioral flexibility: I am afraid to express myself when interacting with people from

different cultures.

Interaction management: I am able to express my ideas clearly when interacting with

people from different cultures.

Message skills: I have problems with grammar when interacting with people from

different cultures.

Identity maintenance: I find it is difficult to feel my culturally different counterparts are

similar to me.

13

Interactant respect: I use appropriate eye contact when interacting with people from

different cultures.

Developing Intercultural Competence

There are increasing researches focusing on developing intercultural competence.

However, most of them are targeting on student groups and language training and

education (Ashwill, 2004; Cant, 2004; Devis Arbona & Chireac 2015; Hoskins &

Sallah, 2011; Krajewski, 2011). Following are researches as developmental examples

in this study. Reichard et al. (2015) conducted a two-stage research, and concluded the

training embedded with cross-cultural trigger events has influence on increasing

cultural intelligence and decreasing ethnocentrism. Study 1 carried out a thematic

analysis of 85 U.S. undergraduate students with international experiences to understand

the characteristics (i.e., trigger events) encountered during international living. A

theoretical model was developed and shown the interconnection between the emergent

themes and the development process of cultural competence impacted by cross-cultural

trigger events (Figure 2.1.). This model demonstrates similar developing process of the

training program in this study. In the needs assessment, program managers from

TaiwanICDF are asked to identify a critical intercultural incident. The researcher then

categorizes the characteristics of multicultural workplace from the responses.

14

Figure 2.1. Theoretical model of the role of trigger events in accelerating cross-cultural

competence. Adapted from “Engagement in cultural trigger events in the development

of cultural competence,” by Reichard et al., 2015, Academy of Management Learning

& Education, 14(4), p.468. Copyright 2015 by Academy of Management Learning &

Education.

Study 2 implemented a pre- & post-survey single group quasi-experimental design

on training 130 employees using the emergent definition of a cultural trigger event from

Study 1 on the training context. The experimental design is shown in Figure 2.2. The

innovative findings support the development of cultural intelligence and provide a

useful tool for organizations on the design and implementation of intercultural trainings.

However, in this study, the researcher employed double group quasi-experimental

design along with pre- & post-survey. This design helps to enhance the internal validity

of the results.

15

Figure 2.2. Experimental design of study 2 (Adapted from Reichard et al., 2015).

Ramsey & Lorenz (2016) also employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-

& posttest on 152 MBA students. Different with Reichard’s study (2015), the

experimental design divided students into treatment group who took cross-cultural

management (CCM) and CQ education while control group only took an

entrepreneurship course without focus on CCM or CQ. The findings indicated that CQ

was increased on students who took the CCM course and that CQ was positively related

to their commitment to and satisfaction with their course. Moreover, students with high

level of CQ presented higher satisfaction at the end of the course than those whose CQ

level did not change.

Another research conducted by Rehg, Gundlach, & Grigorian (2012) using pre- &

posttest survey on US government contracting trainees indicated that training with a

lecture format could improve cognitive CQ, behavioral CQ and specific self-efficacy

(SSE). The research also revealed a relationship between CQ and self-efficacy.

Although there are some limitations on the sample size, nature of the sample (public

sectors) and reliance on self-reports, this research still contributes to the intercultural

competence development. In the same year, MacNab (2012) also implemented a study

on cultural intelligence education using experiential approach. Two phases of this

16

research was participated by 743 management education participants in total. MacNab’s

study (2012) helps to fill a gap between experiential learning and CQ development.

Summary

In this present study, intercultural competence is the ability to develop because it

enables individuals to interact effectively under intercultural context and help

organizations to achieve goals in this changing society. Therefore, how to develop

intercultural competence is the process to be explored in this study.

Employees in Multicultural Workplace

Globalization and growing economy create more and more diverse workplace and

interactions in organizations. Esty, Griffin and Hirsch (1995) stated “diversity” as

acknowledging, understanding, accepting, and valuing differences among people with

respect to age, class, race, ethnicity, gender, disabilities, etc. Diversity is a trend for

organizational issues and leads to organizational change. How to manage diversity in

workplace becomes an important issue for organizations to remain their

competitiveness. Therefore, from the inclusive workplace model developed by Barak

(2011), multicultural workplace exists when organizations

Value and utilize individuals and intergroup differences within its framework

Cooperate with, and contributes to, its surrounding community

Alleviate the needs of disadvantaged groups in its wider environment

Collaborate with individuals, groups, and organizations across national and

cultural boundaries

The multicultural competency checklist developed by Ponterotto, Alexander and

17

Grieger (1995) expressed critical elements for the establishment of a multicultural

program. There are four criteria on the aspect of minority representation:

1. At least 30% of the managerial level represent racial/ethnic minority.

2. At least 30% of papulation are bilingual.

3. At least 30% of workers’ level represent racial/ethnic minority populations.

4. At least 30% of support staff (e.g., secretarial staff, graduate assistant pool)

represent racial/ethnic minority populations.

The ability to link different cultures is a critical skill for people who work in a

multicultural workplace. More and more studies targeted to this population, such as

employees working in overseas locations (Rehg, Gundlach, & Grigorian, 2012),

certified substance abuse counselors who receiving patients in a variety of ethnicities

(Lassiter & Chang, 2006), student affairs practitioners who involved in multicultural

issues (Mueller & Pope, 2001) and a majority of frontline human service providers who

have moderated multicultural issues (Caldwell et. al, 2008).

Similar with above cases, the participants of this study are working in the

environment with the addressed characters as multicultural workplace. The program

managers of TaiwanICDF and the employees in organizations are working in a

multicultural workplace where the daily tasks are mostly related with international

affairs.

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Training Program Development

In this section, literatures of ADDIE Model and experiential learning theory are

reviewed for providing fundamental concepts for this study to clarify the definitions.

ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is conducted throughout the research process. ADDIE model

of instructional systems design (ISD) was developed by Branson, Rayner, Cox, Furman,

& King in 1975 to aid US Army for the armed services to train personnel in a variety

of tasks; nowadays, it has been used as a procedure for instructional designers and

training developers in establishing effective training programs. The model is defined

into five phases and provides a process that actively engaged developers in problem

solving: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (Figure 2.3.).

Figure 2.3. ADDIE model (Adapted from Branson et al., 1975).

19

Phase 1: Analysis.

In the first phase, the major concern for developers is the target population. A

needs assessment is employed to examine the needs of the population by making a

distinction between what your target population already know and what they need to

know at the end of the course. From the needs assessment, establish a foundation via

examining standards and competencies is important to determine what students need

when completing the course. Therefore, review the standards and competencies in

advance will be helpful in this process. If the course has already been implemented,

information may be accessible from previous evaluation. Meanwhile, the content of the

training can be analyzed with the help of course scripts. The instructor determines the

portion of instruction that is needed to the needs and task assessment.

Phase 2: Design.

In this process, several key facets are essential. Conducting research and planning

are major tasks in this stage. Identifying purposes, determining how the purposes will

be met, what the instructional plans will be conducted to succeed the purposes, and

what tools will be the most effective when delivering the purposes are important (Seels

& Glasgow, 1998). The results from the analysis phase is very critical in this phase.

Planning is required in the first two phases and will decrease the need for further

research or redesign.

When connecting goals and purposes with assessments, instructors go back to the

first phase for data that provides information about the participants' characteristics,

previous experiences, and needs. The information assist instructors in the planning of

suitable assessment tools or strategies. If goals, purposes, and assessments do not

connected, participants may losing interest and further influent the instructional quality.

20

And it will also affect the long-term retention of participants. With a careful selection

of assessment methods and techniques, participants tends to become actively engaged

in the training.

Phase 3: Development.

Instructors must pay attentions on the results from the previous two phases and

organize a plan for the implementation of the information during this phase. This stage

transforms the instructor’s role from research and planning to production. Drafting,

production, and evaluation are the main focuses in this phase. Developing or selecting

training materials and conducting comprehensive evaluations are the main tasks for

instructors (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). Evaluations during this phase focus differently

than the final evaluation in the last phase of the ADDIE model. Instructors are the main

persons to determine if the participants will learn from the training and how it can be

improved before implementation.

Phase 4: Implementation.

Instructors need to be active in the implementation phase. For the effectiveness of

the training, instructors must keep analyzing, redesigning, and enriching the training.

Conducting evaluations during this phase is essential to conduct an effective training.

When the participants and instructors are active involving in the training, modifications

can be made immediately to the training to achieve effectiveness.

Phase 5: Evaluation.

The last phase is an important part of the ADDIE model and is multidisciplinary.

The structural evaluation conducted in the development phase during the

21

implementation phase with the help of participants, and at the end of the

implementation in a way as a summary for instructional improvement. During

evaluations, the instructors must check if the problem has been solved, if the purposes

have been met, and if there is any adjustment for future delivery of the training.

Sometimes, the evaluation may be underestimated because of time or economic factors,

however it is critical. The evaluation should be an integral part for further analysis and

improvement data for future trainings.

Following the introduction of these five phases, this study adapts a similar process

for developing the intercultural training program. A needs assessment was conducted

via an on-line survey to the ICDF program managers. A qualitative analysis regards to

the characters of needs and instructional problems are identified. The objectives and

participants existing knowledge and skills are considered into the design of the training.

Based on the previous analysis, the assessment instruments and training contents are

developed. This study utilize lectures, online materials, case study, role-play, etc. to

enrich course content. Feedbacks from participants will be collected through discussion

during and after the implementation of the training program. In the last phase,

evaluation of the effectiveness of training program will be conducted via the analysis

on pre- & post-survey. Implications and limitations will be discussed for future

improvement.

Experiential Learning Theory (ELT)

According to Kolb (1984), “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created

through the transformation of experience” (p.38). Experience plays as a fundamental

element in the learning process. Since the experiential learning theory (ELT) has been

introduced by Kolb in 1984, this one of the best known educational theory presents a

22

structure for educators in constructing a course using a learning cycle. From Kolb’s

learning model (see Figure 2.4.), the knowledge is learned from the mergence of

grasping and transforming experience. Concrete experiences are basis for observations

and reflections. Then the reflections are processed into abstract concepts as new

implications that can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences.

Figure 2.4. Experiential learning cycle. Adapted from “Experiential learning theory: A

dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development,” by

A. Kolb, & D. A. Kolb, 2009, The SAGES Handbook of Management Learning,

Education and Development, p.44. Copyright 2009 by SAGE Publications Ltd.

Experiential learning theory is embedded into the intercultural training program in

this study since the participants are employees in a multicultural workplace. The work

experiences play as the concrete experiences and can be easily transformed through the

designed instruments (lectures, case studies, experience sharing, etc.) into abstract

23

concepts. Then converging to the active experimentation such as reflections from the

instructor and observations on others during the training, the new experience is created

and plays as a cycle for further learning process.

Summary

Following the ADDIE model, this study conducts and analyze a needs assessment

to ICDF program managers. Design and develop the intercultural training program

based on the outcomes from the analysis. Moreover, considering the characteristics of

multicultural workplace and the experiences from the participants could be taken as a

valuable assets, case studies and experience sharing are structured into the experiential

learning process in order to combine both theoretical concepts and practical experiences.

The effectiveness of training program is evaluated after implementation.

24

25

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS

Research Approach

This study adopt mixed approaches, both qualitative and quantitative methods

since it utilizes various empirical data from needs assessment survey, designed training

program, and pre- & post-survey, in order to interpret the learning needs into the

intercultural training program and symmetrically examine the training outcomes. As

Given (2008) addressed, when to catch individuals’ thoughts, feelings, or

interpretations of meaning and process, qualitative method is usually adopted; as to

understand what has happened and while experiments can test particular interventions,

the quantitative approaches are suggested.

A needs assessment survey is conducted at the beginning as a qualitative approach

which enables the researcher to get an insightful understanding of critical intercultural

incidents engaged between research participants and multicultural workplace.

Moreover, the qualitative assessment also explores participants’ feedbacks for

designing the training program.

On the other hand, a quasi-experimental design is employed as the quantitative

approach allows the researcher to do statistical analysis on the data collected from pre-

& post-survey of the training program. To estimate the effects of a treatment or

intervention, the quasi-experimental design is usually implemented with a comparison

between what happened after the treatment was implemented and what would have

happened if the treatment had not been implemented (Millsap & Maydeu-Olivares,

2009). Such experimental design is frequently used when there are practical and ethical

constraints on random assignment. As Campbell and Stanley (1966) stated, although it

26

is not fully controlled over the scheduling of experimental stimuli, the natural social

setting still can be introduced like experimental design during the data collection as a

true experiment. And it can be taken as quasi-experimental designs. With the awareness

of the limitation of the participant settings, this study conducts the nonequivalent

control group design which was mentioned by Campbell and Stanley (1966), involves

an experimental group and control group both given a pre-survey and a post- survey. In

brief, as Creswell (2013) explained, “mixed methods is chosen because of its strength

of drawing on both qualitative and quantitative research and minimizing the limitations

of both approaches” (p.266). Therefore, the mixed method is adopted in this study.

Research Framework

The research framework of this study is constructed based on research purpose

and research questions stated in Chapter 1. This study aims to identify the characters of

critical intercultural incidents in a multicultural workplace and to examine the

effectiveness of the designed intercultural training program.

To understand learning needs, CIT (critical incident technique) is applied to collect

qualitative data from participants. Based on the CIT analysis result, training content is

designed and implemented. Quasi-experimental deign is utilized for evaluating training

outcomes. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the designed training program, a

control group and the experimental group design is performed. Participants are

employees in multicultural workplaces and are divided into two groups. One as program

managers from TaiwanICDF with the mixed-method intercultural training program;

another as employees in multicultural workplaces with online intercultural training

program (Figure 3.1). Pre- and post-survey are administrated to collect quantitative data

before and after training delivery.

27

Figure 3.1. Research framework

Research Procedure

This study designs, implements, and evaluates the intercultural training programs

for full-time employees in multicultural workplaces. The process is divided into six

stages.

1st Stage: Developing a needs assessment survey. In order to better understand the

characteristics of multicultural workplace and the critical intercultural incidents

occurred during interactions, the needs assessment survey is designed with two sections:

(1) Background information & intercultural experiences check.

(2) 6 open-ended questions regard to a critical intercultural incident and difficulties

faced in multicultural workplace.

2nd Stage: Implementing the developed needs assessment. The survey is

distributed online to the ICDF program managers who are working in a multicultural

28

workplace. The purpose of this survey is to collect critical intercultural incidents and

difficulties encountered in workplace from employees. The collected data are analyzed

for designing the content of intercultural training programs.

3rd Stage: Analyzing the collected data from needs assessment. 44 surveys were

distributed to all ICDF program managers and 35 responses were received with 34 valid.

The raw data was reviewed and analyzed. Based on every reported intercultural incident,

there are 6 major themes identified: (1) culture knowledge, (2) communication

difficulties, (3) characters as a liaison role, (4) public and private boundaries, (5)

consultative skills, and (6) international relations. Examples of the cultural incidents

are sorted by themes as Table 3.1.

Table 3.1.

Examples of Reported Cultural Incidents

Identified Theme Cultural differences Background At student’s apartment.

What happened?

I found the international students used to cook rice with a small pot instead of an electric pot which has been considered as a common tool when cooking rice here in Taiwan.

Your reaction

I was wondering maybe they don’t know how to use electric pot, so I asked whether they ever tried to cook with it? Students responded yes, they did, but they felt more accustomed with the small pot.

Result I expressed my amaze to the students. And we continued sharing more cultural differences during the meal.

What did you learned? Cultural learning is endless. Identified Theme Communication skills Background Me and an international student, in my office. What happened? The student asked me a favor with an impolite tone.

(continued)

29

Table 3.1. (continued)

Identified Theme Communication skills

Your reaction I directly expressed my feelings and we had some argues.

Result The student clarified to me that he didn’t mean it.

What did you learned? You need to express clearly when communicating with students, or it may cause confusions.

Identified Theme Characters as a liaison role

Background

An international student applied for a new refrigerator in dormitory but was objected by the office. And the refrigerator at the public area was messy and unable to use.

What happened?

I helped to communicate between student and school officers. However, the student was asked to wait until next semester. He was unpleasant and felt sick due to eating unfamiliar food from markets. The student also contacted to his embassy regarding to this issue.

Your reaction I reported this issue to higher level of the school.

Result With the help from the office of general affairs, the student finally got what he want.

What did you learned?

You need to double confirm with different parties when communicating. Confusions may cause distrust and unnecessary conflicts. How to be the liaison role between different parties is an important issue.

Identified Theme Interaction boundary Background In my office.

What happened?

The international students always asked for free food from the office because my colleague used to treat them with snacks sometimes. Moreover, students even asked for free food in their favor.

Your reaction I explained to students about the situation and suggested them to buy food on their own.

Result The students left office with unpleasant faces.

What did you learned? Do not spoiled students, or they will just take it for granted.

Identified Theme Guidance and counseling Background In a hospital. (continued)

30

Table 3.1. (continued) Identified Theme Guidance and counseling

What happened? An international student was drunk and be sent to a hospital. The student was very sad and crying.

Your reaction I checked the student’s situation and tried to comfort the student’s emotion. I also provided suggestions to the student regarding to this issue.

Result The student promised won’t do it again.

What did you learned? Good communication and consultative skills are very important.

Identified Theme International relations Background Two international students from different countries.

What happened? Somehow, the students had a serious argument. One of the two reported to family member and resulted with an intervention from the embassy of student’s country.

Your reaction Immediately contacted with school, TaiwanICDF and the embassy and accessed the follow-up arrangement.

Result Both sides achieved an agreement and left Taiwan after finishing their studies.

What did you learned? There are different norms in different countries. It is important learn more about international relations.

4th Stage: Developing the content of intercultural training program. The

characteristics of multicultural workplace identified from the result of needs assessment

in the 3rd stage are embedded into the training program. According to the identified

themes from previous stage, there are not only cultural factors but also communicative

approaches involved and played as key roles in the intercultural incidents. Therefore,

the training program aims to enhance participants’ CQ, especially on cognitive

awareness and behavioral dimensions, and intercultural communication.

The intercultural training program for experimental group is divided into three

times and conducted with mixed methods including classroom lectures, online activities

and live interactions & feedbacks between participants. The experiential learning

31

theory (ELT) is purposely applied in the training for experimental group in order to

better utilize the identified cultural incidents from participants. Besides, the control

group is designed to go through the same lecture content which has been edited into

videos by the researcher but without embedding ELT. The pre- & post-survey

questionnaires at the beginning and the end of the designed training programs are

processed to both groups as well.

5th Stage: Developing the content of the pre- & post-survey questionnaire. Since

the training content mainly focus on cultural factors and communicative approaches,

the pre- & post-survey questionnaire are set to evaluate the both accordingly.

Therefore, the questionnaire combines the 20-item four dimensions cultural intelligence

scale (CQS) developed by Ang et al. (2007) with composite reliabilities exceeded 0.70

(metacognitive CQ = 0.71, cognitive CQ = 0.85, motivational CQ = 0.75, and

behavioral CQ = 0.83) (Ang & Van, 2008b, p.22) and the 20 item intercultural

effectiveness scale (IES) developed by Portalla & Chen (2010) with Cronbach alpha

reliability coefficient of this instrument was 0.85 (p.28), and plus 6 questions for

evaluating the whether the training meets the participants’ needs in multicultural

workplace. The pre-survey (01 & 03) is implemented to both experimental and control

groups before the intercultural training programs (Xa & Xb) as well as the post-survey

(02 & 04) is accessed after the interventions (Table 3.2.).

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Table 3.2.

Implementation of Pre- & Post-survey

Note. Xa= Designed intercultural training program with ELT; Xb= Online intercultural

training program without ELT; 01 & 03= Represent the pre-survey (CQS & IES) for

both groups; 02 & 04= Represent the post-survey (CQS & IES) for both groups.

6th Stage: After the training program, the data from pre- & post-survey of two

groups are reviewed and analyzed using paired T-test on SPSS. The effectiveness of

training program is examined. Implications and limitations on designing intercultural

training programs is discussed and provided to organizations as a reference on

improving the talents development strategies.

Research Participants and Criteria

Patton (2002) mentioned, “The purpose of purposeful sampling is to select

information-rich cases whose study will illuminate the questions under study” (p.230).

Therefore, the participants of this study are purposefully selected according to Patton’s

sampling strategies. “Homogeneous samples” (p.235) is one of the developed strategies

by Patton and is adopted in this study. There are two criteria for participants in this

study: (1) they are employees in multicultural workplaces and (2) the major job tasks

are involved with multicultural characteristics. The participants in this study are the

TaiwanICDF program managers (experimental group) and employees in organizations

(control group). The program managers from TaiwanICDF are 2 male, 23 female; they

frequently interacting with international students, faculties, colleagues from other

33

departments and embassy officers. Similarly, the employees in organizations are 10

male, 15 female; the job contents are related to international affairs, international

customer service & overseas business and international training. Out of 25 samples in

the control group, there are 14 (56%) from universities, 8 (32%) from private companies,

2 (8%) from TaiwanICDF and 1 (4%) from public sector (Figure 3.2). Both

experimental and control groups share the similar characteristics of work experiences

in multicultural workplaces.

Figure 3.2. Composition of the employees in organizations (N=25)

Data Collection

Before conducting this study, a project proposal were sent to the International

Education and Training Department of TaiwanICDF. Then a meeting with the chief of

the Education Division regarding to the details of this study was initiated in November,

2016. In the meeting, a cooperation agreement was made and training schedule was set.

The training is divided into three times from December, 2016 to April, 2017. On the

34

other hand, the officers from the Office of International Affairs in universities are the

first target participants of the control group in this study. And the contact information

about OIA in universities in Taiwan are collected in order to reach the targeted groups.

Participants from other organizations are added using snowball sampling later on.

Table 3.3.

Training Schedule of Experimental Group

Training Method Time

I Indoor.

Tool: lecture, case study, videos, role-play

2016/12/16

1.5 hr

II Online platform.

Tool: movie clips, discussion

2017/3/30~4/6

1.5~2 hr

III Indoor.

Tool: lecture, experience sharing, discussion

2017/4/7

1.5 hr

A needs assessment with open-ended questions to the experimental group is

employed before implementing the training. It helps to provide in-depth information

and individual’s perspectives for developing the content of the intercultural training

program. 6 major themes were identified from the critical intercultural incidents and

utilized as elements in developing the training program. With the quasi-experimental

deign, this study uses a nonequivalent control group design involves full-time

employees in multicultural workplaces who are divided into experimental group (ICDF

program managers) & control group (employees in organizations) and both given the

pre- and post-survey questionnaires.

35

Data Analysis

This study collects critical intercultural incidents from full-time employees in

multicultural workplaces. The open-ended questions are conducted with an open coding

method for categorizing the major characteristics occurred in multicultural workplace,

thus facilitating the analysis process. As Dey (1993) stated, “coding” is to categorize

data and make connection between categories. For analyzing the open-ended questions

regarded to the critical intercultural incidents and difficulties encountered in

multicultural workplace, this study categorizes and summarizes the results in a

condensed table in the findings and discussions chapter.

The statistic software of IBM SPSS 23 is used in this study to analyze the data

collected by the pre- and post-survey. The analysis method includes:

Descriptive Statistics

For analyzing respondent information and acquiring descriptive data report, the

SPSS is applied to the demographics of the sample. The descriptive statistics help to

check for errors, outliers and the distribution of the data. Moreover, the means and

standard deviation are calculated and examined.

Pearson Correlation Analysis

To examine the relationship between variables, the Pearson correlation analysis is

conducted as well as to evaluate the strength of the relationship. Specifically, this study

uses correlation analysis to understand the relationship between participants’

background (gender and tenure) and intercultural competence.

36

ANCOVA Analysis

ANCOVA analysis is used to detect a difference in means of independent groups,

whilst controlling for scale covariates. Besides, Levene's test and the tests of between-

subjects effects are demonstrated to examine whether the dependent variables are equal

across groups and the variances are significantly different or not.

Paired T-test

Means and standard deviations of both experimental group and control group are

compared using T-test. Intercultural training program is an important factor in this study

and is examined by t-test to find out the effectiveness of training program between the

two groups.

37

CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS & RESULTS

This study is divided into two phases: training program development and

effectiveness examination. The purpose of this study is to develop an effective

intercultural training program which meets the training needs of the participants. This

chapter includes five sections, training needs assessment and program development will

first be discussed. Then the descriptive statistics, correlation and ANCOVA analysis,

and paired T-test are presented in order to show the training outcomes. Lastly, summary

of the results is provided and discussed. Besides, three research questions mentioned in

chapter one were answered accordingly in the chapter:

Question 1: What are the characteristics of a cultural incident in multicultural

workplace?

In response to this question, training needs assessment was employed. The six

identified themes emerged from data analysis reflected the characteristics of cultural

incidents in multicultural workplace. The cultural incidents provided from TaiwanICDF

program managers reported various situations and difficulties when interacting with

different stakeholders.

Question 2: How to develop an intercultural training program based on identified

characteristics of cultural incidents?

Based on the six identified themes, learning points were developed accordingly in

response to participants’ needs and to construct the training program. All six learning

points were linked to cultural differences with training methods as lecture, discussion,

role-play, videos and experience sharing. The learning points of “what leads to cultural

differences,” “intercultural communication,” “supplementary information about other

38

culture,” “cultural differences” and “communication difficulties” were used to explain

the second theme of communication skills. “What leads to cultural differences,”

“intercultural communication,” “cultural differences” and “communication difficulties”

also responded the third theme of characters as a liaison role. Moreover, the learning

points of “intercultural communication,” “cultural differences” and “communication

difficulties” provided solutions for interaction boundary and guidance and counseling.

Lastly, four learning points (intercultural communication, supplementary information

about other culture, cultural differences, and communication difficulties) were

developed for the sixth theme of international relations.

In addition, the experimental learning theory was implied into the developed

training program since the participants were workers in multicultural workplace. The

developed training made a good use of experiences from participants, and not only

provided intercultural knowledge but also tried to create learning in workplace.

Question 3: What is the training outcomes of the developed intercultural program?

Overall, the TaiwanICDF program managers had good performance on behavioral

CQ and intercultural effectiveness. They performed better in analyzing the causes of

difficulties of intercultural communication, using strategies to improve the efficacy of

intercultural communication, and managing the situations and strategies of

communication with foreign students and embassies. Since behavioral change will

directly influent performance of workers (Sadri, 2015), the developed training program

brought a good effect on the participants.

39

Training Needs Assessment and Program Development

The content of training program is developed based on the six identified themes

from the needs assessment. The result of assessment shows that all employees had

international experiences from schooling, traveling or working. Moreover, cultural

differences and communication difficulties are the most challenging issues from their

interactions with stakeholders in work. From the responses of the needs assessment,

41% related to cultural differences, 23% related to communication skills, 15%

mentioned the characters as a liaison role when communicating between stakeholders,

9% felt the interaction boundary is an important issue, 6% involved with guidance and

counseling, and 6% encountered issues about international relations (Figure 4.1). The

six themes are linked to several learning points in order to response to the training needs

of the participants (Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.1. Identified themes from needs assessment

40

Figure 4.2. Learning points in response to identified themes

Both experimental group and control group receive the same content of training

program but via different ways. For experimental group, the researcher utilizes various

materials in delivering the training in 3 times. Especially, the experiential learning

theory is embedded throughout the training process via discussion, sharing, reflection

and observation & suggestion from supervisors in universities. The supervisors are the

people who frequently interact with the participants in work and they are able to have

a close observation on the performance of participants. The pre-survey is conducted at

the beginning of the first training. Definitions of culture, cultural iceberg, perception

model of communication and Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory (Hofstede, 2001) is

included in the lecture of first training. In addition, videos, case studies and role-play

are also employed to demonstrate cultural differences, intercultural communication and

supplementary information as well. Considering the participants’ workload and

41

mobility, the second training is conducted via an online educational platform

“U.camdemy”, with 6 clips from the movie, “Outsourced” (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3. Images of U.camdemy and online training

The story is about an American, Todd who is a manager working in the customer

service department in an American company. However, the company decided to

outsource the customer service to India. Todd is assigned to India in order to train a

group of local people as the new customer service. He was reluctant at the beginning

42

and encountered many difficulties when first arriving at the foreign country. The

cultural differences between America and India make him frustrated. The

communication difficulties between the local people and him also make him headache.

The movie demonstrates well about the main character (Todd) facing cultural

differences and communication difficulties in work. The story describes the changing

process about how Todd overcomes the encountered challenges and transforms the

mindset. After watching the movie clips, the participants of this study were requested

to answer the following questions (Table 4.1.) and their responses were collected for

further discussion in the third time training.

Table 4.1.

Questions in the Second Training and Examples of Participants’ Responses

Question Responses

Q1. What are the cultural differences the main character encountered in the movie?

1. The differences of pronunciation in English.

2. The differences of workplace culture.

3. The differences of customs about dining and hygiene.

Q2. What are the communication difficulties between the main character and his employees?

1. The superiority from the managerial level.

2. Lack of empathy. 3. The usage of language and slangs.

Q3. What are the reasons contributed to low efficiency of the customer service?

1. Cultural differences between staffs and customers.

2. Communication difficulties between staffs and the foreign supervisor.

3. Different expectations.

(continued)

43

Table 4.1. (continued) Question Responses 4. Using the wrong way as rewards to

staffs.

Q4. What did the main character change during the process?

He became aware of the differences and tried to manage his emotions and reactions. He also adjusted his behaviors and improved interactions with staffs.

Q5. Do you encounter cultural differences when interacting with foreign students and other stakeholders in work? What is your strategy?

A foreign student was upset about our staff accidently opened a personal letter. Firstly, I apologized for our mistake and expressed my understanding to the student. Then I asked to the student whether there’s other ways to make things up.

Q6. Do you encounter communication difficulties when interacting with foreign students and other stakeholders in work? What is your strategy?

I have received complaints about our foreign students from other offices.

I firstly respected their feelings and tried to calm them down. Then explained things from student’s angle and further discussed about the policy level if necessary. I will communicate with a strategy in order to create the mutual benefits.

The third training is conducted with an opening lecture regarding to the importance

of intercultural communication and a summary about this customized intercultural

training program. The online responses from the second training are classified using

Hall’s cultural iceberg theory (1976) in order to recap the theoretical backgrounds

which have been introduced in the first training. Employees were able to distinguish

visible and invisible cultural factors, then to develop their own communication strategy.

Besides, employees were divided into groups for further discussions on question 5 and

6. In this activity, employees with different tenure and backgrounds were able to share

44

experiences and provide insights. Later, supervisors are invited to share the observed

difficulties or successful interaction cases from the employees so the participants could

learn from other angles. In the end, the training concluded with supervisors’ suggestions

and two identified insights during the training process. Then the post-survey is

employed as well.

On the other hand, two videos with the same contents of the first & second

trainings for the experimental group are also put on U.camdemy for the control group.

Participants of the control group are invited to take the same pre & post-survey as the

experimental group before and after watching two videos. The data of pre & post-

survey collected from both groups are analyzed in following paragraphs.

Table 4.2. presents the instructional process of the developed training program and

Table 4.3. explains how the experiential learning theory was employed into training

program design.

Table 4.2.

Instructional Process of Developed Training Program

Training Learning Point Event Time

I

Training introduction & Pre-survey

With a short opening, the pre-survey was conducted before all activities. Then a briefing about the result of needs assessment was introduced.

1.5 hr

Definitions of Culture

“What is culture?” was asked at the beginning, participants were able to share their views about culture. Lecture about definitions of culture was presented in order to show the diverse opinions from professionals.

(continued)

45

Table 4.2. (continued)

Training Learning Point Event Time

I

What leads to cultural differences?

Lectures about cultural iceberg, perception model of communication and Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory were bring onto the table and discussions was made. One video about different behaviors from cultures and role-play about different interpretations were demonstrated for further understanding on the learning point.

1.5 hr

Intercultural Communication

A short movie clip was played in demonstrating the communication difficulties, discussions and opinions were shared between participants. The high- & low-context of communication was introduced with a cartoon picture and a case study about story of an old Chinese scholar. Another discussion was made afterward.

Supplementary information about other culture

Video about Indian culture was displayed as a conclusion of the first training section.

II

Cultural Differences

TaiwanICDF program managers were invited to register in an online educational platform, U.camdemy for participating the second training section. 6 clips from a selected movie, “Outsourced” were edited with 4 content-related and 2 self-reflection questions. Managers were requested to provide answers accordingly in the online discussion. Participants and the training facilitator were able to interact online as more questions or opinions were reflected from the managers.

1.5~2 hr

Communication Difficulties

(continued)

46

Table 4.2. (continued)

Training Learning Point Event Time

III

Cultural Differences & Communication Difficulties

A lecture about the tendency of intercultural communication was performed as an opening of the third training. The responses from previous training section were collected and discussed in recapping some learning points in first training. Additionally, the 2 self-reflection questions were highlighted for further experience sharing. Program managers were divided into groups mixed with juniors and seniors. With this arrangement, people were able to share, discuss, and reflect different points of view. Besides, supervisors of the managers were invited to share their observations from managers’ work and feedbacks to enrich the discussion. Two main reflections were made as conclusion from training facilitator.

1.5 hr

Post-survey The post-survey was applied after the training section.

Table 4.3.

Corresponding Design to Four Stage of Experiential Learning Theory (ELT)

Stage of ELT Corresponding Design

Concrete Experience (Experience)

The application of needs assessment was able to collect concrete experience from participants.

Reflective Observation (Reflect)

The identified themes from needs assessment were structured for developing learning points. Discussion and experience sharing during the training extended more reflections.

Abstract Conceptualization (Generalize)

Many concepts and theories introduced in the training were abstracted in promoting behavioral change.

Active Experimentation (Apply)

Reflections and experience sharing from participants created a learning cycle, so that the participants were able to apply new knowledge when interacting with stakeholders.

47

Descriptive Statistics

There are 3 categories in the demographic information, gender, institute, and

tenure. It is used to check whether there are missing items and compare whether

different groups of people may have special tendencies when answering the

questionnaire. Descriptive statistics also present mean and standard deviation value of

the dimensions. Minimum and maximum values are shown to see whether the data

includes incorrect ratings that fall outside of the scale. Table 4.4. and 4.5. present the

frequencies of the respondent of experimental & control groups in pre- & post-survey,

and the data are analyzed to compare whether there are differences between different

groups.

48

Table 4.4.

Experimental Group: Demographic Information of the Participants of this Study

Note. N= 25

Variable Item Frequency Percentage Gender Male

Female 2 23

8% 92%

Institute National Tsing Hua University National Taiwan Ocean

University National Yang-Ming University

National Taiwan Normal University

National Central University Yuan Ze University

National Taipei University of Nursing and Health Sciences National Taiwan University

Ming Chuan University Kaohsiung Medical University

Taipei Medical University Taipei National University of

the Arts National Chung Hsing

University National Chung Cheng

University I-Shou University

National Dong Hwa University

1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 4 1

4% 8%

4% 8%

4% 4% 8%

4% 8% 8% 4% 4%

8%

4%

16% 4%

Tenure (years)

0~1 1~2 2~3 3~4 4~5

5 and above

9 7 4 1 0 4

36% 28% 16% 4% 0% 16%

49

Table 4.5.

Control Group: Demographic Information of the Participants of this Study

Note. N= 25

The participants of experimental group are TaiwanICDF program managers who

work in 16 universities. Most of them (92%) are female and only 2 (8%) male program

managers, and over half (64%) of them work as a program manager under two years,

Variable Item Frequency Percentage Gender Male

Female 10 15

40% 60%

Institute Taipei National University of the Arts

National Taiwan University Christ's College Taipei

TaiwanICDF National Taipei University of

Business National Taiwan University of

Sport Chinese Culture University

Umbo CV Career Consulting Co. Ltd.

Georgia Institute of Technology Taiji Clinic

Tunghai University Systemweb Technology

District Court PAREXEL International

ASML Holding N.V. QuintilesIMS

1 1 6 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1

4%

4% 24% 8% 4%

4%

8% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 8% 4% 4%

Tenure (years)

0~1 1~2 2~3 3~4 4~5

5 and above

5 5 4 2 2 7

20% 20% 16% 8% 8% 28%

50

only 4 (16%) people work over 5 years at this position. On the other hand, 15 (60%)

participants in control group are female and 10 (40%) are male, and over half (56%) of

them work in universities, 9 (32%) samples are from private companies, 2 (8%) are

from TaiwanICDF and 1 (4%) is in public sector. The participants’ tenure varies from

40% (10 people) under 2 years to 28% (7 people) over 5 years.

Table 4.6.

Experimental Group: Minimum, Maximum, Mean, and Standard Deviation of the Data

Time Item N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Pre- Survey

Gender 25 0 1 0.92 .277 Tenure 25 1 6 2.52 1.759

CQ_MC 25 4.25 7 5.83 .874 CQ_CG 25 1.67 7 5.01 1.226 CQ_MO 25 3 7 5.54 1.009 CQ_BH 25 3.20 7 5.26 1.034

IE_IRelax 25 2.00 4.80 3.37 .709 IE_BF 25 2.50 4 3.15 .445

IE_InteractionM 25 2 5 3.54 .644 IE_MeSk 25 2.00 4.33 3.05 .542

IE_IdenMan 25 2.33 4.67 3.28 .575 IE_IRespect 25 3.33 5 3.96 .444

CQ_All 25 3.35 6.95 5.37 .924 IE_All 25 2.85 4.30 3.37 .417

JR1 25 3 5 4.16 .554 JR2 25 2 5 3.40 .957 JR3 25 2 5 3.52 .872 JR4 25 2 5 3.80 .707 JR5 25 2 5 3.84 .688 JR6 25 2 5 3.24 .597

Post-Survey

Gender 25 0 1 0.92 .277 Tenure 25 1 6 2.52 1.759

CQ_MC 25 4.75 7 6.10 .696 CQ_CG 25 3.83 7 5.15 .917

(continued)

51

Table 4.6. (continued) Time Item N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

CQ_MO 25 4.40 7 5.82 .891 CQ_BH 25 3 7 5.64 1.020

IE_IRelax 25 2.40 5 3.66 .624 IE_BF 25 2.25 4 3.21 .477

IE_InteractionM 25 2 5 3.80 .707 IE_MeSk 25 2 5 3.39 .698

IE_IdenMan 25 2.67 4.67 3.48 .553 IE_IRespect 25 3.33 5 4.15 .462

CQ_All 25 4.50 7 5.63 .739 IE_All 25 2.85 4.75 3.59 .423

JR1 25 3 5 4.24 .663 JR2 25 2 5 4.00 .816 JR3 25 3 5 3.92 .812 JR4 25 3 5 4.08 .572 JR5 25 2 5 4.08 .759 JR6 25 2 5 3.64 .860

Note. N= 25. Gender= 0(Male), 1(Female); Tenure= 1(<1 yr.), 2(1~2 yr.), 3(2~3 yr.),

4(3~4 yr.), 5(4~5 yr.), 6(>5 yr.); CQ_MC= Cultural Intelligence Scale_Metacognitive

CQ; CG= Cognitive CQ; MO= Motivational CQ; BH= Behavioral CQ; IE_IRelax=

Intercultural Effectiveness Scale_Interaction Relaxation; BF= Behavioral Flexibility;

InteractionM= Interaction Management; MeSk= Message Skills; IdenMan= Identity

Maintenance; IRespect= Interactant Respect; JR= Job-related Question.

52

Table 4.7.

Control Group: Minimum, Maximum, Mean, and Standard Deviation of the Data

Time Item N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Pre-Survey

Gender 25 0 1 0.60 .500 Tenure 25 1 6 3.48 1.960

CQ_MC 25 4 7 5.88 .878 CQ_CG 25 2.67 7 4.89 1.076 CQ_MO 25 3.60 7 5.48 1.030 CQ_BH 25 3.40 7 5.22 .933

IE_IRelax 25 2 4.60 3.36 .619 IE_BF 25 1.75 4 3.10 .608

IE_InteractionM 25 2 4.50 3.38 .754 IE_MeSk 25 2 3.67 2.75 .572

IE_IdenMan 25 2.67 4.33 3.41 .530 IE_IRespect 25 3 5 4.12 .480

CQ_All 25 3.90 7 5.32 .853 IE_All 25 2.45 4.10 3.34 .389

JR1 25 2 5 4.00 .764 JR2 25 1 5 3.52 .918 JR3 25 2 5 3.56 .712

Post- Survey

Gender 25 0 1 0.60 .500 Tenure 25 1 6 3.48 1.960

CQ_MC 25 4.25 7 5.90 .910 CQ_CG 25 3 7 5.073 1.088 CQ_MO 25 3.20 7 5.54 1.053 CQ_BH 25 3.20 7 5.39 1.129

IE_IRelax 25 2 4.80 3.55 .646 IE_BF 25 1.75 4 3.10 .568

IE_InteractionM 25 2 5 3.66 .746 IE_MeSk 25 1.33 4 2.73 .660

IE_IdenMan 25 2.33 4.33 3.28 .533 IE_IRespect 25 3.67 5 4.17 .410

CQ_All 25 3.60 7 5.43 .942 IE_All 25 2.50 4.30 3.40 .416

(continued)

53

Table 4.7. (continued) Time Item N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

JR1 25 2 5 4.04 .790 JR2 25 2 5 3.76 .779 JR3 25 2 5 3.76 .663

Note. N= 25. Gender= 0(Male), 1(Female); Tenure= 1(<1 yr.), 2(1~2 yr.), 3(2~3 yr.),

4(3~4 yr.), 5(4~5 yr.), 6(>5 yr.); CQ_MC= Cultural Intelligence Scale_Metacognitive

CQ; CG= Cognitive CQ; MO= Motivational CQ; BH= Behavioral CQ; IE_IRelax=

Intercultural Effectiveness Scale_Interaction Relaxation; BF= Behavioral Flexibility;

InteractionM= Interaction Management; MeSk= Message Skills; IdenMan= Identity

Maintenance; IRespect= Interactant Respect; JR= Job-related Question.

Minimum and maximum of each variable and all sub-dimensions are listed to

check wrong coding in the data, and all the numbers are in the proper scales.

Correlations Analysis

Cultural intelligence scale and intercultural effectiveness scale are utilized in the

pre- and post-survey. Table 4.8. presents the reliability of the data collected from both

scales to experimental and control groups. The data from CQ scale have high Cronbach

alpha values in overall including all sub-dimensions (above 0.802). On the contrary, the

data from IE scale only present well on two sub-dimensions (interaction relaxation and

interaction management) and on the overall IE. Two factors in the study may contribute

to low scores on reliability of the data from IE scale: reverse question design and

smaller sample size. Although the Cronbach’s alpha in some sub-dimensions did not

reach acceptable level at 0.7, all dimensions were kept in the following comparison and

discussion for a more comprehensive picture.

54

Table 4.8.

Cronbach Alpha Values of CQ Scale and IE Scale

Scale Item

Cronbach Alpha Value Experimental Group Control Group

Pre-survey

Post-survey

Pre-survey

Post-survey

CQ I. 1~20 .958 .938 .951 .967 Metacognitive CQ 1, 2, 3, 4 .880 .829 .895 .912

Cognitive CQ 5, 6, 7, 8,

9, 10 .927 .874 .938 .933

Motivational CQ 11, 12, 13,

14, 15 .992 .893 .916 .900

Behavioral CQ 16, 17, 18,

19, 20 .904 .916 .802 .956

IE II. 1~20 .858 .859 .815 .833 Interaction Relaxation

1, 3, 11, 13, 19

.831 .823 .801 .788

Behavioral Flexibility

2, 4, 14, 18 .143 .198 .601 .460

Interaction Management

5, 7 .683 .837 .836 .832

Message Skills 6, 10, 12 .426 .720 .384 .477 Identity Maintenance

8, 16, 17 .624 .472 .380 .223

Interactant Respect

9, 15, 20 .549 .403 .383 .490

The correlation results as shown in Table 4.9. and 4.10. were performed to examine

the direction and the strength of linear relationship between variables. According to the

outcomes, gender and tenure are not significantly correlated to cultural intelligence, and

intercultural effectiveness on experimental and control groups.

55

Table 4.9.

Experimental Group: Mean, Standard Deviation, Reliability and Correlation on

Gender, Tenure, CQ and IE

Time Item Mean S. D. 1 2 3 4 Pre-survey 1. Gender 0.92 0.277

2. Tenure 2.52 1.759 .089 3. CQ_All 5.37 0.924 -.091 .188 (.958) 4. IE_All 3.37 0.417 .123 .218 .637** (.858)

Post-survey 1. Gender 0.92 0.277 2. Tenure 2.52 1.759 .089 3. CQ_All 5.63 0.739 -.028 .192 (.938) 4. IE_All 3.59 0.423 .046 .242 .774** (.859)

Note. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.10.

Control Group: Mean, Standard Deviation, Reliability and Correlation on Gender,

Tenure, CQ and IE

Time Item Mean S. D. 1 2 3 4 Pre-survey 1. Gender 0.60 0.500

2. Tenure 3.48 1.960 .119 3. CQ_All 5.32 0.853 .325 .168 (.951) 4. IE_All 3.34 0.387 .214 .110 .704** (.815)

Post-survey 1. Gender 0.60 0.500 2. Tenure 3.48 1.960 .119 3. CQ_All 5.43 0.942 .296 .196 (.967) 4. IE_All 3.40 0.416 .175 .191 .774** (.833)

Note. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

56

ANCOVA Analysis

Analysis of covariance was utilized in this study. The results presented that all variances

of post-survey were equal across groups except JR3 (Table 4.11.). From the tests of between-

subjects effects (Table 4.12., 4.13. and 4.14.), the scores of pre-survey had significant influence

on the scores of post-survey. Group difference didn’t affect much on the scores of post-survey

on CQ and 4 sub-dimensions. Due to the low Alpha values on 4 sub-dimensions of IE (Table

4.8.), here only discussed the results of overall IE and two IE’s sub-dimensions of interaction

relaxation and interaction management from Table 4.13. Group difference had an effect on the

score of overall IE instead of the two sub-dimensions. Table 4.15., 4.16. and 4.17. listed the

estimated marginal means which were adjusted for the covariate and showed that the training

program still had an effect on both groups.

57

Table 4.11.

Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances

Dependent Variable F df1 df2 Sig. Pos_CQ_All .634 1 48 .430

Pos_MC .253 1 48 .618 Pos_CG .707 1 48 .404 Pos_MO .860 1 48 .358 Pos_BH .161 1 48 .690

Pos_IE_All .082 1 48 .775 Pos_IRelax 3.404 1 48 .071

Pos_BF 1.093 1 48 .301 Pos_InteractionM .889 1 48 .350

Pos_MeSk .093 1 48 .762 Pos_IdenMan .693 1 48 .409 Pos_IRespect .153 1 48 .698

Pos_JR1 .011 1 48 .917 Pos_JR2 2.199 1 48 .145 Pos_JR3 7.561 1 48 .008

Note. CQ= Cultural Intelligence Scale; MC= Metacognitive CQ; CG= Cognitive CQ; MO=

Motivational CQ; BH= Behavioral CQ; IE= Intercultural Effectiveness Scale; IRelax=

Interaction Relaxation; BF= Behavioral Flexibility; InteractionM= Interaction Management;

MeSk= Message Skills; IdenMan= Identity Maintenance; IRespect= Interactant Respect; JR=

Job-related Question.

58

Table 4.12.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects_CQ Scale

DV: Pos_CQ_All DV: Pos_MC DV: Pos_CG DV: Pos_MO DV: Pos_BH Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig.

Pre_CQ_All .000 Pre_MC .000 Pre_CG .000 Pre_MO .000 Pre_BH .000 Group .314 Group .226 Group .952 Group .198 Group .268

Note. Group= 1(Experimental), 2(Control); DV= Dependent Variable; CQ= Cultural Intelligence Scale; MC= Metacognitive CQ; CG= Cognitive CQ; MO= Motivational CQ; BH= Behavioral CQ.

Table 4.13.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects_IE Scale

DV: Pos_IE_All DV: Pos_IRelax DV: Pos_BF DV: Pos_InteractionM DV: Pos_MeSk DV: Pos_IdenMan DV: Pos_IRespect Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig.

Pre_IE_All .000 Pre_IRelax .000 Pre_BF .003 Pre_InteractionM .000 Pre_MeSk .000 Pre_IdenMan .000 Pre_IRespect .000 Group .033 Group .333 Group .515 Group .816 Group .011 Group .017 Group .495

Note. Group= 1(Experimental), 2(Control); DV= Dependent Variable; IE= Intercultural Effectiveness Scale; IRelax= Interaction Relaxation; BF= Behavioral Flexibility; InteractionM= Interaction Management; MeSk= Message Skills; IdenMan= Identity Maintenance; IRespect= Interactant Respect.

Table 4.14.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects_Job-related Questions

DV: Pos_JR1 DV: Pos_JR2 DV: Pos_JR3 Source Sig. Source Sig. Source Sig.

Pre_JR1 .000 Pre_JR2 .000 Pre_JR3 .000 Group .589 Group .135 Group .280

Note. Group= 1(Experimental), 2(Control); DV= Dependent Variable; JR= Job-related Question.

59

Table 4.15.

Estimated Marginal Means on CQ Scale

Group Experimental Group Variable Overall CQ MC CG MO BH

Item Pos_mean Adjusted

Pos_mean Pos_mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Score 112.64 112.25 24.40 24.46 30.92 30.72 29.12 29.01 28.20 28.10 Group Control Group Scale Overall CQ MC CG MO BH

Item Pos_mean Adjusted

Pos_mean Pos_mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Score 108.68 109.07 23.60 23.55 30.44 30.64 27.68 27.79 26.96 27.07

Note. CQ= Cultural Intelligence Scale; MC= Metacognitive CQ; CG= Cognitive CQ; MO= Motivational CQ; BH= Behavioral CQ.

60

Table 4.16.

Estimated Marginal Means on IE Scale

Group Experimental Group Variable Overall IE IRelax BF InteractionM MeSk IdenMan IRespect

Item Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Score 71.80 71.56 18.32 18.31 12.84 12.80 7.60 7.50 10.16 9.83 10.44 10.57 12.44 12.58 Group Control Group Scale Overall IE IRelax BF InteractionM MeSk IdenMan IRespect

Item Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_ mean

Adjusted Pos_mean

Score 68.04 68.29 17.76 17.78 12.40 12.44 7.32 7.42 8.20 8.53 9.84 9.71 12.52 12.38

Note. IE= Intercultural Effectiveness Scale; IRelax= Interaction Relaxation; BF= Behavioral Flexibility; InteractionM= Interaction Management; MeSk=

Message Skills; IdenMan= Identity Maintenance; IRespect= Interactant Respect.

61

Table 4.17.

Estimated Marginal Means on Job-related Questions

Group Experimental Group Variable JR1 JR2 JR3

Item Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Score 4.24 4.18 4.00 4.03 3.92 3.93 Group Control Group Scale JR1 JR2 JR3

Item Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Pos_mean Adjusted Pos_mean

Score 4.04 4.10 3.76 3.73 3.76 3.75

Note. JR= Job-related Question.

62

Paired T-test

A total of 25 TaiwanICDF program managers finished the training program and

pre- & post-survey as well. Based on the needs assessment, the training program aimed

at enhancing their CQ, especially in cognitive awareness (noticing cultural differences)

and behavior (improving communication efficacy) dimensions. Paired T-test in SPSS

is utilized to analyze the data. The post-survey result indicated that all the scores

increased. Moreover, the result showed that the difference between pre- and post-survey

was significant on one of CQ’s sub-dimension: behavioral (Table 4.18.). As the training

course particularly focused on cognitive awareness and behavior, the score in the

second dimension increased as expected.

Table 4.18.

Experimental Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey on CQ

Item

Paired Differences

t Sig.

Mean

Pretest Posttest Difference SD

CQ1 – CQ2 107.44 112.64 5.20 13.61 -1.910 .068

CQ_MC1 – MC2 23.32 24.40 1.08 3.23 -1.674 .107

CQ_CG1 – CG2 30.08 30.92 0.84 6.82 -.616 .544

CQ_MO1 – MO2 27.72 29.12 1.40 3.88 -1.802 .084

CQ_BH1 – BH2 26.32 28.20 1.88 3.19 -2.944 .007

Note. N= 25. CQ= Cultural Intelligence Scale; MC= Metacognitive CQ; CG= Cognitive

CQ; MO= Motivational CQ; BH= Behavioral CQ.

The intercultural effectiveness of the participants is also examined from the pre-

and post-survey. The post-survey result indicated that all the scores increased, and the

scores on overall IE and four of IE’s sub-dimensions: interaction relaxation, message

skills, identity maintenance and interactant respect are significant (Table 4.19.). As the

63

training course particularly focused on improving communication efficacy, the score

increased as expected.

Table 4.19.

Experimental Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey on IE

Item

Paired Differences

t Sig.

Mean

Pretest Posttest Difference SD IE1–IE2 67.40 71.80 4.40 5.68 -3.874 .001

IE_IRelax1–Irelax2 16.84 18.32 1.48 2.55 -2.900 .008

IE_BF1–BF2 12.60 12.84 0.24 1.99 -0.605 .551

IE_InteractionM1–InteractionM2 7.08 7.60 0.52 1.36 -1.915 .067

IE_MeSk1–MeSk2 9.16 10.16 1.00 1.71 -2.928 .007

IE_IdenMan1–IdenMan2 9.84 10.44 0.60 1.38 -2.167 .040

IE_IRespect1–IRespect2 11.88 12.44 0.56 1.08 -2.585 .016

Note. N= 25. IE= Intercultural Effectiveness Scale; IRelax= Interaction Relaxation;

BF= Behavioral Flexibility; InteractionM= Interaction Management; MeSk= Message

Skills; IdenMan= Identity Maintenance; IRespect= Interactant Respect.

In addition, we added the additional job-related questions for evaluating the

effectiveness of this customized workplace training program. All scores from the post-

survey increased (Table 4.20.), especially the difference was significant in JR2 (I am

able to analyze the causes of difficulties of intercultural communication), JR3 (I am

able to use strategies to improve the efficacy of intercultural communication), JR4 (I

can manage the situation and strategy of communicating with foreign students) and JR6

(I can manage the situation and strategy of communicating with embassies). It indicated

that the training program meets the needs of the participants, particularly on

intercultural communication.

64

Table 4.20.

Experimental Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey on Job-related

Questions

Item

Paired Differences

t Sig.

Mean

Pretest Posttest Difference SD

JR1_1 - 2 4.16 4.24 0.08 0.57 -0.700 .491

JR2_1 - 2 3.40 4.00 0.60 0.96 -3.133 .005

JR3_1 - 2 3.52 3.92 0.40 0.82 -2.449 .022

JR4_1 - 2 3.80 4.08 0.28 0.68 -2.064 .050

JR5_1 - 2 3.84 4.08 0.24 0.97 -1.238 .228

JR6_1 - 2 3.24 3.64 0.40 0.91 -2.191 .038

Note. N= 25. JR= Job-related Question.

A total of 25 employees in organizations finished the online training program and

pre- & post-survey as well. A total 64% of the participants are employees in universities

and TaiwanICDF, with similar job content to the experimental group. Therefore, the

same content of training is applied to the control group. The post-survey result indicated

that all the scores increased. However, the result showed that the difference between

pre- and post-survey was not significant in overall CQ and any of CQ’s sub-dimensions

(Table 4.21.).

65

Table 4.21.

Control Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey on CQ

Item

Paired Differences

t Sig.

Mean

Pretest Posttest Difference SD

CQ1 – CQ2 106.36 108.68 2.32 10.01 -1.159 .258

CQ_MC1 – MC2 23.52 23.60 0.08 2.83 -0.141 .889

CQ_CG1 – CG2 29.36 30.44 1.08 3.99 -1.354 .188

CQ_MO1 – MO2 27.40 27.68 0.28 3.20 -0.438 .665

CQ_BH1 – BH2 26.08 26.96 0.88 3.35 -1.315 .201

Note. N= 25. CQ= Cultural Intelligence Scale; MC= Metacognitive CQ; CG=

Cognitive CQ; MO= Motivational CQ; BH= Behavioral CQ.

The intercultural effectiveness is also examined from the pre- and post-survey on

control group. The post-survey result indicated that the scores are significant only in

two of IE’s sub-dimensions: interaction relaxation and interaction management (Table

4.22.). Yet, two sub-dimensions (message skills and identity maintenance) are slightly

decreased after the participants taking the online training.

66

Table 4.22.

Control Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey on IE

Item

Paired Differences

t Sig.

Mean

Pretest Posttest Difference SD IE1–IE2 66.80 68.04 1.24 5.15 -1.204 .240

IE_IRelax1–Irelax2 16.80 17.76 0.96 1.37 -3.507 .002

IE_BF1–BF2 12.40 12.40 0.00 2.57 0 1

IE_InteractionM1–InteractionM2 6.76 7.32 0.56 1.16 -2.419 .024

IE_MeSk1–MeSk2 8.24 8.20 -0.04 1.72 0.116 .908

IE_IdenMan1–IdenMan2 10.24 9.84 -0.40 1.29 1.549 .134

IE_IRespect1–IRespect2 12.36 12.52 0.16 1.25 -0.641 .527

Note. N= 25. IE= Intercultural Effectiveness Scale; IRelax= Interaction Relaxation; BF=

Behavioral Flexibility; InteractionM= Interaction Management; MeSk= Message Skills;

IdenMan= Identity Maintenance; IRespect= Interactant Respect.

Considering not all the participants in control group are working in universities.

About 36% of the participants have different job content, so there are only three job-

related questions remained in the questionnaire. In Table 4.23., all scores from the post-

survey result increased but not significant. Three job-related questions are as following:

JR1. I understand the aspects of the culture difference.

JR2. I am able to analyze the causes of difficulties of intercultural communication

JR3. I am able to use strategies to improve the efficacy of intercultural communication

67

Table 4.23.

Control Group: Quasi- Experiment Result of Pre- and Post-survey on Job-related

Questions 1~3

Item

Paired Differences

t Sig.

Mean

Pretest Posttest Difference SD

JR1_1 - 2 4.00 4.04 0.04 0.12 -0.327 .746

JR2_1 - 2 3.52 3.76 0.24 0.15 -1.659 .110

JR3_1 - 2 3.56 3.76 0.20 0.10 -2.000 .057

Note. N= 25. JR= Job-related Question.

Summary and Discussion

The ANCOVA analysis performed in this study found that the variances across

groups were not significantly different except JR3 (p=.008). Besides, the tests of

between-subjects effects table results showed a significant effect for all variables’ pre-

survey (p=.000) which indicated that it is necessary to check up the adjusted means

from controlling for the covariate “pre-survey.”

Though the tests results presented a significant effect for group (p=.033) on one

variable of overall IE. This might attributed to the participants of experimental group

were from same organization and were required the same communication techniques

on same job tasks; the control group were from different organization and were utilized

different communication techniques on different job tasks. Instead of the significant

result on overall IE, the results showed not much effect from group difference

(experimental and control groups, p=.135~.952) on the rest variables (CQ and job-

related questions). Group difference presented a small effect on the results; it may

attributed to the small sample size (25 people in each group) and the limitation of

68

training hour (4.5 hours for experimental group, 2 hours for control group). However,

the estimated marginal means showed higher adjusted means for experimental group.

From these adjusted means, it is clear that experimental group performed better than

control group after considering the effect of pre-survey.

Paired T-test results also indicated that experimental group performed better CQ

particularly in behavioral CQ after taking the designed training program. The post-

survey result of IE presented larger difference in overall IE as well as the four sub-

dimensions. Regarding to the job-related questions, the participants of experimental

group performed better in analyzing the causes of difficulties of intercultural

communication, using strategies to improve the efficacy of intercultural communication,

and managing the situations and strategies of communication with foreign students and

embassies.

On the other hand, the CQ scores were increased but not significant on the control

group after taking the online training program. The scores of IE from post-survey were

increased, and the scores were significant in interaction relaxation and interaction

management. However, the scores of message skills and identity maintenance were

decreased in the post-survey result. In addition, control group performed slightly better

on the three job-related questions in the post-survey.

Since the training was targeting on cognitive awareness and behavior, the results

from experimental group reflected that after taking the training, participants had better

ability to carry out appropriate reactions in intercultural settings (behavioral CQ) (Ang

et al., 2006); they are less stressed, especially with good approachability, openness, and

overall comfort level while conversing during the interactions (Interaction Relaxation)

(Portalla & Chen, 2010). Due to the collected data resulting in low Cronbach alpha

69

values on 4 sub-dimensions of IE: Behavioral Flexibility, Message Skills, Identity

Maintenance and Interactant Respect, the scores of these dimensions were excluded in

the discussion. From the control group, the results reported that the participants also

feel less stressed when interacting with others (Interaction Relaxation); they have better

ability to express ideas and answer questions during the interaction (Interaction

Management) (Portalla & Chen, 2010) after taking the online training.

The result resonated with the experiential learning theory (ELT) mentioned in the

literature review. Kolb (1984), “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created

through the transformation of experience” (p.38). As ELT was purposely embedded in

the training for experimental group, the identified cultural incidents from program

managers were concrete experiences in the first stage of ELT. The researcher in this

study played as a facilitator in the training process. The first training provided cultural

knowledge and theoretical background as a linkage to previous experiences. The second

training demonstrated intercultural scenarios for participants to observe and being able

to reflect to previous learnt concepts. Lastly, in the third training, more reflections and

experiences were discussed. Another observation from work and feedbacks were

provided from participants’ supervisors in universities. Then the training was concluded

with more reflections from the training facilitator, therefore, the circle of ELT was

formed:

Reflection 1: Communications are initiated from individuals, therefore,

intercultural is no longer limited between countries or cultures. Interactions between

individuals are derived from the differences of each other and will result differently.

Reflection 2: The key of intercultural competency lies in “being aware.” The

intercultural competency is increased while people being aware of how culture influents

70

values, decision-makings and behaviors, and learning how to manage feelings then to

adjust behaviors.

Comparing with the training for experimental group, the online training for control

group didn’t contribute to a better result in the post-survey. The overall scores were

increased in a small level. Same cultural knowledge, theoretical background and

intercultural scenarios were provided online without embedding ELT. And the role of

facilitator was performed on the educational platform. Participants were able to access

the training at their convenience. In this case, less experiences were shared and

discussed as people only showed up online randomly.

71

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

There are four parts in this chapter, including conclusion, limitations,

recommendations for practitioners and recommendations for future research. Details

are addressed in following.

Conclusion

Most of the current intercultural training programs are planed with surface

knowledge, such as history, customs and taboos of a specific culture. This study

developed a training program and embedded with experiential learning theory which

not only provided knowledge but also created a learning cycle for participants. The

designed training tried to increase participants’ ability on being aware of cultural

differences and with a mindset in making proper responses to new situations.

Furthermore, differed from many researches on intercultural trainings, this study

recruited employees in multicultural workplaces instead of the student population as

training subjects, the result helped to enhance more empirical evidence on workplaces.

This research aims at developing intercultural training program which is

applicable at multicultural workplace. Literatures regarding to intercultural competence

development, employees in multicultural workplace and training program development

were reviewed to provide theoretical background for this study. To obtain insightful

information, the critical incident technique (CIT) and experiential learning theory (ELT)

were employed in developing the training program. A quasi-experimental design was

applied to examine the effectiveness of the designed training program. Furthermore, the

results of this research echoed with ELT. Participants perform better when learning

through the transformation of experience, also learn more when the transformation

72

further creates knowledge.

The results of this research highlight some important points. Needs assessment is

an essential step for developing intercultural training program for employees in

multicultural workplace. The employees have different experiences on intercultural

interactions, needs assessment not only help the instructor to have a clear picture of the

participants but also enable to utilize the identified cultural incidents as training

materials. Furthermore, the structure and content of the training in this research

response the training needs of the participants. The training was designed according to

the needs and applied ELT into the structure, it contributed to a significant outcome on

the experimental group. The post-surveys of experimental and control groups present

the difference between two interventions.

Finally, the results regarding intercultural training program development

contribute to the future researcher on enhancing employees’ intercultural competency.

This research added to the current literatures related to training program development

in multicultural workplace and provide some empirical base for future study on this

field.

Research Limitations

There are three limitations presented in this research. First of all, the quasi-

experimental design was conducted in this study, participants were required to pay extra

efforts apart from work and go through the pre-survey, intercultural training program,

and post-survey. Comparing with the one-time survey design, such a long time frame

creates a potential risk of losing participants during the study process. Besides, the

longer time frame may also bring multiple confounding variables during

implementation of the intercultural training program. Therefore, to reduce the potential

73

confounding effect, the design of control group along with the experimental group was

applied. It allows the researcher to compare the effectiveness of the training program

between the experimental group and control group and helps to enhance research

validity.

Secondly, the sample size is small due to the first limitation. Most of the

participants are working in universities, which the work environment is considered

different to employees working in other industries. Therefore, the results might not be

applicable for others working in different industries. In addition, it is difficult to

approach people voluntarily and randomly participating such research with long time

frame. Particularly, the targeted participants are employees; the risk of losing

participants becomes a big concern while conducting the training program.

Furthermore, the Cronbach alpha values on 4 sub-dimensions of IE are low. This

might attributed to the small sample size and reverse question design in the IE scale.

According to Sonderen, Sanderman and Coyne (2013), there is a potential risk using

reverse wording in preventing response bias. However, among the 20-item scale, there

are 9 reversing items. Although the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of this IE

scale was 0.85, this research presented low values in some sub-dimensions due to the

limitations.

Recommendations for Practitioners

There are some suggestions for practitioners regarding to training program

development. For organization managers, it is important to understand what the

participants already have and what is missing, thus the instructor will be able to design

an effective training according to the training needs without wasting resources.

Therefore, needs assessment should be take into account to have a clear picture of

74

current situation and abilities of the targeted participants when planning a training

program.

As the training program for experimental group resulting a significant difference

in the post-survey, experimental learning theory played an important role during the

process. This study is an example for training designers. Utilizing ELT when

developing a training program could contribute to better training outcomes since

experiences from employees are good assets to training designers. Moreover, such data

are convenient for training designers to reach from the targeted groups. Yet the designed

training program performed an overall positive result, still didn’t reach significance on

every variables. This may attributed from the high level of prior knowledge from the

participants. Training designers may consider to take tenure as an indicator for grouping.

Therefore, the training outcomes could be better distinguished and compared.

Furthermore, for employees when participating such trainings, learning to make

use of past experiences is important. The previous experiences could be a database for

individuals to better catch up current situations and the training contents. Besides, it

encourages reflections during experience sharing. Therefore, individuals not only

create a learning cycle but also improve the effectiveness of learning.

Suggestions for Future Research

As the limitations mentioned previously, experimental design requires longer

participation, which increases the risk of losing samples; therefore, future research is

suggested to increase the number of participants, so that the reliability may be presented

differently. Besides, when Portalla and Chen first developed the 20-item IE scale in

2010, the participants are college students and the process was conducted in English.

Considering the characters and cultural background of students are different from

75

employees, the 20-item version of IE scale may not fully applicable to others. Overall,

IE scale maybe done a good result under certain situations, future studies are

recommended to add a pilot test to develop a new version which is suitable for further

research, or look for other tools could better evaluate the performance according to the

research design.

76

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82

APPENDIX A: NEEDS ASSESSMENT SURVEY

國合會駐校經理跨文化互動問卷調查

親愛的駐校經理，您好：

感謝您填寫本問卷。本問卷主要是在瞭解您個人在進行跨文化互動的情形。您

的填答將協助未來發展跨文化能力的訓練。

本問卷的內容共包含兩部分：第一部分為基本資料、第二部分是簡答題，請您

分享一個在跨文化互動中對你重要的事件/或難忘的事件。請依自身實際經驗依

序填答。

謝謝您熱心的參與及協助。祝 順心如意！

國立台灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所

研究生：周奕伶 敬啟

中華民國 105 年 12 月

第一部分：基本資料

1. 服務學校： 2. 服務系所：

3. 性別： 男 女 4. 出生年：

5. 擔任駐校經理職位多久? 年 個月

6. 我曾與來自不同國家的外籍人士互動，例如上課、工作、交友等。

有 沒有 7. 是否曾經出國？ 是(請續答 8~9 題) 否，未曾出國

8. 去過哪些國家？

9. 出國的目的？(可複選)

短期觀光 (2 週以內) 次數：

中長期旅遊 (2 週以上) 次數：

83

留/遊學/交換學生 次數： 共多久：

出國打工 次數： 共多久：

其他，請說明

第二部分：跨文化互動的重要事件

請您回想自己執行駐校經理任務時與外籍生的互動經驗，選擇一個曾經發生過

且對您重要的事件(或者印象深刻的事件)加以描述。

（一） 事件背景

時間、地點、有哪些人物？

（二） 發生了什麼事？ 有什麼問題？

（三） 您的反應是什麼？ 或採取了什麼行動？

（四） 結果如何呢？

（五） 您學到什麼？

（六） 您認為執行駐校經理任務時，所面臨的最大難題或挑戰是什麼?為什

麼?

《問卷結束，感謝您的填答!》

84

APPENDIX B: PRE-& POST-SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

跨文化互動與溝通問卷調查

親愛的駐校經理，您好：

感謝您填寫本問卷。本問卷主要是在瞭解您個人在進行跨文化互動與溝通的情

形。您的填答將協助未來發展跨文化能力的分析與訓練。

本問卷的內容共包含三部分：第一部分為基本資料、第二部分是文化互動行為

的量表、第三部分是文化溝通行為的量表。請依自身實際經驗依序填答。

謝謝您熱心的參與及協助。祝 順心如意！

國立台灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所

研究生：周奕伶 敬啟

中華民國 105 年 12 月

第一部分：基本資料

10. 姓名： 11. 性別： 男 女

12. 服務學校： 13. 服務系所：

14. 擔任駐校經理職位多久? 年 個月

85

第二部分：文化互動量表

閱讀每個陳述，選擇最能描述您的狀況。請選擇最能真實的描述您的回答(1=非常不同意；7=非常同意)。

題目 非常

不同意

中等

不同意

稍微

不同意 中立

稍微

同意

中等

同意

非常

同意 1. 與不同文化人群互動時，我

會意識到我所運用的文化知

識。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. 與來自陌生文化背景的人互

動時，我會調整我的文化知

識。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. 我會意識到自己在跨文化互

動時所運用的文化知識。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. 與不同文化人群互動時，我

會檢視自身文化知識的正確

性。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. 我了解其他文化的政治經濟

制度。(請就你所知道的文

化，衡量其平均程度) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. 我了解其他語言的用法

(如，字彙、文法)。

(請就你所知道的語言，衡

量其平均程度)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. 我了解其他文化的文化價值

與宗教信仰。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. 我了解其他文化的婚姻制

度。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9. 我了解其他文化的藝術與文

物。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10. 我了解其他文化非口語的表

達方式。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

86

11. 我享受與不同文化的人互

動。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12. 我有信心可以在陌生文化環

境中與當地人交流。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13. 我能處理適應新文化所帶來

的壓力。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

14. 我享受在陌生文化中的生

活。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15. 我有信心我能適應不同文化

中的購物習慣。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16. 為因應跨文化場合需求，我

會改變我的口語習慣(如，

口音、語調)。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

17. 我會配合不同的跨文化狀

況，適時地運用停頓與沉

默。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

18. 為因應跨文化場合的需求，

我會改變我的說話速度。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19. 為因應跨文化場合需求，我

會改變我的非口語行為。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20. 為因應跨文化互動之需求，

我會調整我的臉部表情。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

87

第三部分：文化溝通量表

閱讀每個陳述，選擇最能描述您的狀況。請選擇最能真實的描述您的回答(1=非常不同意；5=非常同意)。

題目 非常

不同意 不同意 中立 同意

非常

同意 21. 我發覺與不同文化背景人士

交談輕鬆自在。 1 2 3 4 5

22. 與不同文化背景的人交流

時，我害怕表達我的感受。 1 2 3 4 5

23. 我發覺與不同文化背景人士

相處輕鬆自在。 1 2 3 4 5

24. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我似乎不像平常的我。 1 2 3 4 5

25. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我能夠明確表達自己的

想法。 1 2 3 4 5

26. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我有一些文法方面的問

題。 1 2 3 4 5

27. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我能清楚有效地回答問

題。 1 2 3 4 5

28. 我很難找到與不同文化背景

人士的共同點，。 1 2 3 4 5

29. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我能夠恰當地使用眼神

交流。 1 2 3 4 5

30. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我對分辨一般性訊息和

說服性訊息有困難。(備註

1) 1 2 3 4 5

88

31. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我總是知道如何打開話

匣子。 1 2 3 4 5

32. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我經常錯過部分談話內

容。 1 2 3 4 5

33. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我不會緊張。 1 2 3 4 5

34. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我的行為舉止都會完全

不同。 1 2 3 4 5

35. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我會尊重對方。 1 2 3 4 5

36. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我總是和對方有距離

感。 1 2 3 4 5

37. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我發覺彼此有很多相同

點。 1 2 3 4 5

38. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我覺得最好的方法就是

做自己。 1 2 3 4 5

39. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我很容易和他們感同身

受。 1 2 3 4 5

40. 與不同文化背景人士交流

時，我會尊重他們不同的看

法。 1 2 3 4 5

41. 我了解不同文化差異的面

向。 1 2 3 4 5

42. 我能夠分析跨文化溝通障礙

的原因。 1 2 3 4 5

89

43. 我能夠運用策略促進跨文化

溝通效能。 1 2 3 4 5

44. 我能掌握與外籍生的溝通情

況與策略。 1 2 3 4 5

45. 我能掌握與校方人員的溝通

情況與策略。 1 2 3 4 5

46. 我能掌握與使館人員的溝通

情況與策略。 1 2 3 4 5

備註 1：以蛋糕來說明，一般性訊息是指蛋糕的原料、作法等客觀資訊；然而

說服性訊息是表達人的情緒感受，例如美味健康、造型特別等吸引顧客試吃或

購買的資訊。

問卷結束，感謝您的填答與參與！