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Sustainability 2010, 2, 3110-3128; doi:10.3390/su2093110
sustainability ISSN 2071-1050
www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Article
Designing a Sustainable Future through Creation of North
America’s only International Wildlife Refuge
John H. Hartig 1,*, Rebecca S. Robinson
2 and Michael A. Zarull
3
1 Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 9311 Groh Road,
Grosse Ile, MI 48138, USA 2
Sustainable Scotland Network, Wallace House, 17-21 Maxwell Place, Stirling, FK8 1JU,
Scotland, UK; E-Mail: [email protected] 3 Water Science and Technology, Environment Canada, Canada Centre for Inland Waters,
867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada;
E-Mail: [email protected]
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];
Tel.: +1-734-692-7608; Fax: +1-734-692-7603.
Received: 23 July 2010; in revised form: 9 September 2010 / Accepted: 13 September 2010 /
Published: 21 September 2010
Abstract: In 2001, the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge was established based
on the principles of conservation and sustainability. The refuge has grown from 49.1 ha
in 2001 to over 2,300 ha in 2010. Agreement on a compelling vision for a sustainable
future was necessary to rally stakeholders and move them forward together. Project
examples include: lake sturgeon and common tern restoration; soft shoreline engineering;
ecotourism; sustainable redevelopment of a brownfield; and indicator reporting. Key
success factors include: a consensus long-term vision; a multi-stakeholder process that
achieves cooperative learning; strong coupling of monitoring/research programs with
management; implementing actions consistent with adaptive management; measuring and
celebrating successes; quantifying benefits; building capacity; and developing the next
generation of sustainability practitioners and entrepreneurs.
Keywords: sustainable development; adaptive management; international wildlife refuge
OPEN ACCESS
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1. Introduction
When most people think about the Detroit, Michigan-Windsor, Ontario metropolitan area, they
think about a major urban area (i.e., nearly seven million people live in the watershed), the automobile
capitals of the United States and Canada, the industrial heartland and ―rust belt‖, ―Motown‖ music, and
professional sports, but not wildlife. Yet the Detroit River (i.e., a strait or connecting channel that links
the upper with the lower Great Lakes) and western Lake Erie are at the intersection of two major bird
flyways, host international fishing tournaments offering $1.5 million (U.S.) in prize money, and have
been recognized for their biodiversity in the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, the United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, the Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network,
and the Biodiversity Investment Area program of Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. It is precisely because of these natural resources (e.g., 23 islands found in the
Detroit River, numerous wetlands and shoals, critical stopover habitats for birds) and exceptional
biodiversity (e.g., 117 species of fish, over 300 species of birds) that the Detroit River and western
Lake Erie were designated North America’s only international wildlife refuge (i.e., Detroit River
International Wildlife Refuge; Figure 1). Not only did governments, communities, universities, and
nongovernmental organizations want to create an international wildlife refuge in this major urban area
and industrial heartland, but they wanted to ensure its sustainability. To accomplish this has required a
new approach, one that transcends existing governance obstacles to achieving common goals and
essential sustainable outcomes.
Figure 1. Map of the Detroit River and western Lake Erie.
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Since the U.N. World Commission on Environment and Development [1] defined sustainable
development as development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs, there have been considerable efforts to better
define this term at a practical and operational level, and to implement it through action. What would be
particularly helpful in furthering sustainability would be more practical examples of successful
projects and processes that are creating sustainable futures, including quantification of compelling
economic, societal, and environmental benefits. This paper describes how a sustainable future is being
pursued through the establishment and development of North America’s only international wildlife
refuge. Included are practical examples of efforts to achieve sustainability, selected results achieved
through collaborative United States-Canadian partnerships, and lessons learned for those interested in
pursuing sustainable futures elsewhere.
2. Establishing a Clear Vision, Founded on Sustainability
In 2000, then Canadian Deputy Prime Minister Herb Grey and U.S. Congressman John Dingell
(15th District of Michigan) charged a group of scientists and managers to clearly define a desired
future state for the Detroit River ecosystem. The output product of this 2000 visioning workshop was a
consensus document titled ―A Conservation Vision for the Lower Detroit River Ecosystem‖ [2]. All
U.S. and Canadian participants in that multi-stakeholder exercise agreed in 2001 to the following
vision statement:
In ten years the lower Detroit River ecosystem will be an international conservation region
where the health and diversity of wildlife and fish are sustained through protection of
existing significant habitats and rehabilitation of degraded ones, and where the resulting
ecological, recreational, economic, educational, and ―quality of life‖ benefits are
sustained for present and future generations.
This consensus vision was then used by Congressman John Dingell to introduce legislation creating
the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge (DRIWR) that was signed into law by the President of
the United States on December 21, 2001. A wildlife refuge is a geographical area where waters and
lands are set aside to conserve fish, wildlife, and plants. Canada responded by using a number of
existing Canadian laws to work in a similar fashion. All U.S. and Canadian agencies agreed with the
concept of the international wildlife refuge and pledged to work collaboratively to achieve the
conservation vision.
The United States, through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), then developed a
Comprehensive Conservation Plan for the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge with broad
stakeholder involvement, including participation from Canada [3]. This plan expanded the geographic
extent of the refuge to include western Lake Erie through the adoption of the following
vision statement:
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The Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge, including the Detroit River and western
Lake Erie basin, will be a conservation region where a clean environment fosters the
health and diversity of wildlife, fish, and plant resources through protection, creation of
new habitats, management, and restoration of natural communities and habitats on public
and private lands. Through effective management and partnering, the Refuge will provide
outstanding opportunities for ―quality of life‖ benefits such as hunting, fishing, wildlife
observation and environmental education, as well as ecological, economic, and cultural
benefits, for present and future generations.
In 2005, the USFWS established an independent nongovernmental organization (i.e., Friends Group)
called the International Wildlife Refuge Alliance to build the capacity of the refuge to work in
partnerships and to advance its goals. Specifically, the International Wildlife Refuge Alliance’s
mission is:
to support the first International Wildlife Refuge in North America by working through
partnerships to protect, conserve and manage the refuge’s wildlife and habitats, and to
create exceptional conservation, recreational and educational experiences to develop the
next generation of conservation stewards.
Through binational collaboration and partnerships an international wildlife refuge had been created.
Conservation and sustainability became driving forces for bringing stakeholders together, working in
partnerships at all levels, and moving all stakeholders forward together toward this common vision.
3. A Multi-Stakeholder Process Designed to Achieve a Sustainable Future
There is no single best approach for a successful multi-stakeholder process. Indeed, there are many
successful ones. However, most successful approaches and processes recognize uncertainties and
imperfect knowledge, integrate the environment with economic and social understanding, and practice
adaptive management through an iterative decision-making process based on trial, monitoring, and
feedback [4]. Common elements of successful processes include: stakeholder involvement; leadership;
information and interpretation; action planning within a strategic framework; human resource
development; results and indicators; review and feedback; and stakeholder satisfaction [5,6]. Figure 2
presents the general framework being followed for the international wildlife refuge. The DRIWR has
employed a multi-stakeholder process founded on the above elements, with an emphasis on
implementing projects and taking actions that make progress toward the consensus vision and a
sustainable future.
It should be noted that not all stakeholder groups immediately bought into the concept of an
international wildlife refuge founded on principles of conservation and sustainability. For example,
some communities and nongovernmental organizations were initially unfamiliar with the concept of
sustainability and had to be educated about it and its value and benefits. In contrast, communities and
organizations that participated in the 1999 National Town Meeting on Sustainable Development held
in Detroit by the President’s Council on Sustainable Development and corporations and businesses that
had adopted policy statements on sustainable development were familiar with the concept of
sustainability and quickly endorsed the refuge vision and became partners in growing the refuge.
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Important factors in DRIWR public participation included: local ownership of decision-making; well
recognized community champion (like Congressman John Dingell, Corporate Executive Peter Stroh,
and Canadian Deputy Prime Minister Herb Gray); clear roles and responsibilities; shared
responsibilities for actions; partnerships built on trust and respect (key facilitators and leaders were
well recognized individuals with established trust with the stakeholder groups); results driven; and
cooperative learning. Selected examples of refuge projects and actions are presented below.
Figure 2. An implementation framework or process being used to work collaboratively
toward a sustainable future for the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge, founded on
adaptive planning and management.
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4. Sustainable Fish and Wildlife Populations
Institutions managing the Great Lakes have long advocated for sustainable fish and wildlife
populations. The Great Lakes are among the world’s largest freshwater bodies, containing 23,000 m3
of water, covering 244,000 km2, and supporting a wide variety of habitats and flora and fauna [7]. This
unique biodiversity is threatened by human-induced stresses such as development, introduction of
exotic species, agricultural runoff, and contaminant inputs [7]. The Great Lakes Regional Collaboration
Strategy to Protect and Restore the Great Lakes identifies rivers such as the Detroit River as critically
important to the establishment of self-sustaining Great Lakes fish and wildlife populations [8].
The lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) is a remnant of the dinosaur age and considered a species
of special concern by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a threatened species in North America by the
American Fisheries Society, and a globally rare species by The Nature Conservancy. The lake sturgeon
population in Michigan is estimated to be about one percent of its former abundance [9]. The
ecological corridor between Lakes Huron and Erie was, at one time, one of the most productive waters
for lake sturgeon in North America [9].
Over the past century, the lake sturgeon population in the Detroit River has been greatly reduced by
channelization, loss of coastal wetlands, filling/armoring shorelines, water pollution, and the removal
of limestone bedrock that was spawning habitat for lake sturgeon and other native fish species [9].
In 2001, lake sturgeon reproduction was documented off Zug Island in U.S. waters of the Detroit River
for the first time in 30 years [9]. With recent improvements in water quality, scientists determined that
habitat is probably the factor most limiting lake sturgeon productivity. Subsequently, lake sturgeon
spawning habitat was created in the Detroit River off Belle Isle in Detroit, off Fort Malden in
Amherstburg, Ontario, off McKee Park in Windsor, Ontario, off Fighting Island in LaSalle, Ontario,
and in the Trenton Channel in Riverview, Michigan. The Fighting Island sturgeon reef is the first ever
fish habitat restoration project in the Great Lakes funded with both U.S. and Canadian dollars. In 2009,
scientists documented successful reproduction of lake sturgeon on the newly constructed Fighting
Island spawning reef, representing the first time in 30 years that this threatened species has
successfully reproduced in Canadian waters of the Detroit River.
Common tern (Sterna hirundo), a colonial waterbird and threatened species in Michigan, has
declined considerably in the lower Great Lakes over the last 50 years [10]. In general, this decline has
been due to human encroachment (i.e., development), predation, effects of contaminants, and the
explosive growth of ring-billed gulls on traditional common tern breeding grounds. Common tern nests
in the Detroit River have experienced a 98% decline over the last 25 years [11]. Common terns are
now found only on two bridge sites in the Trenton Channel of the Detroit River, with the number of
breeding pairs fluctuating between 100 and 300. Research and monitoring are targeted at
understanding the factors limiting common tern productivity and experimenting with habitat
restoration at two new sites (northern end of Belle Isle in Detroit and at the Rouge River Power Plant
in River Rouge, Michigan).
In both restoration examples (i.e., lake sturgeon and common terns), monitoring and research efforts
are closely coupled to management efforts, which is consistent with adaptive management of
self-sustaining populations. This coupling ultimately ensures that progress is made towards the
regional vision that ―the health and diversity of wildlife and fish are sustained through protection of
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existing significant habitats and rehabilitation of degraded ones‖ and that this vision remains the
overarching goal of management activities.
5. Sustainable Shorelines
As a result of Detroit’s early European settlement in 1701 and history of industrial manufacturing,
much of the Detroit River shoreline has been stabilized and hardened with concrete and steel to protect
developments from flooding and erosion, or to accommodate commercial navigation or industry
(i.e., hard shoreline engineering). For example, 49.9 of the 51.5 km of U.S. shoreline along the Detroit
River have been hardened with concrete and/or steel, leaving only 1.6 km of natural shoreline
remaining. This anthropogenic shoreline development has resulted in a 97% loss of coastal wetland
habitats along the Detroit River [12]. Today, there is growing interest in developing shorelines for
multiple purposes so that additional benefits can be accrued. Soft shoreline engineering is the use of
ecological principles and practices to reduce erosion and achieve the stabilization and safety of
shorelines, while enhancing wetland habitat, improving aesthetics, and even saving money [13,14].
In 1999, a group of U.S. and Canadian researchers and natural resource managers convened a
binational conference on soft shoreline engineering and developed a best management practices
manual [13] to encourage and catalyze use of soft shoreline engineering techniques. Since then, 38 soft
shoreline engineering demonstration projects have been implemented in the Detroit River-western
Lake Erie watershed [15].
These soft shoreline engineering projects were undertaken through a variety of management tools to
enhance/improve riparian or aquatic habitat, including erosion protection, protection of roads, nonpoint
source control, Supplemental Environmental Projects (i.e., a regulatory tool that implements an
environmental improvement project instead of paying fines and penalties to a general fund),
contaminated sediment remediation, improvement of parks, enhancement of private developments,
―greening‖ projects by industry, and greenway trail projects. These innovative soft shoreline
engineering projects were implemented by many public and private partners, and all have been well
received by the public. All provide ―teachable moments‖ for the value and benefits of habitat
rehabilitation and sustainable shoreline design.
Not only is use of soft shoreline engineering important to improve aquatic habitat, but it is
important from a social perspective because it helps reconnect people with the natural world. Soft
shoreline engineering can be an important element in helping create a much sought-after ―sense of
place‖ (i.e., a characteristic held by people that makes a place special or unique; that can foster a sense
of authentic human attachment and belonging) on waterfronts in major metropolitan areas. Much like
the effort to recreate front porches on houses in cities to encourage community and a ―sense of place,‖
soft engineered shorelines along waterfronts in major metropolitan areas can help recreate gathering
places for both wildlife and people. That, in turn, helps contribute to a sustainable community and
helps develop more support for watershed protection and restoration.
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6. Sustainable Recreation and Ecotourism
Detroit River and western Lake Erie have long been recognized for their natural resources and
biodiversity. For example, The Detroit River and western Lake Erie are at the intersection of
two major North American flyways—the Atlantic and Mississippi. Over 300,000 diving ducks,
75,000 shorebirds, and hundreds of thousands of landbirds and fall raptors frequent the shoreline
habitats to rest, nest, and feed. Over 30 species of waterfowl, 23 species of raptors, 31 species of
shorebirds, and 160 species of songbirds are found along or migrate through this corridor [3]. In
addition, 117 species of fish are found in or migrate through the Detroit River. This biodiversity and
the diversity of habitats to support these biota have given the region international acclaim. The Detroit
River and western Lake Erie have been recognized for their biodiversity in the North American
Waterfowl Management Plan, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, the Western
Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network, the Biodiversity Investment Area Program of Environment
Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and in recent years as North America’s only
international wildlife refuge [16].
Detroit Audubon Society and other birding groups have recorded over 300 species of birds in this
region. With many exceptional opportunities for birding in this major metropolitan area (i.e., Detroit,
Michigan-Windsor, Ontario), Metropolitan Affairs Coalition [17] and many partners developed a
unique ―Byways to Flyways‖ bird driving tour map to promote 27 exceptional birding sites throughout
the Windsor-Detroit metropolitan area (Figure 3). Included within these sites are many Important Bird
Areas (IBAs) identified by National Audubon Society, two wetlands of international significance
identified under the international Ramsar Convention (i.e., Point Pelee National Park in Ontario and
Humbug Marsh in Michigan), several Christmas Bird Count sites, and two internationally recognized
hawk migration sites. These world-class birding opportunities are available within a short driving
distance for nearly seven million people and help support a growing ecotourism industry. Indeed, the
U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S.
Census Bureau [18] have reported that in 2006, 71.1 million wildlife watchers in the U.S. spent
$45.7 billion on their wildlife watching activities around their homes and on trips away form
their homes.
In addition, Metropolitan Affairs Coalition and many partners developed a Detroit Heritage River
Water Trail that features opportunities for kayaking and canoeing (Figure 4). This unique trail was
established to both promote existing close-to-home paddle-based recreational opportunities and to plan
for future expansion of ecotourism [19]. For example, in a national survey performed by the Outdoor
Industry Foundation [20] it was reported that paddle-based recreation contributes $36.1 billion
annually to the U.S. economy.
These efforts help inform stakeholders of the rich biodiversity and natural resources in their
neighborhood and increase stakeholder involvement through ecotourism activities. This can ultimately
contribute to achieving the sustainability vision for the region through sustained economic stimulus in
communities and through an increased sense of pride and stewardship for their natural resources.
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Figure 3. Byways to Flyways bird driving tour map.
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Figure 4. Detroit Heritage River Water Trail along the Detroit River and western Lake Erie.
7. Sustainable Redevelopment of a Brownfield into a Refuge Gateway
William McDonough, an internationally renowned architect and industrial designer, has been a
strong advocate for ecologically, socially, and economically intelligent design (www.mcdonough.com).
He has long championed sustainability and has offered the following challenge:
If design is the signal of human intention, then we must continually ask ourselves—What
are our intentions for our children, for the children of all species, for all time? How do we
profitably and boldly manifest the best of those intentions?
The 17.8 ha Refuge Gateway, located on the banks of the Detroit River in Trenton, Michigan, is an
industrial brownfield that is being transformed into the planned location for the DRIWR’s Visitor
Center and its administrative headquarters. The planning, design and implementation of this
redevelopment project has been guided by McDonough’s aforementioned challenge and the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service’s call to Refuges to be leaders of sustainability, to demonstrate an awareness and
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understanding of the interdependency of the ecosystems, resources, biodiversity, and human culture
entrusted to our stewardship in order to better preserve, conserve, and protect them for
future generations.
Formerly owned by Chrysler Corporation, the Refuge Gateway was operated as an automotive
brake and paint plant facility for 44 years. The facility was closed in 1990 and remediated to State of
Michigan criteria for industrial/commercial use. In 2002, Wayne County acquired the site from
Chrysler for development as the Refuge Gateway, in partnership with the USFWS and other key
community organizations. In 2004 Wayne County and partners completed a Master Plan for the
Gateway (Figure 5), and in 2006 a Schematic Plan was developed that provided more details and
preliminary cost estimates to begin a capital campaign. Proposed public-use infrastructure for this site
includes a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Platinum Visitor Center, a boat
dock and fishing pier, a kayak landing, innovative storm water treatment wetlands and greenway trails,
as well as a grading plan that will enhance the existing remediation to meet human health and wildlife
standards, and the restoration of endemic fish and wildlife habitat.
The Humbug Marsh Unit is located immediately south of the Refuge Gateway and represents the
last 1.6 km of undeveloped shoreline along the U.S. mainland of the Detroit River. As over 97% of
coastal wetlands in the river have been lost to shoreline development, the Humbug Marsh Unit
contains critical habitat for many rare fish and wildlife species (i.e., 51 species of fish, 90 species of
plants, 154 species of birds, seven species of reptiles and amphibians, and 37 species of dragonflies
and damselflies), and is considered ―globally unique‖ and ―globally significant in biodiversity‖ by The
Nature Conservancy. The DRIWR acquired this 165.9 ha unit in 2005, narrowly avoiding a fate of
residential development and wetland infilling on the site. Since then, the first phases of development
for limited public-use have been implemented and the site has received designation as Michigan’s first
Wetland of International Significance by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands [21].
Through all phases, collaboration has played a large and important role in the development of plans
for the sustainable redevelopment of the Refuge Gateway and Humbug Marsh into a hub for
environmental education and sustainability. Literally over one hundred public, private, and nonprofit
organizations have made contributions to this effort and the Refuge was singled out as a national
leader in public-private partnerships in the 1995 White House Conference on Cooperative
Conservation [22]. Stakeholders, from a wide-range of ages and backgrounds, have been folded into
all phases of this process, including planning, design, fundraising, implementation, and stewardship.
As a result, it is hoped that a sense of ownership and pride be felt by community stakeholders, which
in turn may evolve into sustainable long-term land stewardship.
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Figure 5. Master plan rendering of the Refuge Gateway and Humbug Marsh Unit of the
Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge.
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Attempts to foster feelings of place-attachment and stewardship (which can develop from
recognition of a sense of place) have been made throughout all phases of the project through the
following strategies: (1) use of local materials to give built features a unique physical appearance that
fits well into its environment, (2) involvement of local volunteers and labor forces, (3) site-specific
design of public-use features, and (4) place-based educational activities conducted throughout all
phases of construction. Specific examples of these components are summarized below (Table 1).
Table 1. Site specific examples of strategies used to foster place-attachment and
stewardship at the Refuge Gateway and Humbug Marsh.
Strategies to foster place-attachment
and stewardship in stakeholders
Examples of strategy implemented on Humbug Marsh and the
Refuge Gateway
1. Use of local materials to give built
features a unique physical appearance
that fits well into the environment
(a) a stream crossing was made out of locally reclaimed utility poles and
milled ash trees that had been killed by the emerald ash borer
(b) accessible walking trails were constructed out of pulverized concrete
reclaimed from an abandoned road on the southern end of the Humbug
Marsh Unit
2. Involvement of local volunteers
and labor forces
(a) USFWS staff partnered with a local utility company’s lineman union
to install an 24.4 m utility pole on Humbug Island, upon which USFWS
biologists constructed an eagle nesting platform
(b) USFWS staff partnered with the U.S. Navy Seabees to work alongside a
local engineering firm, construction company, and private companies
(all volunteering their time) to design and construct trails, an environmental
education shelter, a wetland boardwalk, and a stream crossing in the
Humbug Marsh Unit
3. Site-specific design of
public-use features
(a) trails, boardwalks, learning stations, and built structures were
intentionally located on-site to both maximize the aesthetic experience
for visitors (such as views onto the wetlands or the Detroit River), while
minimizing damage to the natural environment and protecting key plant
species and sensitive habitats
(b) public-use infrastructure, such as the visitor’s center, a parking lot,
a fishing pier, and a paved greenway trail, are concentrated in the Refuge
Gateway site, a brownfield undergoing redevelopment, and are designed
to maximize education and sustainability
4. Place-based educational
activities conducted throughout all
construction phases
(a) a college-level lecture series was developed that included in-class
discussions on the local ecological recovery of the Detroit River and
fundamentals of the storm water infiltration wetlands constructed on the
Refuge Gateway, as well as an on-site component that provided first-hand
observation of the storm water wetlands and hands-on installation of native
shrubs and trees on the uplands of the project area
(b) middle school students from Detroit participated in a two-part
educational activity (i.e., in-class and on-site) to learn about local wildlife
as inspiration for design, as part of a program in which students redesign
their schoolyards
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By showcasing the unique attributes of the Refuge Gateway and Humbug Marsh through
environmentally sensitive and place-based design, involvement of stakeholders, and sustainable
redevelopment, it is hoped that an attachment to place, a sense of stewardship towards the land,
and an appreciation for nearby nature will be cultivated. These developments can ultimately
lead to a sustainable land ethic and help develop the next generation of conservationists and
sustainability entrepreneurs.
8. Indicator Reporting
Implicit within the concept of sustainability is the measurement of status and trends toward social,
economic, and environmental health. Indicator reporting is an important element in the
multi-stakeholder process. It allows all stakeholders to assess status, evaluate trends, and set priorities
together in a process designed for continuous improvement toward a sustainability vision. Indicator
reporting is critical because it helps ensure cooperative learning and helps guide cooperative
decision-making.
Because the Detroit River and western Lake Erie have a long history and because they are part of a
major urban and industrial area (i.e., automobiles, steel, and chemical industries) with major historical
pollution problems (i.e., oil pollution in the 1940s and 1950s; eutrophication and phosphorus pollution
in the 1960s and 1970s; toxic substances contamination beginning in the 1970s), there has been
considerable public awareness that has resulted in substantial pollution prevention and control efforts,
and the establishment of many governmental, university, and nongovernmental monitoring programs.
Collectively, these monitoring programs have documented substantial environmental improvements
since the 1960s [23,24], including:
over a 97% reduction in oil releases;
a 90% decrease in phosphorus discharges;
a 4,600 tons/day decrease in chloride discharges;
a substantial improvement in municipal wastewater treatment by upgrading all plants from
primary treatment to secondary treatment with phosphorus removal;
a 65% reduction in untreated waste from combined sewer overflow discharges;
an 85% reduction in mercury in fish;
a 90% reduction in PCBs in herring gull eggs; and
the remediation of one million cubic yards of contaminated sediment at a cost of over
$154 million.
The combined effect of these environmental improvements over the last nearly 40 years has been a
surprising ecological recovery of this region, including an increase in the populations of sentinel
indicator species like bald eagles, peregrine falcons, osprey, lake sturgeon, lake whitefish, walleye, and
burrowing mayflies in large areas from which they had been extirpated or negatively impacted [23,24].
This ecological recovery is remarkable, but the long-standing monitoring and surveillance programs in
this corridor also document many environmental and natural resource challenges. The six most
pressing challenges identified [23,24] include: population growth, transportation expansion, and land
use changes; nonpoint source pollution; toxic substances contamination; habitat loss and degradation;
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introduction of exotic species; and greenhouse gases and global warming. Further, there is concern that
continued urban growth will intensify the challenges identified above and eventually result in
further deterioration.
Clearly, more needs to be done to fully realize long-term goals of restoring and sustaining the
physical, chemical, and biological integrity of the Detroit River and western Lake Erie. However, the
progress achieved to date, the informed, engaged, and vocal stakeholders and nongovernmental
organizations involved, and the community pride of these watersheds bodes well for further
improvement and recovery. However, scientists are worried about societal complacency. The 1960s
were clearly a ―tipping point‖ when there was an urgent need to take action and when, if nothing was
done, society would see irreversible damage or harm to our ecosystems. The region cannot afford to
reach another ―tipping point.‖ Stakeholders need to make sure that they do not grow complacent, that
research and monitoring programs are sustained and closely coupled with management efforts (in the
spirit of adaptive management that assesses, sets priorities, and takes action in an iterative fashion for
continuous improvement), and that the resulting scientific information and knowledge are translated
for decision-makers and laypersons, and are broadly disseminated. Stakeholders need to continue to
remediate and restore these ecosystems using all available tools and techniques. Looking ahead,
greater emphasis needs to be placed on sustainable design so that all things manufactured can be
designed at the outset with the intension of being recycled. All stakeholders groups need to: invest in
capacity building; help sustain and indeed grow nongovernmental organizations; and place a higher
priority on education to help develop the next generation of environmentalists, conservationists, and
sustainability entrepreneurs.
9. Education, Cooperative Learning, and Stewardship
Education is critical to long-term change in the way people understand and value local and global
ecosystems. Further, education is essential to fostering a stewardship ethic and a sense of responsibility
for local ecosystems.
Throughout the multi-stakeholder process employed to develop and build the DRIWR, a high
priority has been placed on cooperative learning at every step of the process. Cooperative learning is
common learning that involves stakeholders working in teams to accomplish a common goal, under
conditions that involve positive interdependence (i.e., all stakeholders cooperate to complete a task)
and individual and group accountability (i.e., each stakeholder is accountable for the complete final
outcome) [25].
Ecosystem-based and sustainability education is also fostered through educational programs in local
school systems and through educational and outreach activities held at the refuge to help develop the
next generation of sustainability entrepreneurs and leaders. In addition, a United States-Canada State
of the Strait Conference is held every two years and attracts hundreds of stakeholders. This biennial
State of the Strait Conference brings together government managers, researchers, students,
environmental and conservation organizations, corporations, and concerned citizens to assess
ecosystem status and to provide recommendations to improve research, monitoring, and management
programs for the Detroit River and western Lake Erie (www.StateoftheStrait.org).
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10. Sustainable Refuge Growth
The long-term refuge goal is to protect and rehabilitate sufficient habitat to achieve a healthy
ecosystem that sustains desired fish and wildlife populations. The short-term approach being taken is
to protect the remaining relatively healthy headwaters, biotic refugia (i.e., areas with undisturbed
healthy habitats that serve as refuges for biodiversity), riparian areas, floodplains, and smaller intact
river habitats throughout the ecosystem. After protection of these healthy habitats is complete, efforts
are being made to rehabilitate the areas between them to link these healthy portions together.
The refuge was established in 2001 with 49.1 ha. Since then it has grown to over 2,306.7 ha on
the U.S. side through a variety of mechanisms, including federal purchase of lands, donations
(e.g., National Steel Corporation donated Mud Island and adjacent shoals to the refuge), and
cooperative management agreements. Cooperative management agreements have proven to be
particularly useful in a major urban area where undeveloped land is limited and property values are
high. USFWS and property owners have entered into voluntary agreements to cooperatively manage
high quality habitats on private property for wildlife purposes for a period of 50 years. Good examples
include cooperative management agreements with: DTE Energy for management of 265.5 ha at a
power plant in Monroe County; Consumers Energy for management of 19.7 ha at a power plant in
Monroe County; University of Toledo for management of the 7.7 ha Gard Island in western Lake Erie;
and Huron Clinton Metropolitan Authority for management of 315.7 ha at Lake Erie Metropark in
Wayne County.
11. Lessons Learned
Based on a review and evaluation of U.S.-Canada efforts to establish and build an international
wildlife refuge in a major urban-industrial area (i.e., Detroit, Michigan and Windsor, Ontario) over the
last ten years, the following key lessons are provided to others interested in using a multi-stakeholder
process to design and help achieve a sustainable future:
broad-based agreement is needed on a long-term sustainability vision founded on a sense of
place (i.e., a characteristic held by people that makes a place special or unique and that fosters a
sense of authentic human attachment and belonging);
a commitment to a multi-stakeholder process to achieve the vision and to ensure cooperative
learning is critical;
use of an adaptive management process that assesses problems and opportunities, sets priorities,
and takes actions in an iterative fashion for continuous improvement [6] is essential;
a strong coupling of monitoring/research programs with management can result in more
cost- and ecosystem effective actions;
measuring and celebrating successes throughout the process is necessary to sustain momentum
of a multi-stakeholder process;
quantifying benefits and manifesting them can attract new partners and help retain
existing ones;
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a commitment to capacity building is required that employs a combination of human elements
and strategies (e.g., empowerment, long-term vision driven for a sustainable future, shared
decision-making), tools and techniques (e.g., design for sustainability, pollution prevention,
remediation of contaminated sediments and brownfields), and management support systems
(e.g., ecosystem performance measures, geographical information systems, science translation,
information sharing) [26]; and
a high priority must be placed on educating and developing the next generation of sustainability
practitioners and entrepreneurs.
Acknowledgements
This manuscript would not be possible without the involvement and support of many refuge
partners. We gratefully acknowledge their important work that laid the foundation for this manuscript.
The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent
the views of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
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