DescriptiveResearch

Observation:

Can you see the behavior?

Is it a sensitive topic?

Do you have a lot of time?

Do you know what you are looking for?

Natural Observation

No intervention- behavior as it normally occurs

useful for external validity or if ethical concerns about manipulation

e.g book carrying exampleType 1 - 1 or both arms around books short edges on hipType 11- one arm at side long edges horizontal to the ground

82% type 1 female 3% male96% type 11 male 16% female

Observation with intervention

- may cause an event that is rare or normally hard to see- investigate the change in response with stimulus- establish link between antecedent and consequent behaviors- manipulate independent variable.

EgSimon and Levin - change blindnessCrusco & Wetzel - waitress touch and tip

Participant Observation

- disguised or undisguised- takes part in the behavior and reports on it(journalist and anthropology)

eg Rosenhan - sane in insane placesFestinger - cognitive dissonance

Problems

-observer can lose objectivity because they are part of the event

-subject reactivity if known observation (eg stop sign observation)

- subject demand characteristics

- participating may change the event and the outcomes for others

- natural hazards for field work

Bias always a possibility

- observe what you want & fulfill expectationseg stop observing when nothing happens so over-report activity

- may change criteria with time

- boredom or fatigue impact

- delay in transcribing may not be exact record

Solutions

Unobtrusive or disguised observation - or trace information

Habituation to group helps reactivity

‘Blind’ scoring helps bias

Short sessions helps fatigue

Structured Observation

Situation is set up and then participants enter more controlled environment-often clinical or developmental lab setting one way mirror videos. Eg Piaget

Field Experiments

Manipulate IV in natural settingeg leopard and chimp

Record what??

Goal is to describe behavior as fully and accurately as possible

Need to use samples of behavior - cannot record everything.

Typically use 1) checklist of predetermined behaviors (eg Bobo)2) qualitative narrative3) quantitative event counts ratings.

Time Sampling

Choose time intervals to record behavior - systematic, random or both

eg observe children in 2 hours in morning class may not generalize to whole day so 4 sessions of 30 minutes spread across day better

or 30 minutes randomly chosen

Event Sampling

If event infrequent or long then time sampling not good -could miss all or part of behavior

So record how often predetermined behavior occurs

eg response to unpredictable eventscannot know when they will occur so timing will miss

eg newcomer to class

Situation Sampling

To improve external validity observe in different locations, conditions etc

eg animals in captivity or wildchildren at home or school

Subject Sampling

If there are many subjects may need to select some for observation

Observer Reliability

use more than one observer and check inter-observer reliability - correlation

Improves with clear definitions and training

% time agreement == 100 * number of agreement/ number of opportunities

Quantitative Measures

Typically nominal scale (categories counted)eg book carrying example

Rating common

Interval and ratio less common personal space duration

Survey research

Mail survey- quick efficient convenient- no response bias a problem (60% + response acceptable 30% typical)- participants answer in any order

Written questionnaires generally need to be self-explanatory and short

Written Questionnaire

- simple questions best- be specific- no double questions (eg have you experienced headache and nausea in last week?)- no double negatives ( if you have not had no headaches in last week….)- no ambiguous questions- no leading questions- short- readable- order can matter general to specific is usually best

Often rank scaleLikert scale 1-7

Specific categories best Do you get headaches frequently rarely etc…

better choice headaches 0-1 2-3 3-4 times a week

people may define terms like rare or often differently

Interviews

More open ended complex questions and follow up questions possibleOrder of questions controlled

phone - relatively easy but no-response bias and selection problems (unlisted numbers etc)

in person- very time consuming and expensiveProblems recording bias and leading questions

Designs

Cross sectional designone or more samples drawn at same time

Independent samples successive same survey different timeseg presidential approval rating

Longitudinalsame respondents surveyed over timehuge effort to track people