AFFIRMING PSYCHOLOGY IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

by

Mary Schaerer

MINOR DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree

Magister Commercii

in

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

in the

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Fred Guest

Co-supervisor: Professor Leon van Vuuren

December 2011

ii

AFFIDAVIT This serves to confirm that I_______________________________________________________ (Full Name(s) and Surname ID Number____________________________________________________________________ Student number____________________________________________________ enrolled for the Qualification___________________________________________________________________ Faculty _______________________________________________________________________ Herewith declare that my academic work is in line with the Plagiarism Policy of the University of Johannesburg which I am familiar with. I further declare that the work presented in the ___________________________ (minor dissertation/dissertation/thesis) is authentic and original unless clearly indicated otherwise and in such instances full reference to the source is acknowledged and I do not pretend to receive any credit for such acknowledged quotations, and that there is no copyright infringement in my work. I declare that no unethical research practices were used or material gained through dishonesty. I understand that plagiarism is a serious offence and that should I contravene the Plagiarism Policy notwithstanding signing this affidavit, I may be found guilty of a serious criminal offence (perjury) that would amongst other consequences compel the UJ to inform all other tertiary institutions of the offence and to issue a corresponding certificate of reprehensible academic conduct to whomever requests such a certificate from the institution. Signed at _____________________on this ______________day of _______________ 20___. Signature__________________________________ Print name_________________________ STAMP COMMISSIONER OF OATHS Affidavit certified by a Commissioner of Oaths This affidavit conforms with the requirements of the JUSTICES OF THE PEACE AND COMMISSIONERS OF OATHS ACT 16 OF 1963 and the applicable Regulations published in the GG GNR 1258 of 21 July 1972; GN 903 of 10 July 1998; GN 109 of 2 February 2001 as amended.

iii

ABSTRACT

Industrial psychology is an applied sub-discipline of psychology, and industrial psychologists

are trained to be behavioural specialists in the workplace. As such, industrial psychologists

approach workplace problems or enhance organisational functioning from a behavioural

perspective. Industrial psychologists also function as human resource management

practitioners within organisations. An investigation was conducted to determine how

behavioural science could ideally be applied by industrial psychologists in the human

resource management domains. The importance of investigating this research question was

to enable or enhance the practise of industrial psychologists when functioning in the human

resource management domains. The aim of this study was to create a socially constructed

futuristic framework that could inform industrial psychologists on how they could practically

apply psychology in human resource management. A qualitative approach was utilised to

explore the research question. Industrial psychologists (21) that function in the realm of

human resource management were involved as participants through personal semi-structured

in-depth interviews and focus groups to provide an informed perspective on the behavioural

scientific role of psychologists in the human resource management domains. The main

contribution of this study is that industrial psychologists may be better able to position

themselves in order to embed behavioural science in the human resource management

domains. The implications of the findings are discussed.

Keywords: industrial psychology, human resource management, behavioural science

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

AFFIDAVIT…………………………………………………………………………………...ii

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………..iii

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………ix

LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………....x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background to the research problem ................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem formulation ............................................................................................................ 3

1.3 Aim of the study................................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Potential contribution of the study ....................................................................................... 4

1.5 Research design overview .................................................................................................... 5

1.6 Integration and preview of contents ..................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER TWO: CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE ON INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS

FUNCTIONING IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT DOMAINS ........................... 8

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 8

2.2 Psychology as a profession .................................................................................................. 9

2.3 Industrial psychology as a profession ................................................................................ 10

2.4 Scientist-practitioner model ............................................................................................... 11

2.5 The role of the Board for Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South Africa

in the profession of industrial psychology ............................................................................... 15

2.6 The scope of practice of an industrial psychologist ........................................................... 15

2.7 Psychological profession competences .............................................................................. 18

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2.8 The purpose of behavioural science in industrial psychology ........................................... 21

2.9 Similarities in the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource managers

.................................................................................................................................................. 25

2.10 Industrial psychologists functioning in human resource management domains ............. 27

2.11 Predominant human resource management domains ....................................................... 30

2.12 Problem formulation ........................................................................................................ 32

2.13 Integration ........................................................................................................................ 34

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................... 36

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 36

3.1.1 Ontology: Social constructionism ................................................................................... 38

3.1.2 Epistemology .................................................................................................................. 40

3.1.3 Research paradigm: Interpretive ..................................................................................... 41

3.1.4 Research approach: Qualitative approach ....................................................................... 43

3.1.5 Research strategy: Phenomenology ................................................................................ 44

3.1.6 Sampling strategy: Purposive sampling .......................................................................... 45

3.1.7 Triangulation ................................................................................................................... 48

3.1.8 In-depth, semi-structured interviews .............................................................................. 49

3.1.9 Focus groups ................................................................................................................... 52

3.1.10 Research setting ............................................................................................................ 54

3.1.11 Data analysis: Content analysis .................................................................................... 54

3.1.12 Personal journal ............................................................................................................ 56

3.1.13 Verification survey........................................................................................................ 57

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3.1.14 Ethical considerations ................................................................................................... 58

3.1.15 Strategies for ensuring quality research ........................................................................ 59

3.2 Integration .......................................................................................................................... 61

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ................................................................................................ 63

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 63

4.2 Open coding ....................................................................................................................... 63

4.3 First-order themes .............................................................................................................. 64

4.4 Insights from my personal journal ..................................................................................... 84

4.5 Second-order themes .......................................................................................................... 85

4.6 Integration .......................................................................................................................... 93

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 94

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 94

5.2 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 95

5.2.1 The Health Professions Council of South Africa‟s and the professional association‟s

roles in affirming psychology in industrial psychology .......................................................... 95

5.2.1.1 The regulatory role of the Health Professions Council of South Africa …………… 95

5.2.1.2 The Health Professions Council of South Africa‟s role in the education and training of

industrial psychologists and the role of the Society for Industrial and Organisational

Psychology for South Africa in educating organisations of the value of industrial

psychologists…………………………………………………………………………………95

5.2.2 Education of prospective and experienced industrial psychologists needs to be revised

.................................................................................................................................................. 97

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5.2.3 Factors that distinguish industrial psychologists from other professions and disciplines

.................................................................................................................................................. 98

5.2.4 Factors that inhibit industrial psychologist human resource management practitioners

from using psychology in the workplace ............................................................................... 100

5.2.5 Factors that enable industrial psychologist human resource management practitioners to

use psychology within the workplace .................................................................................... 104

5.2.6 Industrial psychologist human resource management practitioners should practise from

a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human resource management

domains .................................................................................................................................. 105

5.2.7 Industrial psychologists should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when

fulfilling their roles human resource management practitioners to ensure that psychology is

applied within organisations .................................................................................................. 106

5.2.8 Industrial psychologist human resouce management practitioners should have certain

competences to ensure that psychology is applied within the organisational context ........... 107

5.2.9 Industrial psychologists have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial

psychology ............................................................................................................................. 108

5.3 Integration ........................................................................................................................ 109

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 110

6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 110

6.2 Overview and main findings ............................................................................................ 111

6.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 117

6.4 Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 120

6.5 Final thoughts................................................................................................................... 121

viii

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 123

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

Table 1: Adapted scope of practice of an industrial psychologist 17

Table 2: Roles and primary competences of a psychologist 20

Table 3: Chapter headings demonstrating behavioural science aims in industrial

psychology 23

Table 4: Work content of industrial psychologists 26

Table 5: SIOPSA survey: Summary of areas of practice of industrial psychologists 28

Table 6: Human resource management domains and activities 31

Table 7: Biographical information matrix of participants 47

Table 8: Questions asked in the pilot interview 52

Table 9: Conversion of 328 codes to first-order themes 67

Table 10: First-order themes 71

Table 11: Second-order themes 86

Table 12: Summary of results of the verification survey 92

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page

Figure 1: Research design 37

Figure 2: A futuristic framework for the application of psychology in human resource

management domains (an explanatory figure) 116

1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the research problem

During the last two decades, organisations have had to change the way that they

operate in order to survive in a rapidly changing environment (McGreevy, 2003; van Tonder,

2004). As a result, organisations have had to adapt by reengineering, restructuring, changing

their focus or location of their production, or downsizing (McGreevy, 2003). Each of the

possible activities employed by organisations to adapt to the changing environment has led to

a number of significant changes in the way that work is organised (McGreevy, 2003).

Working people need to deal with technological advances and the increased rate of change,

while managing information and being sensitive to diversity within the workplace. It is

suggested that, in order for organisations to effectively respond to a changing environment,

organisations need to effectively influence behaviour in the workplace (van Tonder, 2004).

Industrial psychology1 is a specialist discipline focused on influencing behaviour at

work. The discipline of industrial psychology aims to understand, predict, and influence

behaviour in the workplace for the good of the employee, groups, the organisation, and

society as a whole (van Vuuren, 2010). According to Bergh (2009), Conte and Landy (2007),

Doyle (2003), Muchinsky (2000), and Strumpfer (2007), industrial psychology is concerned

with the application of psychological theories, models, and principles to the work context.

Industrial psychology is an applied discipline of psychology (Lewis, 2003) and, as such, it is

1The discipline is internationally better known as industrial-organisational psychology, or industrial/organisational psychology. Industrial psychology is also referred to as work and organisational psychology or occupational psychology in European countries. Although the discipline is known as industrial-organisational psychology, industrial/organisational psychology, work and organisational psychology, or occupational psychology, the name industrial psychology is used in this paper.

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through the principles of psychology that behaviour within the workplace can be understood,

predicted, and influenced.

Despite industrial psychologists being behavioural specialists within the organisation,

it appears that, due to a higher demand for human resource management practitioners than for

industrial psychologists, industrial psychologists often find employment as human resource

management practitioners. Fouche, van Niekerk, and Vorster (2009) conducted a study into

the labour market requirements of industrial psychologists. A total of 52 Sunday Times

editions (in the period from August 2006 to September 2007) of job advertisements recruiting

industrial psychology graduates were reviewed. The study revealed that about 78% of the

occupational categories advertised were human resource management related. These

occupational categories included human resource administration and management, human

resource management development, employment relations, recruitment and selection, human

resource planning, performance management, human resource information systems,

remuneration, organisational health, safety and wellness, quality assurance, and employment

equity. The remaining 22% of the occupational categories advertised included organisational

development, consulting, work study, career management, lecturing, employee assistance

programmes, assessment and evaluation, research, industrial psychology, and consumer

psychology. „Industrial psychology‟ per se, as well as consumer psychology were the least

advertised when compared to the other occupational categories listed. A study performed in

2008 on the work activities performed by industrial psychologists found that these activities

consisted mostly of human resource management activities (Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter,

2008).

The prevalence of industrial psychologists operating in the human resource

management domains is apparent from the abovementioned studies. It was also indicated that

industrial psychologists apply the principles of psychology to understand, influence, and

3

predict behaviour in the workplace. Since industrial psychologists may work within human

resource management contexts, an exploration of how industrial psychologists could utilise

behavioural science in the human resource management domains may be required.

1.2 Problem formulation

As previously suggested, industrial psychology is an applied discipline of psychology

and, as such, industrial psychologists should approach organisational problems from a

behavioural perspective. Should industrial psychologists approach organisational problems

from a behavioural perspective as logically expected, it is suggested that industrial

psychologists could approach human resource management domains from the same

psychological perspective. The question can then be raised as to how the principles of

psychology could be applied by industrial psychologists in the human resource management

domains? The importance of conducting research into this question is to ensure that

industrial psychologists approach or continue to approach human resource management

domains from a behavioural perspective. It is intended that, by answering this research

question, a case could be made for industrial psychologists to remain relevant to the needs of

the organisation and to be empowered to apply the principles of behavioural science in

human resource management domains.

1.3 Aim of the study

The aim of this study is to create a socially constructed futuristic framework that

could inform the application of psychological principles, theories, and models by industrial

psychologists when operating in human resource management domains. Since industrial

psychologists seem to be fulfilling human resource management roles within organisations,

the construction of an ideal framework for the application of behavioural science in the

human resource management domains seems warranted. It is intended that the aspirational

4

framework that will be constructed may be of practical value to industrial psychologists that

function in human resource management domains. By pursuing an ideal state where

psychology is applied by industrial psychologists in the human resource management

domains, the practice of industrial psychology could be improved, and psychology may be

affirmed in industrial psychology.

It is also intended that the construction of an ideal framework would provide a

comprehensive perspective on the application of psychology in the human resource

management domains. In order to do so, various influential stakeholders in the profession of

industrial psychology are identified. Participants‟ perspectives regarding the roles that the

Professional Board for Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South Africa and

employing organisations could fulfil in the application of psychology in the human resource

management domains will be investigated.

1.4 Potential contribution of the study

As stated above, the purpose of this study is to inform the practice of industrial

psychologists. The results of this study are aimed at industrial psychologists and, as such, the

construction of the aspirational framework may initiate introspection and reflection by

industrial psychologists on their practice in the human resource management domains.

Although the ideal framework constructed for the application of behavioural science in the

human resource management domains by industrial psychologists may not be conclusive,

industrial psychologists may be able to utilise the framework to enable or enhance their

current practice. Industrial psychologists may then be better positioned to entrench

behavioural science in the human resource management domains. Additionally, by

constructing a comprehensive aspirational framework, the roles of the relevant stakeholders,

(for instance the Health Professions Council of South Africa and organisations) in the

5

application of psychology in the human resource management domains may be clarified. By

virtue of providing a holistic perspective, industrial psychologists may be able to recognise

their responsibility to influence the identified stakeholders to affirm psychology in industrial

psychology.

1.5 Research design overview

A qualitative research approach will be embarked upon as opposed to a quantitative

methodology, due to the exploratory nature of the research question. Since there is little

current information available on the research question, the narratives of industrial

psychologists working as human resource management practitioners need to be explored.

Interpretive paradigmatic assumptions are best suited to the research question. The meanings

ascribed by the industrial psychologists working as human resource management

practitioners will be fundamental to understanding the different elements that contribute to

the construction of a framework that could inform the application of psychology in the human

resource management domains.

Owing to the focus of the research question, purposive sampling will be used to

identify and invite people to participate in the study. Industrial psychologists and participants

with postgraduate degrees in industrial psychology operating in the human resource

management domains will participate in the study. Phenomenology will be the research

strategy used and the data collection methods will be seven in-depth semi-structured

interviews (seven participants) and three focus groups (13 participants). The data gathered

will be audio recorded and transcribed into text. Content analysis will be used to analyse the

data gathered in order to uncover how psychology could be applied in the human resource

management domains. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, an inductive approach will

be adopted during data analysis to capture the essence of the participants' perspectives on the

6

research question. Once the essence of the participants‟ perspectives on the research question

have been extracted, first-order and second-order themes will be generated. A verification

survey will be constructed around the themes identified and sent via electronic mail to all the

participants. A survey will be conducted in order to test whether the results of the study

accurately reflect the participants‟ points of view.

Since the researcher analyses and interprets qualitative data from an interpretive

qualitative research perspective, the personal impact of the researcher on the research

findings needs to be accounted for. This ensures that findings made are transparent.

Accordingly, my2 ontology and epistemology are reflected upon in the research design in

Chapter Three. Lastly, strategies will be employed to ensure good quality research, and

ethical considerations will be observed throughout the research process.

1.6 Integration and preview of contents

The study is concerned with how industrial psychologists could use psychology when

functioning in the human resource management domains to ensure that they approach the

human resource management domains from a behavioural sciences perspective. In this

chapter, an introductory contextual perspective was provided on the research question. The

necessity for investigating how psychology could be applied in the human resource

management domains was explained. The aim and potential contributions of this study were

discussed, and an overview of the research design was provided.

In Chapter Two, the theoretical foundations of the research question are explored. In

Chapter Three, the research design of the study is discussed at length, linking the

2 Since ontology, epistemology, and excerpts from a personal journal are the personal beliefs and records of the researcher, the narrative form of first person will be used throughout this document. It is suggested that the use of first person is appropriate, given that the nature of the study is qualitative and the field of inquiry is a social science (Webb, 2006).

7

appropriateness of the research design to the research question. The results of the research

study are reported on in Chapter Four. In Chapter Five, the results are interpreted and, where

possible, relevant literature is utilised to substantiate further interpretations made. Lastly, in

Chapter Six, a summary of the findings of the research is provided and depicted in a figure,

recommendations to stakeholders are discussed, the limitations of this study are explained,

and final thoughts on the outcome of this study are shared.

8

CHAPTER TWO: CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE ON INDUSTRIAL

PSYCHOLOGISTS FUNCTIONING IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

DOMAINS

2.1 Introduction

To make sense of the research question, a contextual perspective on the professional

nature of industrial psychology, as well as the discipline‟s science and practice, needs to be

firstly addressed. Psychology as a profession is discussed to broadly outline the

characteristics of a psychological profession. The specific characteristics of a profession in

industrial psychology will be discussed followed by a discussion on the characteristics of the

scientist-practitioner model in industrial psychology. Since the Professional Board for

Psychology (hereafter referred to as the Board) of the Health Professions Council of South

Africa (hereafter referred to as the HPCSA) regulates and influences the education and

practice of industrial psychologists, the role of the Board is briefly addressed. The scope of

practice of an industrial psychologist, psychological profession competences, and the purpose

of behavioural science in industrial psychology will subsequently be discussed.

Following the contextual perspective on the professional nature, the science, and the

practice of industrial psychology, the similarities in the work content of industrial

psychologists and human resource managers is addressed. Studies conducted on the work

activities performed by industrial psychologists are also illuminated to elaborate on the

suggested prevalence of industrial psychologists functioning in human resource management

domains. Lastly, predominant human resource management domains are identified to

provide an indication of the specific human resource management domains that industrial

psychologists may be functioning in. The literature study serves to work towards a problem

statement and specific research questions that will conclude this chapter.

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2.2 Psychology as a profession

When reference is made to psychology as a profession, it is often preceded by

questions regarding what makes a psychologist a psychologist, and what precludes certain

people from practising as psychologists (Muchinsky, 2000). A person who is a professional

in the field of psychology is regarded as having specialised knowledge and qualifications

(Radford, 2003). Specific ethical standards that are enforced by a code of ethics guides

professionals‟ behaviour within their contexts of practice (Radford, 2003). Self-regulating

entities have been established to ensure compliance with these ethical standards and to ensure

that professionals are qualified and competent to practise within their specialised registration

category (APA Dictionary, 2007; Radford, 2003). Accordingly, a professional in psychology

is distinguishable by the attainment of a pre-determined qualification, obligated to render

services in a responsible manner, and accountable to self-regulatory entities. In practice, a

professional is distinguishable by a knowledge base that is shared amongst affiliated

professionals.

A particular profession is differentiated from other professions by the use of and

building upon a „shared body of knowledge‟ (Radford, 2003, p. 119). It is from this

knowledge base that prospective professionals are educated and performance outcomes are

set (Radford, 2003). The knowledge base forms the framework from which the acquisition of

a qualification is determined. Further to this, the knowledge base shared amongst

professionals mostly determines how their work is conducted within their respective practice

contexts.

A focused profession in psychology involves the application of psychological

principles, theories, and models within a certain context in order to provide a professional

service to particular clients in an ethical and scientific manner (Bartram & Roe, 2005). The

applied disciplines of psychology can be broadly classed into three categories, namely work,

10

health, and educational psychology. In particular, some of the applied disciplines within

psychology include clinical psychology, industrial psychology, educational psychology, and

counselling psychology (Weiten, 2001). Each applied discipline has its own unique body of

knowledge, yet fundamentally involves the application of psychological principles, theories,

and models, albeit within different contexts. Industrial psychology as a discipline is applied

within the work context and is considered to be a profession in its own right (Doyle, 2003).

2.3 Industrial psychology as a profession

Industrial psychology originated from the science of psychology and, as indicated

earlier, is regarded as an applied sub-discipline of psychology (Lewis, 2003). Industrial

psychology has since developed a unique body of knowledge which has also been influenced

by other disciplines. These disciplines include economic and management sciences,

sociology, educational sciences, philosophy, business ethics, and anthropology (van Vuuren,

2010). In addition to industrial psychology‟s shared body of knowledge, the profession is

characterised by specialised skills and knowledge, as well as codes of ethics. The Board of

the HPCSA regulates the profession of industrial psychology (among other professions).

The Board, in consultation with academics, practitioners, and the HPCSA, specifies

requirements on issues relating to codes of ethics and sets standards for education and

training for the professions it regulates (Bergh, 2009). The Board is responsible for ensuring

that newly registered industrial psychologists comply with the minimum standards for

registration (Kriek, Muchinsky & Schreuder, 2002). In order to register as an industrial

psychologist with the HPCSA, a graduate must have completed a Master's degree with an

accredited university and a 12 month internship (Health Professions Council of South Africa,

2005). The internship programme needs to comply with the specifications set by the Board

(Health Professions Council of South Africa, 2005).

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The Board was also established to protect the interests of the public and to, among

others, ensure that established industrial psychologists consistently practise professionally

and ethically (Kriek et al., 2002). Continuous professional development (hereafter referred to

as CPD) is required by the HPCSA to ensure that registered psychologists advance their

knowledge and skills in their field (Health Professions Council of South Africa, 2007). As a

result of the HPCSA imposing the CPD points system, the body of knowledge used by

industrial psychologists is shared and developed.

2.4 Scientist-practitioner model

The advancement of a shared body of knowledge within a profession relies on

continuous and relevant research. It is suggested that there is a science and a practice

component to being a professional psychologist in the workplace (Radford, 2003), and that

industrial psychologists are trained as scientists and practitioners (Britt & Jex, 2008; Gibby &

Zickar, 2007). The scientist-practitioner model encapsulates the dual nature of industrial

psychology, where knowledge is generated and/or used for the purpose of applying it

practically to the organisational context (Britt & Jex, 2008). The establishment of the

scientist-practitioner is firstly addressed and the benefits and manifestation of the scientist-

practitioner are then discussed.

Psychology first emerged as a philosophical debate about human behaviour

(Hergenhahn, 2005), and it was only in the later years of the 19th century when experimental

methods were used in an attempt to explain human behaviour (Berry & Houston, 1993;

Koppes & Pickren, 2007). The discipline of psychology was established as a scientific

discipline as a result of the use of experimental methods. It was also in the later years of the

19th century that the applications of psychological principles in business commenced (Berry

& Houston, 1993; Conte & Landy, 2007; Koppes & Pickren, 2007).

12

Industrial psychology became an applied discipline of psychology through the various

applications used by Munsterberg, Cattell, Scott, Taylor, and the Gilbreths (Berry & Houston,

1993; Conte & Landy, 2007). Although these thought leaders contributed to industrial

psychology through different applications of psychological principles within the work

context, they appeared to have established a link between science and practice. These

thought leaders‟ foresight gave rise to the idea that scientific results could be applied

practically to the work context (Gibby & Zickar, 2007).

It was not until 1949 that the scientist-practitioner model was formally discussed at a

conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology (Gibby & Zickar, 2007; Harper,

Mulvey & Robinson, 2003). The model was discussed in order to educate graduates on both

the principles of research and practice in the preparation of students for professional practice

(Harper et al., 2003). The purpose of the model was to establish a relationship between

theory and practice, where each informs the other in terms of the clinical psychology

profession. The scientist-practitioner model requires that behavioural theory and research

have practical application. In most instances, the purpose of behavioural science is to

describe and explain behaviour in order to predict the occurrence of similar or related

behaviour in the future (Bergh, 2003). In order to achieve a fairly accurate account of

behaviour, the use of research and scientific principles are necessary.

Utilising theory and research in practice ensures that findings and recommendations

provided on behaviour in the workplace are of a certain quality. Although utilising scientific

principles guarantees a level of quality and credibility, the outcomes of science are not exact

(Weiten, 2001). Science ensures that the knowledge obtained and the use thereof is based on

sound principles (Honkanen & Schmidt-Brasse, 2008; Weiten, 2001). Utilising science

within an applied psychological discipline is important to avert the risks of haphazard

practice and outcomes. According to Honkanen and Schmidt-Brasse (2008), training in

13

scientific principles enables a practitioner to discern between management fads and sound

research.

Knowledge and skills in research create a different way in which thought processes

occur for an industrial psychologist (Bergh, 2003). Science cultivates a systematic, critical

analysis of information and research (Bergh, 2003; Weiten, 2001). Decisions are based on

empirical data or tested knowledge, and outcomes are interpreted through a myriad of

theoretical lenses (Bergh, 2003). This elliminates conclusions being made according to

subjective preferences, guesswork, intuition, or even prejudices (Bergh, 2003). Analytical

thought processes result from having a scientific orientation.

The relevance of science in practice is made clear in the above text. What is not clear,

however, is the relationship between and the integration of the two. The integration of

science and practice is explained by Conte and Landy (2007) as being the application of

research to real workplace problems. Conte and Landy (2007) explain that the practitioner is

the consumer of research as opposed to a generator of knowledge, which is largely left to the

researcher within the profession. This means that the consumer of knowledge (the

practitioner industrial psychologist) may engage in science by reviewing some peer-reviewed

articles, and utilise basic scientific principles in implementing an intervention, while

comprehensive research is conducted by the academic industrial psychologist.

Jones and Mehr (2007) describe how science and practice are used in the application

of psychology in clinical practice. Although the applied discipline of clinical psychology is

different to that of the field under discussion, the article provides an insight into how

psychological principles can be applied in practice through research skills and knowledge.

Jones and Mehr (2007, p. 767) elaborate on the integration of the two by stating that “A

psychologist who blends the role of a clinician and a researcher into one entity is practising in

14

accordance with the scientist-practitioner model.” Here the interplay between research and

practice is infused into inseparable but recognisable parts, whereby psychological theories are

utilised in practice.

With specific reference to industrial psychology, Augustyn and Cillie (2008) provide

some insights into how the scientist-practitioner model may find expression in the

organisational context. It is proposed that theories and models provide the frameworks by

which psychological phenomena may be dealt with in the workplace (Augustyn & Cillie,

2008). Additionally, psychological processes and systems as they exist in the world of work

may be assessed and developed through the use of scientific principles and research

(Augustyn & Cillie, 2008). Despite the application of science to the workplace, practitioners

also need to inform researchers in the profession of the gaps in research. If researchers

studied and researched the identified gaps, the findings would add value in the organisational

context and provide practical relevance (Lappointe, 1990).

The industrial psychologist as a practitioner contributes to the profession of industrial

psychology in a unique way. According to Honkanen and Schmidt-Brasse (2008), the

practitioner develops unique skills and competencies that are acquired through practice. The

practitioner acquires implicit knowledge that is gained through contextual influences and

developed through interactions with peers (Honkanen & Schmidt-Brasse, 2008). Since

practitioner industrial psychologists interact mostly with the working community and

represent the profession in the workplace, the practitioner industrial psychologist is also the

largest contributor to the perceptions that are formed of the profession (Honkanen &

Schmidt-Brasse, 2008). These perceptions may also be mediated by the extent to which a

profession is regulated. The role that the Board fulfils in regulating the profession of

industrial psychology influences the perceptions of the working community as it is the Board

that ensures that industrial psychologists are competent to practice.

15

2.5 The role of the Board for Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South

Africa in the profession of industrial psychology

As discussed, the Board regulates issues such as codes of ethics and codes of conduct

for the profession of industrial psychology. What is pertinent to this study, however, is the

role that the Board (in consultation with academics, practitioners, and other voluntary

psychological associations) fulfils in the specification of the scope of practice of the

industrial psychologist and the practical training and learning content, from undergraduate to

postgraduate degrees in industrial psychology (Bergh, 2009). Curricula set for the acquisition

of degrees within the field of industrial psychology outline the competences, knowledge, and

skills required in order to practise as a professional industrial psychologist.

The Health Professions Act 56 of 1974 (hereafter referred to as the Act) provides a

regulatory framework to govern the activities of industrial psychologists (among other

psychologists and related professions). The Act determines a scope of practice that sets

boundaries of practice. These boundaries serve two main purposes in the profession of

industrial psychology. The first purpose is to distinguish the types of activities that an

industrial psychologist may and may not perform relative to the acquired competence of an

industrial psychologist. The second purpose is to regulate the profession according to the

boundaries set to ensure that industrial psychologists do not act without the necessary training

and competence. The Board‟s role is to enforce these boundaries as well as protect the public

from harm caused as a result of unethical practices and/or psychologists and other related

professions performing acts not within their scope of practice.

2.6 The scope of practice of an industrial psychologist

The scope of practice of an industrial psychologist is regulated by Section 7 of the Act

(Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). According to Section 7 of the Act, industrial

16

psychologists aim to understand, modify, and enhance individual, group, and organisational

behaviour and determine the effectiveness of each (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010).

In addition, industrial psychologists aim to determine the appropriateness and/or potential for

training, development, and employment, and facilitate processes for effective organisational

functioning. Lastly, industrial psychologists‟ purpose includes the enhancement of

performance of individuals, groups, and organisations (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974;

2010).

Industrial psychologists make use of paradigms, theories, models, constructs, and

principles of psychology in order to achieve their aims within the workplace (Health

Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). These professionals also make use of psychometric and

other assessments as well as psychological research as tools to optimise individual, group,

and organisational effectiveness and wellbeing (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010).

Industrial psychologists‟ activities include planning, applying, designing and developing,

standardising, implementing, facilitating, managing, evaluating, advising, and referring

people to the appropriate professionals (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). The scope

of practice includes the training and supervising of other industrial psychology practitioners

as well as designing, managing, conducting, reporting on, and supervising research within the

discipline of industrial psychology (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010).

The scope of practice outlined by Section 7 of the Act as amended in April 2010, has

been adapted to form Table 1. The formulation of Table 1 serves to structure the industrial

psychologists‟ scope of practice as outlined by Section 7 of the Act around five points: the

purpose of industrial psychology; methods, principles and theories; the subject of activities;

the context within which the activities are operationalised; and a list of the activities

performed by industrial psychologists.

17

Table 1

Adapted scope of practice of an industrial psychologist

Five points identified to frame the scope of practice for this paper

Scope of practice

Purpose of industrial psychology

To understand, modify, and enhance individual, group, and organisational behaviour; To determine the potential and/or suitability for training, development, and employment; To determine effectiveness of individuals, groups, and organisations; To enhance performance of individuals, groups, and organisations.

Methods, principles, and theories

Psychological theory and research; Psychometric and other assessments.

Subject of activities Individuals, groups, and organisations.

Context Work environment

Activities performed

Planning, developing, and applying paradigms, theories, models, constructs, and principles; Designing, developing, standardising, and implementing assessment tools and procedures related to work; Facilitating individual and group processes; Designing and implementing training programmes; Designing and developing strategies in consumer behaviour; Developing interventions; Referring patients to appropriate professionals for assessment or intervention; Designing and implementing programmes based on understanding ergonomics; Advising on the development of policies; Designing, managing, and evaluating industrial psychology intervention programmes; Training and supervising other psychology practitioners (such as interns and psychometrists) in industrial psychology; Conducting psychological practice and research in accordance with the Ethical Rules of Conduct for Practitioners; Designing, managing, conducting, reporting on, and supervising research.

Table 1 demonstrates the adapted scope of practice of an industrial psychologist from

a regulatory perspective. Although the Act makes reference to patients, in the context of

industrial psychology reference is made to clients to denote the subject of activities. Since

the HPCSA regulates typical health professions in South Africa, it appears that the HPCSA

uses the medical model to frame all professions that fall within its scope. Although industrial

psychologists are psychologists, it is suggested that the medical model is inappropriate for

18

understanding and regulating the industrial psychology profession, given the nature and

context of the practice of industrial psychology. As discussed, industrial psychologists aim to

understand, modify and enhance behaviour as well as enhance effectiveness and performance

of individuals, groups and organisations (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974; 2010). In

addition, industrial psychologists apply their knowledge and skills in the organisational

context. The aim and context of industrial psychology are characterised by challenges that

may not be appropriately addressed by the medical model.

Nonetheless, the scope of practice broadly indicates that by applying psychological

theories and research and using psychometric assessments, psychology is practised within the

organisation. Effectively applying psychology within the work context requires that the

industrial psychologist be competent to do so. According to Bartram and Roe (2005), there

are a range of competences unique to the psychological profession in terms of the content,

knowledge, and skills required for their performance.

2.7 Psychological profession competences

Competence is the ability to perform to a set standard by applying knowledge and

skills (Bartram & Kurz, 2002) whereas competencies are defined as sets of behaviours that

result in desired outcomes or results (Bartram, Callinan & Robertson, 2002). Competence is

learnt through the integration of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and personal values, and is

generally built upon existing knowledge and skills (Bartram & Roe, 2005). Employees

demonstrate their competence through the achievement of set goals (Bartram & Kurz, 2002).

Psychologists are expected to demonstrate competence within their respective fields of

specialisation in order to perform to the required standard of their profession (Honkanen &

Schmidt-Brasse, 2008).

19

Bartram and Roe (2005) identified 20 primary competences that relate to a

psychologist‟s professional role. These competences are unique to the psychological

profession but are generic across the different psychological specialisations (Bartram & Roe,

2005). A psychologist registered under any specialisation should be able to demonstrate the

primary competences identified, yet the expression of these competences would differ

depending on the context (Bartram & Roe, 2005). The primary competences identified are

categorised into specific professional roles that include goal specification, assessment,

development, intervention, evaluation, and communication (Bartram & Roe, 2005). The

roles, the 20 primary competences, and the descriptions of the 20 primary competences are

provided in Table 2.

20

Table 2

Roles and primary competences of a psychologist

Roles Primary competences Description

Goal specification

Needs analysis Goal setting

Gathering information about the client‟s needs by means of appropriate methods, clarifying, and analysing the needs to a point where meaningful further action can be taken.

Proposing and negotiating goals with the client, establishing acceptable, and feasible goals, and specifying criteria for evaluating goal fulfilment at a later time.

Assessment Individual assessment

Carrying out assessment by means of interviewing, testing, and observation of individuals in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Group assessment

Carrying out assessment by means of interviewing, testing, and observation of groups in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Organisational assessment

Carrying out assessment by means of interviews, surveys, and other methods and techniques that are appropriate for studying organisations in a setting that is relevant for the service demanded.

Situational assessment Carrying out assessment by means of interviews, surveys, and other methods and techniques that are appropriate for studying situations in a setting that is relevant for the service demanded.

Development

Service or product definition and requirement analysis

Defining the purpose of the service or product, identifying relevant stakeholders, analysing requirements and constraints, and drawing up specifications for the product or service, taking into consideration the setting in which the service or product is to be used.

Service or product design Designing or adapting services or products in accordance with the requirements, and constraints, taking into consideration the setting in which the service or product is to be used. Testing the service or product and assessing its feasibility, reliability, validity, and other characteristics, taking into consideration the setting in which the service or product is to be used.

Service or product testing

Service or product evaluation

Evaluating the service or product with respect to utility, client satisfaction, user-friendliness, costs, and other aspects that are relevant in the setting in which the service or product is to be used.

Intervention Intervention planning

Developing an intervention plan that is appropriate for reaching the set goals in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Direct person orientated intervention

Applying intervention methods that directly affect one or more individuals in accordance with the intervention plan, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Direct situation-oriented intervention

Applying intervention methods that directly affect selected aspects of the situation in accordance with the intervention plan, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

21

Roles Primary competences Description

Indirect intervention Applying intervention methods that enable individuals, groups, or organisations to learn and take decisions in their own interest, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Service or product implementation

Introducing services or products and promoting their proper use by clients or other psychologists.

Evaluation Evaluation planning Designing a plan for the evaluation of an intervention, including criteria derived from the intervention plan, and the set goals, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Evaluation measurement Selecting and applying measurement techniques that are appropriate for effecting the evaluation plan, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Evaluation analysis Conducting analyses in accordance with the evaluation plan, and drawing conclusions on the effectiveness of interventions in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Communication

Giving feedback Providing feedback to clients, using appropriate oral and/or audio-visual means, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Report writing Writing reports to inform clients about the results of assessment, service or product development, interventions, and/or evaluations, in a setting relevant for the service demanded.

Industrial psychologists should posses these competences and perform them

independently in order to provide a professional service to the clients whom they serve

(Honkanen & Schmidt-Brasse, 2008). As discussed, the manifestation of the primary

competences differs depending on who the client is and what the context requires. For

instance, a clinical psychologist demonstrating assessment competence would be vastly

different from an industrial psychologist demonstrating the same competence. Additionally,

the manifestation of the primary competences will also be dependent on the purpose of

behavioural science within each of the respective psychological specialisations.

2.8 The purpose of behavioural science in industrial psychology

Theron (2009) explains that the basic aims of behavioural science in industrial

psychology are to understand, explain, predict, and influence behaviour at work. Van Vuuren

(2010) endorses this viewpoint, but adds that the purpose of the discipline of industrial

22

psychology includes the assessment, motivation, changing, and optimisation of behaviour at

work. These aims are achieved through the application of psychological theories, principles,

and models. It is important to note that these basic aims are applied to individuals, groups or

teams, and organisations.

Six textbooks‟ tables of contents were analysed in order to determine from the chapter

headings the practical applications of understanding, assessing, explaining, predicting,

influencing, motivating, changing, and optimising behaviour at work. These chapter

headings were obtained from industrial psychology introductory textbooks that cover all the

main domains within the discipline of industrial psychology in general. Table 3 depicts the

allocation of some of the chapter headings derived from the six textbooks. Only the best

descriptor headings were included in Table 3 for the purpose of concisely illustrating the

practical application of behavioural science in the work context. The chapter headings were

allocated to the aims of behavioural science within the discipline of industrial psychology.

The overall content of the chapter was determined from the chapter headings, and the

headings were allocated to the respective aims based on the determined content.

23

Table 3

Chapter headings demonstrating behavioural science aims in industrial psychology

Purpose of behavioural science in industrial psychology

Chapter headings References

Understand “Theoretical perspectives in psychology” “Group behaviour and other social processes in organisations”

Bergh & Theron (2009) Bergh & Theron (2009)

“Understanding organisational behaviour” Crafford, et al. (2006)

Assess “Individual differences and assessment” Conte & Landy (2010)

“General mental ability in the world of work: occupational attainment and job performance”

Silvester (2008)

“Assessment of personality and individual differences” Bergh & Theron (2009)

Explain “The biological basis of behaviour” Bergh & Theron (2009)

“Cognition” Bergh & Theron (2009)

“Pro-social behaviours, aggression and conflict” Bergh & Theron (2009)

Predict “Individual differences and assessment” Conte & Landy (2010)

“Person-organisation fit: an integrative review of its conceptualisations, measurement, and implications”

Silvester (2008)

“General mental ability in the world of work: occupational attainment and job performance”

Silvester (2008)

Influence “Stress management: Dealing with demands of life” Aamodt (2010)

“Attitudes and values” Bergh & Theron (2009)

“Psychological well-being” Bergh & Theron (2009)

Motivate “Employee motivation” Aamodt (2010)

“Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory”

Silvester (2008)

“Motivation and emotion” Bergh & Theron (2009)

Change “Organisational development” “Managing organisational change”

Aamodt (2010) Crafford, et al. (2006)

“Overcoming resistance to change” Silvester (2008)

24

Purpose of behavioural science in industrial psychology

Chapter headings References

Optimise “Application of cognitive, skill based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation”

Silvester (2008)

“Building a learning organisation” “Performance appraisal: Assessing and developing performance and potential”

Silvester (2008) Chmiel (2008)

As indicated in Table 3, industrial psychologists use behavioural science in various

ways to understand, explain, predict, and influence behaviour in the workplace. For instance,

industrial psychologists need a fundamental understanding of the concepts used in assessing

personality and individual differences in order to be competent at assessing candidates and

recommending suitable candidates for a position. Industrial psychologists may be able to

explain individuals‟ behaviour in the workplace by referring to the biological basis of

behaviour or the way in which people may reason. Industrial psychologists may need to refer

to human beings‟ natural resistance to change in order to effectively influence change within

the workplace. The examples provided illustrate that industrial psychologists could use

behavioural science as a basis for practice within the workplace.

Aside from the use of behavioural science in the workplace, it is suggested that

industrial psychologists‟ and human resource managers‟ work content may be very similar.

Human resource managers may collaborate with similar occupational groups, use similar

methods, and provide services to the same clients as industrial psychologists. Before

addressing the similarities in the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource

management practitioners, the purpose of human resource management is addressed.

Human resource managers aim to ensure that the organisation can achieve its

objectives through people (Armstrong, 2010). In order to achieve the organisation's

25

objectives, human resource managers aim to align the human resource strategies and

practices with the organisation's strategies (Ulrich, 1997). Human resource management also

aims to improve organisational effectiveness by improving its capability to make the most of

the resources available (Armstrong, 2010). The aims provided are the overall aims of human

resource management, and are covered in this section to make sense of the suggested

similarities between the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource

managers.

2.9 Similarities in the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource

managers

Bartram and Roe (2005) developed a model to describe the work content of an

industrial psychologist. The model includes eight characteristics delineating the work content

of an industrial psychologist, namely the work setting, co-workers, clients, purpose, object,

tools, methods, and timing of the work to be performed. Table 4 delineates the work content

characteristics and the specific work content of industrial psychologists as suggested by

Bartram and Roe (2005).

26

Table 4

Work content of industrial psychologists

Work content characteristics

Industrial psychology work content

Work setting Consultancy, business firm, public service, and government agencies.

Co-workers Support staff, economists, engineers, human resource management specialists, and managers.

Clients Individual employees and managers. Groups, organisations, trade unions, and public agencies.

Purpose Optimisation of productivity, social relations, and wellbeing of individuals in organisations.

Object Individuals, groups, and larger entities. Social and physical work environment. Work tools and equipment. Policies and procedures.

Tools Tests, observation schemes, interviews, surveys, group and organisational assessment techniques, models of behaviour in work settings, design, and change methods.

Methods Job and organisational analysis. Selection, appraisal, training, and career development. Job, team, organisation, and workplace design. Organisational change.

Timing According to business needs and cycles.

(Copied from Bartram & Roe (2005)

It is suggested that the work content of human resource managers is similar to the

work content of the industrial psychologist in terms of the work setting, co-workers, clients,

purpose, objects, methods, and time frame for providing a service to the client. Perhaps the

only difference between the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource

managers lies in the tools they use. The most notable difference in the types of tools utilised

by industrial psychologists and human resource managers is that the industrial psychologist is

able to utilise psychometric assessments, whereas human resource managers are not legally

entitled to use, interpret, or provide feedback on psychometric tests (Health Professions Act

56 of 1974; 2010).

The similarity in the work content indicates that there is little tangible difference

between the practice of industrial psychology and that of human resource management.

Despite the similarities in work content, industrial psychology originated from the science

and discipline of psychology and, as such, industrial psychologists approach organisational

27

problems from a behavioural understanding and perspective. Regardless of industrial

psychologists‟ behavioural approach to organisational problems and challenges, it would

seem plausible for industrial psychologists to be functioning in the human resource

management domains due to the similarity in the work content of industrial psychologists and

human resource managers.

2.10 Industrial psychologists functioning in human resource management domains

Benjamin and Louw-Potgieter (2008) conducted a study into the activities performed

by industrial psychologists. From a sample of 129 registered industrial psychologists, it was

found that industrial psychologists spent 67% of their time performing human resource

management functions such as recruitment, selection, and succession planning. Additionally,

it was found that the sample of industrial psychologists spent 22% of their time on

performing psychological assessments, and 6% on therapy and counselling.

In addition to the above study, the Society for Industrial and Organisational

Psychology South Africa (hereafter referred to SIOPSA), along with other stakeholders,

commissioned a project during 2009 to review the scope of practice of industrial

psychologists. A survey was conducted by SIOPSA in 2010 with a sample of 240 of the

society‟s members in the industry (membership includes practising psychologists and is not

limited to industrial psychologists). Members within the field of industrial psychology were

asked to report in the survey on the types of activities they performed. The results of the

survey indicated a vast array of areas of practice covered. Table 5 summarises the areas of

practice reported by members who took part in the study (Society for Industrial and

Organisational Psychology South Africa, 2010).

28

Table 5

SIOPSA survey: Summary of areas of practice of industrial psychologists

Area of practice Percentage of members practicing within the listed area

Psychometric assessment 52.5%

Career development 45.4%

Leadership development 43.3%

Organisational culture 41.3%

Selection 40.4%

Organisational change 39.6%

Assessment and development centres 38.3%

Performance management 37.1%

Coaching 35%

Human resource development (HRD) 34.6%

Change management 34.2%

Succession planning 32.5%

Competency profiling 29.2%

Job analysis and job design 29.2%

Group processes and dynamics 23.3%

Employee wellness 22.9%

Counselling 22.1%

Conflict management 21.7%

Self-management 17.5%

Design and development of assessment tools 16.7%

Employment (labour) relations 15.8%

Research methodology and statistical analysis 13.8%

Downsizing/organisation restructuring 13.3%

Supervision of interns 10.8%

Work and family (Quality of work life) 9.6%

Compensation and benefits 7.9%

Ethics 7.9%

Psycho-legal/forensic 5.8%

Teaching (academic) 5.8%

Mergers and acquisitions 3.8%

Technology and industrial psychology 3.8%

Human factors and ergonomics 3.3%

Consumer psychology 2.1%

Litigation support 1.7%

Neuropsychology 0.8%

29

Area of practice Percentage of members practicing within the listed area

Ergonomics 0.4%

(Copied from SIOPSA Future Fit Report, 2010)

From Table 5 it is noted that human resource management forms a large part of the

functions performed by members within the field of industrial psychology. Performance

management accounts for 37.1% of their total function, human resource development for

34.6%, succession planning for 32.5%, competency profiling for 29.2%, job analysis and job

design for 29.2%, employment/labour relations for 15.8%, compensation and benefits for

7.9%, and mergers and acquisitions account for 3.8%.

Furthermore, the SIOP (Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, based in

the United States of America) compiled a list of job titles of qualified industrial psychologists

that was posted on SIOP‟s JobNet in 2009 (Society for Industrial and Organizational

Psychology, 2009). Of the titles listed, some of the prominent human resource management-

laden titles included President, Vice President, Director, Manager, Principal, Director, Staff

Member or Consultant of: Human Resources; Human Resources Research; Employee

Relations; and Training and Development. Other titles included Full or Assistant Professor of

Industrial Relations, HR Practice Leader, Talent Management Specialist, HR Organizational

Development Specialist, and Employment Law Expert. It appears that industrial

psychologists are often employed as human resource management practitioners despite their

registration as industrial psychologists.

There is a wide range of human resource management domains within which

industrial psychologists may be functioning. The human resource management areas of

practice listed in Table 5 may not be exhaustive. By referring to literature, the predominant

human resource management domains may be identified. The purpose of identifying these

30

domains is to, firstly, condense the human resource management domains and, secondly, to

make sense of the human resource management domains in which industrial psychologists

are likely to apply psychology.

2.11 Predominant human resource management domains

Eight human resource management textbooks‟ tables of contents were reviewed and

analysed. Two of the eight textbooks were written for the South African context, whereas the

remaining six were written for the international context. Chapter headings were clustered

together, based on similarity in subject matter, to form different human resource management

domains. The overall subject matter of the chapter was determined from the chapter

headings. The human resource management domains and activities are depicted in Table 6.

Chapter headings that were unrelated to the other chapter headings and that had only occurred

once across the eight textbooks were excluded from Table 6. It is important to note at this

point that these human resource management domains are not considered in isolation, and are

interrelated.

The domains included strategic human resource management (hereafter referred to as

HRM), job analysis, job design, human resource acquisition (including human resource

planning, recruitment, selection, induction, and retention), human resource development,

performance management and human resource potential assessment, human resource

compensation, employment relations, employee welfare (physical) and wellness

(psychological), human resource information systems, managing diverse and unique

employees, managing employees, talent management, career planning and development, job

evaluation, and motivation.

31

Table 6 Human resource management domains and activities

Human resource management domains and activities

Books labelled from 1 to 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Strategic HRM X X

Job analysis X X X X

Job design X X X

Human resource acquisition (human resource planning, recruitment, selection, induction, and retention)

X X X X X X X X

Human resource development X X X X X X X X

Performance management and human resource potential assessment

X X X X X X X X

Human resource compensation X X X X X X X X

Employment relations X X X X X X X X

Employee welfare and wellness X X X X X X

Human resource information systems X X

Managing diverse and unique employees X X X X X

Managing people X X X X X

Talent management X X

Career planning and development X X

Job evaluation X X

Motivation X X X

The authors of these books are Amos, Pearse, Ristow, and Ristow (2008) (book 1);

Armstrong (2006) (book 2); Carell, Elbert, Grobler, Hatfield, and Warnich (2002) (book 3),

Currie (2006) (book 4); Randhawa (2007) (book 5); Jackson and Mathis (2008) (book 6);

Botha, et al. (2006) (book 7), and Stredwick (2005) (book 8).

From Table 6 it can be deduced that the most prevalent human resource domains are

human resource acquisition, human resource development, performance management and

human resource potential assessment, human resource compensation, employment relations,

and employee welfare and wellness.

32

2.12 Problem formulation

Industrial psychology has a unique and shared knowledge base that is founded upon

the principles and science of psychology. Although this knowledge base has been influenced

by other disciplines and sciences, industrial psychology is regarded as an applied sub-

discipline of psychology. Industrial psychologists are trained from the industrial psychology

knowledge base to become behavioural scientists and practitioners. Industrial psychologists

should therefore be able to understand, assess, explain, predict, influence, motivate, change,

and optimise behaviour in the workplace.

Perhaps the similarity in the work content of the industrial psychologist and the

human resource manager makes it particularly easy for industrial psychologists to be

employed as human resource management practitioners. As indicated in the study performed

by the SIOP (2009), industrial psychologists are fulfilling human resource management roles

regardless of their professional registration as psychologists. In South Africa, the results of

the study performed by SIOPSA in 2010, indicated that industrial psychologists practise

within various human resource management practice domains. The percentages of types of

activities performed by industrial psychologists that are considered to be human resource

management activities ranged from 3.8% to 37.1% (Society for Industrial and Organisational

Psychology South Africa, 2010).

If industrial psychologists are being employed as human resource management

practitioners, and are trained to be behavioural scientists in the workplace, then behavioural

science could be infused into the human resource management domains just the same. The

question is then posed: How could industrial psychologists apply the principles of psychology

when operating in the human resource management domains? Further aspects of the question

can be explored:

33

1) What are the psychological principles, theories, and methods that should be used

when operating in the human resource management domains?

2) What is the role of the Board of the HPCSA in ensuring that psychology is affirmed in

industrial psychology when industrial psychologists are functioning as human

resource management practitioners?

3) What context should employing organisations create to ensure that psychology is

affirmed in industrial psychology?

4) What should industrial psychologists do to ensure that they continually apply

psychological theories, principles, and models when working within these domains?

5) What factors inhibit the use of psychological principles, theories, and models when

operating in the human resource management domains?

The current study explores the means by which industrial psychologists could apply

the principles of psychology in the human resource management domains, with the purpose

of creating a framework for an ideal future for industrial psychologists functioning as human

resource management practitioners. The implementation of the framework may lead to

industrial psychologists being better positioned to embed behavioural science in the human

resource management domains. In addition, industrial psychologists may be able to utilise the

framework to question and reflect upon their current practices in the human resource

management domains in order to enable and enhance the application of psychology in those

domains. Additionally, in order to create a comprehensive framework, the perceptions of the

participants on the roles of the HPCSA and organisations in the application of psychology in

human resource management domains are also investigated in this study.

34

2.13 Integration

The professional nature of industrial psychology, as well as the discipline‟s science

and practice, was firstly discussed to provide a contextual perspective on the research

question. Topics covered within Chapter two to provide a contextual perspective on

industrial psychology included psychology and industrial psychology as a profession, the

scientist-practitioner model, the role of the Board of the HPCSA in the profession of

industrial psychology, the scope of practice of an industrial psychologist and psychological

profession competences. The aims of behavioural science in industrial psychology were listed

and validated by allocating some chapter headings of six industrial psychology introductory

textbooks to the listed aims in Table 3. The exercise of allocating chapter headings to the

aims of behavioural science in industrial psychology illustrated that industrial psychologists

use behavioural science as a basis for practice within the workplace. Despite workplace

behavioural science being a distinguishing factor of the field of industrial psychology, the

work content of industrial psychologists and human resource managers appears to be very

similar. Additionally, studies relating to the work activities performed by industrial

psychologists and the job titles of industrial psychologists were discussed to highlight the fact

that industrial psychologists are operating in human resource management domains. In order

to clarify the predominant domains in which industrial psychologists may be functioning,

eight human resource management textbooks were analysed. Lastly, the specific research

questions were formulated.

In order to investigate the research sub-questions posed, information was obtained and

analysed in such a way that it gives credence to and provides answers that are meaningful to

the research questions. The main research question is quite broad, and specific constructs

relating to the research question could not be specifically identified. Therefore, an

exploratory research design needed to be employed. Chapter Three outlines the research

35

design used to obtain the data required to answer the research question and to create a

framework for the futuristic state that could inform the use of psychology within the human

resource management domains.

36

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

Myers (2009) defines a research design as a „road map‟ for embarking upon a

research study (p. 19). The research design not only determines how data is going to be

collected, but also guides a researcher‟s decision-making process in determining what data

analysis methods are to be used and how data is going to be interpreted (Myers, 2009). The

research design utilised needs to be appropriate to the research question, the aim of the study,

and the nature of the study (Henning, Smit & Van Rensburg, (2004). The results of a

research study are influenced by the research design and, consequently, it is vital to ensure

that the research design, the research question, and the research goal are well suited. The

suitability of the research design to the research goals ensures that the research outcomes also

meet the criteria of quality research (Babbie, 2007). In the same way that the research design

needs to be appropriate to the research question and research goal, the theoretical paradigm,

the research strategy, and the research design utilised need to be well suited (Denzin &

Lincoln, 2005). Figure 1 is a graphic representation of the relationships between the

theoretical paradigm, the research approach, the research strategy, the data collection

methods, and the data analysis methods utilised in the current study. The research design

outlines the process adopted to understand the meanings of the participants who participated

in this study.

37

Triangulation

Figure 1

Research design

Ontology: Social constructionism

Epistemology: Narratives of the participant

Research paradigm: Interpretive

Research approach: Qualitative

Research strategy: Phenomenology

Sample: Purposive sampling (Industrial psychologists & industrial psychology postgraduates working within human resource management domains)

Data gathering technique: Three focus groups

Data-gathering technique: Seven in-depth semi-structured interviews

In-depth semi-structured interviews

Data analysis method: Content analysis

Research setting

Ethi

cal c

onsi

dera

tions

C

riteria for quality research

Data collection method for determining the quality of the results: Verification Survey

Integration of verification survey results in discussion

38

The research design utilised in this study will be elaborated upon in the discussion to

follow, where the appropriateness of each component of the research design will be discussed

in terms of the research question. In addition, the theoretical underpinnings of each research

design component will be discussed and, as a result, the coherence between the research

design and the design components will be illuminated. My ontology and epistemology will

firstly be explained. The research paradigm, approach, and strategy will be discussed,

followed by the sampling strategy, triangulation, the data-gathering techniques, the research

setting and the data analysis method. Excerpts from my personal journal are then shared. A

verification survey was sent to all participants via electronic mail to determine the extent to

which they agreed or disagreed with the main themes identified resulting from the data

analysis conducted. Following my personal journal entries, the details pertaining to the

construction and logistics of sending the survey to the participants will be elaborated on.

Finally, ethical considerations and strategies for ensuring quality research are discussed.

3.1.1 Ontology: Social constructionism

Ontology is a philosophical choice that people make on how to define reality (Crotty,

2003; Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). There are assumptions that underpin a person‟s ontology that

may be taken for granted (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). People may view reality from a

particular perspective without necessarily questioning the underlying assumptions that inform

those beliefs (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). It is important for researchers to understand what

their ontology is in order to elucidate the underlying assumptions of their chosen ontology.

Researchers need to report on their ontology and the relevant underlying assumptions in order

to account for the impact that these perspectives may have on the study (Denzin & Lincoln,

2005). In order to account for the researcher‟s impact or world view on this particular study,

my ontology and the relevant underpinning assumptions are expressed.

I believe that our reality has been socially constructed and, as such, we construct our

realities through interaction and conversations with others. Concepts and ideas are created

through our narratives, and these concepts and ideas become familiar and embedded in our

39

society through time (Crotty, 2003). We establish meaning patterns through repeating or

sharing the ideas and concepts created with others (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). Over time,

these patterns may appear to be objective or true, yet the seemingly objective reality is the

result of social interactions between people (Crotty, 2003; Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006).

Additionally, people exist within socially constructed structures such as cultures, religions,

and organisations that, in turn, influence their narratives (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). It then

becomes important to understand the context within which the meanings are constructed.

Despite my predominantly subjective view of reality, it is undeniable that there are aspects of

life that are true to all human beings despite our social creations that make up our reality.

There are universal laws, such as gravity, which are felt and known to everyone in the same

way.

As a result of my ontology, the research process was regarded as a process of social

construction. Participants were regarded as co-researchers in the research process and

through their narratives; participants were co-creating an ideal futuristic state or framework

for the use of psychology in human resource management domains. In addition, the use of

focus groups provided the platform from which participants were able to build upon each

other's ideas and experiences. Different perspectives were generated and intertwined in the

research process, which added depth and richness to the participants‟ co-constructions of an

ideal framework for the use of psychology in human resource management domains. As a

result of my ontology, the research process was regarded as a process of bridging meaning

between my academic experiences and the experiences of the participants of this study (cf.

Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006).

40

3.1.2 Epistemology

Epistemology is concerned with providing a philosophical foundation for

understanding how knowledge can be known from a particular perspective (Crotty, 2003;

Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). The philosophical foundations of a particular epistemology also

prescribe the criteria that discriminate valid or credible knowledge from invalid or unreliable

knowledge (Crotty, 2003; Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). Epistemology is closely related to

ontology, as the relevant epistemic understanding of valid or credible knowledge depends on

the applicable ontological assumptions (Crotty, 2003; Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). It is

important for researchers to report on their epistemic beliefs in order to asses how knowledge

is known, as well as to evaluate what is considered to be valid and credible knowledge.

I believe that knowledge is generated as a result of social interactions between people.

From my epistemic beliefs, no social objective truth exists, but rather meaning is created

through the interaction between people (cf. Crotty, 2003). The importance of people‟s

narratives in the co-construction of reality cannot be overstated. Since people construct their

reality through interaction, knowledge is gained through listening and telling stories (Hatch &

Cunliffe, 2006). In terms of conducting research, knowledge is gained from listening and

responding to participants' narratives. The aim of conducting research from a social

constructionism perspective is not to find an objective truth, but rather to understand the

participants‟ meanings. The quality of knowledge generated in a research endeavour from

this epistemic perspective is determined by the extent to which the researcher‟s representation

of the knowledge generated reflects the context and the meanings of the participants (Guba &

Lincoln, 1985).

In terms of this study, participants were asked to share their thoughts and ideas as to

how psychology should be practised within the human resource management domains.

Participants were also encouraged to share their personal experiences as behavioural

41

scientists working within the human resource management domains, in order to gain insights

as to how these experiences could shape the futuristic framework. The personal experiences,

thoughts, and ideas on the research question that were elicited and shared by the participants

were considered to be valuable knowledge from my ontological and epistemic perspectives.

In addition, the research process of collecting and analysing data was also part of the social

construction of knowledge, as I was required to interpret the knowledge obtained. Strategies

were, however, employed to ensure that the knowledge generated closely reflected the

participants‟ meanings. The strategies employed are discussed in detail in section 3.2.15 of

this chapter.

3.1.3 Research paradigm: Interpretive

A paradigm is a philosophical perspective with certain beliefs and assumptions about

how the world is viewed and how knowledge from this perspective can be obtained (Neuman,

2000). It is important that the research question and research paradigm are aligned, as the

underlying paradigmatic beliefs and assumptions will largely determine the type of

information obtained during the study. There are four main paradigms that can be used in

social sciences to obtain knowledge about a particular phenomenon. These are positivism,

interpretivism, the critical paradigm, and postmodernism (Neuman, 2000; Grbich, 2007). An

interpretive, qualitative research approach was used in the current research study. Theoretical

perspectives on the interpretive paradigm are provided, and reasons for adopting the

interpretive paradigmatic beliefs and assumptions in this study are highlighted.

The only way of knowing from an interpretive paradigm perspective is through

understanding the meanings of participants (Locke & Golden-Biddle, 2002). Facts are

considered to be unstable and reliant on the context within which they occur (Neuman, 2000).

An interpretive researcher strives to understand the context of the construction of meaning to

42

obtain a rich understanding of the phenomena in question (Neuman, 2000). A prominent

aspect of the research question is how psychology could be practised within a human

resource management context. For this reason, it was critical to understand the participants‟

experiences as trained behavioural experts functioning in human resource management

contexts in order to frame a futuristic state for the use of psychology in the human resource

management context. Gathering data on the meanings ascribed by the participants in relation

to the context within which the practice of psychology occurs was possible as a result of the

interpretive paradigm assumptions.

In addition, from an interpretive paradigm perspective, people are perceived as

actively constructing and giving meaning to their world (Locke & Golden-Biddle, 2002;

Neuman, 2000). As a result, obtaining rich data is not only critical to accessing the meanings

of participants, but is also important for obtaining an understanding as to how they

constructed those meanings (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). In terms of this study, obtaining rich

data on the participants‟ experiences of operating in human resource management domains

provided information that was important to understanding how they could use psychology

within those domains. The experiences shared by the participants in the use of psychology

within the human resource management domains contributed to the formation of an ideal

framework for the use of psychology within the human resource management domains. It

was possible to explore the participants‟ experiences, due to the philosophical perspective of

the interpretive paradigm, and that the same interpretive assumption allowed for the

construction of an ideal framework for the use of psychology in the human resource

management domains.

43

3.1.4 Research approach: Qualitative approach

The qualitative approach to research is situated within the interpretive paradigm

(Neuman, 2000). Denzin and Lincoln (2005) explain that "qualitative" refers to a quality or

character of an entity as opposed to the quantity or amount thereof. The distinction between

qualitative and quantitative research can be described in terms of the purpose each approach

aims to achieve. Qualitative research focuses on the description and clarification of a

phenomenon in order to gain a better understanding of the meanings ascribed by the

participants to the phenomenon in question (Barbour, 2008). Quantitative research, in

comparison, is best suited to identifying causal relationships that exist between constructs for

the purpose of generalising results across groups of people (Neuman, 2000 & Bergh, 2003).

From the descriptions of qualitative and quantitative approaches, a qualitative approach was

considered appropriate for investigating the research question and achieving the research aim

of the current study.

In terms of the research questions posed, the purpose of the inquiry was to explore the

common themes that existed for determining a futuristic framework for the application of

psychology in the human resource management domains by industrial psychologists. As

indicated earlier, the contextual and exploratory nature of the inquiry was too vast for specific

constructs to be identified or for causal relationships to be proven from a quantitative

perspective. In addition, the research question required an investigation of the various

aspects that could result in the application of psychology in the human resource management

domains. The study required participants to describe and create meaning relevant to the

research topic (Crotty, 1998). The qualitative approach to research, through the appropriate

data-collection and analysis methodologies, delivered rich, descriptive information on how

psychology could be applied in the human resource management domains (cf. Crotty, 1998).

Understanding and creating meaning was particularly important for achieving the aim of this

44

study and the qualitative approach to research resulted in the appropriate data required to

answer the research question.

3.1.5 Research strategy: Phenomenology

According to Denzin and Lincoln (2005), the various research strategies used to

conduct an inquiry into social phenomena are case studies, ethnography, phenomenology and

ethnomethodology, grounded theory, life history, historical method, action and applied

research, and clinical research. For the purposes of this study, phenomenology was used.

The principles of phenomenology make provision for researchers to set aside their

own understanding of the phenomenon and to reflect upon their experience of the

phenomenon (Crotty, 1998). By doing so, new meanings or enhancements of these meanings

become possible. This requires a keen sense of self on the part of the researcher in order to

identify the interpretations that are being made based on the personal beliefs, values, and

attitudes of the researcher (Crotty, 1998). When researchers become aware of their

interpretations, they are able to distinguish between their personal judgements and the

essence of the participants‟ meanings (Crotty, 1998; Grbich, 2007). Since the only way of

knowing from the interpretive paradigm is through understanding the meanings of

participants, the phenomenological research strategy is aligned with the interpretive

paradigm. Phenomenology ensures that the participant‟s version is highlighted and

represented.

I chose phenomenological principles as the research strategy due to the fact that

phenomenological principles provide the basis for allowing the participants' opinions as to

how psychology could be applied in the human resource management domains to surface.

Beyond this, phenomenology also provided a space for the essence of the individual and

collective meanings to come to light with regards to a futuristic framework that could inform

45

the use of psychology by industrial psychologists in the human resource management

domains. Researcher reflection is an expression of the phenomenology research strategy

(Gribch, 2007), and in terms of the current study, I reflected upon the processes of data

collection and kept a personal journal during data analysis. The structure of my reflections

during data collection and analysis are dealt with in section 3.2.12 of this chapter.

3.1.6 Sampling strategy: Purposive sampling

Purposive sampling methods were used to identify and invite participants to

participate in this research study. Purposive sampling refers to setting criteria for

representation of key attributes for data collection (Barbour, 2008; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Participants were invited to participate in the study if they met both of the following criteria:

Registration as an industrial psychologist, alternatively a Master‟s

qualification in industrial psychology, and

at least three years' experience in human resource management.

The criteria were established in order to ensure that the information obtained from the

participants was relevant to the research questions. Registered industrial psychologists and

participants with Master's degrees in industrial psychology have been trained from the

industrial psychology knowledge base. Participants who are registered industrial

psychologists and/or who have a Master's qualification in industrial psychology are regarded

as workplace behavioural experts, as the industrial psychology knowledge base is founded

upon the principles of psychology. Since the participants had workplace behavioural

knowledge, they could indicate how psychology could be applied within the organisational

context. In addition, participants were required to have a minimum of three years' human

resource management experience, which was considered ample in order for participants to

make a meaningful contribution to this study.

46

Table 7 is a matrix of the biographical information of the participants who took part in

this study. Table 7 presents the following relevant information: age, gender, registration as

an industrial psychologist, human resource management experience in years, and

qualification. Biographical information sheets were completed by most of the participants

who participated in the study. In cases where biographical information sheets were not

completed by participants, the participants' details were confirmed either telephonically or via

electronic mail. Table 7 demonstrates the credibility of the participants who took part in the

study.

47

Table 7

Biographical information matrix of participants

Data gathering technique

Participants Age (years)

Gender Registered industrial

psychologist

Human resource management experience

(years)

Qualification

In-depth, semi

structured interviews

1 50-60 Female Yes 20 D.Com Industrial Psychology

2 31-40 Female Yes 20 M.Com Human Resource Management

3 51-60 Male Yes 15 PhD. Industrial Psychology

4 41-50 Female Yes 20 MA. Industrial Psychology

5 41-50 Male Yes 17 M.Com Industrial Psychology

6 51-60 Female Yes 20 M.Com Industrial Psychology

7 60 Male Yes 33 D.Com Industrial Psychology

Focus groups

8 51-60 Female Yes 29 M.Com Industrial Psychology

9 31-40 Female Yes 4 M.Com Industrial Psychology

10 51-60 Male Yes 31 M.Com Personnel Management

41-50 Female Yes 18 M.Com Human Resource Management

11 41-50 Male Yes 20 M.Com Industrial Psychology

12 41-50 Female Yes 20 PhD. Industrial Psychology

13 51-60 Male Yes 27 M.Com Personnel Management

14 31-40 Male Yes 6 M.Com Industrial Psychology

15 31-40 Female Yes 10 MA. Industrial Psychology

16 31-40 Female No 20 M.Com Industrial Psychology

17 21-30 Male No 4 M.Com Industrial Psychology

18 51-60 Male Yes 25 M.Com Industrial Psychology

48

Data gathering technique

Participants Age (years)

Gender Registered industrial

psychologist

Human resource management experience

(years)

Qualification

19 31-40 Male No 20 MA. Industrial Psychology

20 51-60 Male Yes 31 M.Com Industrial Psychology

21 51-60 Female Yes 29 M.Com Industrial Psychology

3.1.7 Triangulation

Triangulation was used in this study to improve the credibility of the findings (cf.

Guba & Lincoln, 1985). There are four different possible modes of triangulation, and these

include the use of multiple and different sources, methods, investigators, and theories

(Denzin, 1978 in Guba & Lincoln, 1985). In the current study, different and multiple

methods were used to improve the credibility of the data obtained. Seven in-depth, semi-

structured interviews and three focus groups were used to meet the requirements of multiple

and different methods of triangulation.

Triangulation can increase the confidence in the results of a study and strengthen the

completeness of the study (Arksey & Knight, 1999). Data obtained from different methods

contributes more to the understanding of research questions (Arksey & Knight, 1999). By

using different methods, different perspectives on the research topic are elicited. A deeper

understanding of the research question is secured as a result of the multiple perspectives,

which improves the quality of the research findings (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

In the current study, the structure of the in-depth, semi-structured interviews ensured

that the participants were able to provide an in-depth explanation of their experiences as

industrial psychologists functioning in human resource management domains. In addition,

the interviews ensured that participants were able to explain in depth a futuristic perspective

49

on the use of psychology within the human resource management domains. The focus groups

consisted of many participants, which created a dynamic where participants were able to

build upon and, on occasion, dispute each other's ideas. The dynamics of the focus group

generated many complex perspectives on a futuristic framework for the application of

psychology within the human resource management domains. The data-gathering techniques

used in the current study generated information that had depth and richness, resulting from

the in-depth, semi-structured interviews (cf. Arksey & Knight, 1999), as well as complexity,

resulting from the focus groups (cf. Litosseliti, 2003). The data obtained from each method

was uniquely beneficial to the interpretation of an aspirational framework for the application

of psychology within the human resource management domains. Accordingly, the structure

of each data-collection method elicited information with different and valuable properties

(Barbour, 2007; Schurink & Schurink, 2011), and subsequently improved the confidence in

the results of this study. The data collection methods as well as their inherent benefits are

addressed in the following sections.

3.1.8 In-depth, semi-structured interviews

Meanings ascribed to a phenomenon by a participant could be accessed through the

use of interviews (Burman, 1994). According to Arksey and Knight (1999), qualitative

interviews allow participants to make overt what is embedded in their perceptions,

understandings, and feelings. Meanings that are implicit to the participant are made explicit

through an interview, which was an especially valuable advantage of using in-depth, semi-

structured interviews in the current study. The application of psychological principles,

theories, and models are mostly implicit to each participant. From an interpretive, qualitative

approach, and in terms of the research question, the objective of the study was to understand

how the principles of psychology could be applied in human resource management domains.

50

In-depth, semi-structured interviews were the means by which I could access the participants‟

authentic views on the topic.

During the in-depth, semi-structured interviews, certain themes were covered whilst

flexibility was retained to allow participants to control what was said, where they wanted to

add more data, and where not (cf. Arksey & Knight, 1999; cf. Marshall & Rossman, 1999).

Open-ended questions were posed to the participants during the interviews to ensure that rich

data from each participant‟s perspective was obtained (cf. Arksey & Knight, 1999), whilst

relevance to the research question was maintained. The less structured nature of the in-depth,

semi-structured interview was therefore in accordance with the principles of the interpretive

paradigm and qualitative approach in that the interviews allowed the participants to share

their perspectives with little guidance on what to say. Accordingly, the interviews were the

means by which I learnt, through the participants' ideas and experiences, how psychology

could be used in the human resource management domains. In order to capitalise on the

benefits of an in-depth, semi-structured interview listed, a pilot interview was conducted.

During the pilot interview, the effectiveness in yielding rich, contextual data in

relation to the questions posed was assessed. The questions asked in the pilot interview are

provided in Table 8. After the pilot interview was conducted, another question was added to

the interview questions. The question added was: “What factors do you think restrict the use

of psychological theories, principles, and models when working within the human resource

management practice domains?”

An audio recorder was used in the pilot interview as well as every other interview to

record the participants‟ narratives. The interview questions were sent via electronic mail to

P3, P4, P5, and P6 a few days before their interviews were conducted, in order to provide

them with the opportunity to prepare. I had learnt from the previous in-depth, semi-

51

structured interviews conducted that the participants may have wanted some time to reflect

on the research questions before their scheduled interviews. During the interviews, all the

participants were provided with a document listing the predominant human resource

management domains identified in section 2.2.11 of Chapter Two, namely performance

management and human resource potential assessment, human resource acquisition, human

resource development, compensation, industrial relations, and employee welfare and

wellness.

52

Table 8

Questions asked in the pilot interview

Questions Probing questions

1. What is the purpose of a human resource management function in organisations?

2. Industrial psychologists often work as human resource management practitioners in organisations. What makes them different from human resource management practitioners who are NOT industrial psychologists?

3. Tell me about the role of psychology in modern human resource management practices within organisations?

4. What psychological theories, principles, and methods are important for you to use when operating in these human resource management domains?

1) What psychological theories should be considered when operating in the identified human resource management domains?

2) What are the psychological principles that should be used when operating in the identified human resource management domains?

3) What methods should you use when working from a psychological knowledge base in the identified human resource management domains?

5. What is the role of the HPCSA in ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology?

1) What guidelines should the HPCSA establish to ensure that psychological theories, principles, and models are used within each of the predominant human resource management domains?

6. What context should employing organisations create to ensure that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology?

1) How should organisations support the use of psychological principles and methods when working within the identified human resource management domains?

2) How could organisations enable the use of psychological principles and methods when practising within the identified human resource management domains?

7. What should you do to ensure that you continually apply psychological theories, principles, and models when working within the human resource management domains?

1) How should you go about practising from a psychological knowledge base when practising within the identified human resource management domains?

2) What actions should you take to ensure that you practise from a psychological knowledge base?

3) How would you know that you are practising from a psychological knowledge base when practising within the identified human resource management domains?

3.1.9 Focus groups

A focus group is a discussion between a small number of individuals who share

commonality on a particular aspect relevant to the research question(s) (Schurink &

53

Schurink, 2011). An encouraging and open environment created by the moderator is

necessary in order to elicit a dynamic group interaction between participants (Marshall &

Rossman, 1999). Group dynamics provide another facet to gaining rich data, and for this

reason, three focus group sessions were conducted in addition to the interviews, in order to

collect data in the current study.

Insightful information was generated on the research question as a result of the focus

groups sessions. Participants shared their experiences of being employed as human resource

managers and the use of psychology within the human resource management domains. As

discussed, the participants built upon each other's ideas, and refuted or confirmed the ideas

shared (cf. Litosseli, 2003). The insights shared amongst the participants resulted in a

complex construction of meanings with regards to the research question (cf. Litosseliti,

2003). The focus group not only generated complex information but also created the

opportunity for the social construction of an ideal futuristic framework for the application of

psychology in the human resource management domains. The sharing of ideas and

experiences amongst participants in the focus group was the manifestation of a social

construction of a futuristic state. Since focus groups represent a constructivist data collection

method (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) and a constructivist perspective is situated within the

interpretive paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), focus groups were well suited to the

research design and paradigm of the current study.

The focus groups were conducted using the same questions employed in the in-depth

semi-structured interviews; however, question four of Table 8 changed slightly. The focus

group participants were only asked to provide the psychological theories that should be used

within the identified human resource management domains. The focus groups' narratives

were recorded with audio recorders and their interactions were facilitated by industrial

psychologists with experience in moderating focus groups.

54

3.1.10 Research setting

It is crucial to the data collection phase to ensure that the interviewees are comfortable

and at ease (Arksey & Knight, 1999; Schurink & Schurink, 2011). The research setting

contributes to ensuring that the interviewees are comfortable. The in-depth, semi-structured

interviews were conducted at a venue chosen by the respective interviewees. The settings

within which the interviews took place were quiet, comfortable, and free from distractions.

A venue at a university in Johannesburg was used to conduct two of the three focus

group sessions. The other session was held in a conference room at one of the participants'

place of employment. The rooms were quiet, free from distractions, and participants were

seated such that they were all able to face one another (cf. Barbour, 2007; cf. Schurink &

Schurink, 2011). Once data had been collected, the data was transcribed from the audio

recordings into text for analysis.

3.1.11 Data analysis: Content analysis

As mentioned previously, content analysis was used to analyse the data. According to

Grbich (2007), there are different methods of content analysis, which include enumerative

(referring to the number of times words occur in text) as opposed to the thematic method that

requires coding frames to analyse text. Thematic analysis was used in the current study to

analyse the data. Thematic analysis involves the analysis of data in order to uncover

meanings ascribed by participants to the phenomenon under investigation through the

identification of patterns in text and meaning (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In the current study,

an inductive approach was adopted to analyse the data collected, where I was guided by the

data (cf. Braun & Clarke, 2006). The data were not shaped against any theoretical

frameworks due to the exploratory nature of the research study (cf. Braun & Clarke, 2006). In

addition to and in accordance with the phenomenological approach described in section 3.1.5

55

of this chapter, the analysis of the data was conducted with the aim of uncovering the

meanings of the participants in this research study (cf. Grbich, 2007). The guiding principle

employed throughout the analysis process was to allow common meanings of the participants

to surface through identifying particular patterns and meanings ascribed by the participants in

relation to the research question.

The process followed to analyse the data included becoming familiar with the data

and creating coding frames through a systematic and comprehensive engagement with the

data (cf. Braun & Clarke, 2006). Once the data had been read through a few times, the

analytic process of open coding was used, firstly, to establish initial concepts and categories

(cf. Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Open coding is an analytic process through which concepts are

identified and their properties discovered (Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Open coding was

utilised initially, since the nature of the current study was exploratory and open coding

allowed the participants' meanings to be established without being shaped against theory. As

such, words and phrases were analysed and coded relative to the objective of the study. The

level of abstraction for generating codes varied between the participants' literal words and

inclusive concepts. For example, where a participant explained that the HPCSA‟s role is to

protect the public from harm from the professions it regulates, or that the HPCSA ensures

that the professions it regulates practises within their respective scopes of practice, an

inclusive code was formulated to retain the meaning of both statements. The inclusive code

in this instance was: “HPCSA‟s role is regulatory.” In other cases, where these were

adequately succinct and poignant, the participant‟s words were used literally for the code.

The nuanced meanings of the participants were recorded in my diary for reflection and

inclusion in first-order theme descriptions. Following open coding, categories of data were

collapsed, based on shared meanings, to form themes (cf. Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Refining

the themes in relation to the whole of the data set and extracting pertinent portions of the data

56

set that related specifically to the research questions were necessary (cf. Braun & Clarke,

2006).

3.1.12 Personal journal

I reflected during data collection and data analysis in order to make the distinction

between personal and participant meanings (cf. Grbich, 2007). As discussed, the credibility

of findings made in a qualitative study depends on the extent to which the results reflect the

participants‟ points of view (Schurink, 2009). In the current study, I reflected on each in-

depth, semi-structured interview and each focus group session. I also kept a personal journal

for reflection during the data analysis phase.

The topics reflected on for each in-depth semi-structured interview and focus group

included methodological notes, field notes, personal notes, and insights obtained from the

interview. The purpose of reflecting on the method of the interviews was to ensure that

problems identified during the interview process would be averted in the next interview or

focus group session. The methodical notes also served the purpose of reflecting upon the

impact that my behaviour had had on the participants‟ answers. Additionally, the reflections

on the interviews and the focus groups served the purpose of making a distinction between

personal interpretations and judgements and the participants‟ meanings.

A personal journal was kept during analysis of the data. The purpose of utilising a

personal journal was to ensure that personal interpretations and evaluations were kept from

contaminating the data. The data needed to closely reflect the participants‟ narratives, and for

this reason personal judgements and interpretations were recorded separately in the journal.

A personal journal was kept during the analysis to ensure that important insights and nuance

differences in the meanings between participants were also recorded.

57

3.1.13 Verification survey

As highlighted within this chapter, the trustworthines of a qualitative study is

determined by the extent to which the results of a study reflect the participants‟ perspectives

(Schurink, 2009). Once the data in the current study had been gathered and analysed, first-

order and second-order/main themes were identified. The themes3 identified were used to

formulate a survey. The survey was constructed around the main themes found, and the

participants were able to rate the extent to which they strongly agreed with, agreed with,

neither agreed or disagreed with, disagreed with, or strongly disagreed with the main

themes. The first-order themes were included in the survey, but served only to describe their

respective nine main themes. Participants were not able to rate the first-order themes in the

survey. Participants were also provided with a comment box per main theme to raise

concerns where they saw necessary.

The survey was constructed electronically via a programme called "polldaddy" by my

supervisor, and was tested before the link was sent to each participant. The link was sent by

electronic mail. Once the participants clicked with their computer mouse on the link

provided in the electronic mail, another screen featuring the survey opened automatically.

The survey could only be completed once the participant was connected to the Internet. Once

each participant had completed the survey, an automatic response with each respondent‟s

responses to the main themes was sent to my electronic mail box for review of the results.

The results of the survey were then interpreted and integrated in the discussion, as

demonstrated in Chapter Five.

3 A detailed account of the main themes identified resulting from data analysis is discussed in chapter four.

58

3.1.14 Ethical considerations

Scientists need to adhere to strict ethical principles when conducting research. The

ethical principles identified and consequently accounted for within the current study included

transparency, informed consent, respect, confidentiality, anonymity, and authenticity of the

data (cf. Myers, 2009). In terms of transparency and informed consent, I ensured that the

participants were informed of the purpose of the research study before they agreed to

participate in the study. Permission to audio record the interviews and focus group sessions

was also obtained from participants. Participants were required to sign an informed consent

form in confirmation of being informed of the purpose of the study and the use of audio

recorders.

In terms of the principle of respect, I exercised sensitivity due to the nature of the

questions posed. It was important from the commencement of the process to ensure that the

participants had clarity regarding the purpose of the inquiry. It was made clear that the

research question was to establish how psychology could be utilised in the predominant

human resource management domains, and not to criticise what they were or were not doing.

Importantly, I remained focussed on the purpose of the study and avoided making

comparisons between the fields of human resource management and industrial psychology

when reporting on the results and the findings.

In addition to the abovementioned ethical considerations, confidentiality and

anonymity of participants' narratives and identity were observed. During the in-depth semi-

structured interviews, the participants remained anonymous. Participant names were not

mentioned during the interviews in order to avoid identification from the audio recordings.

In the event that participant names were mentioned in the focus groups audio recordings,

their names were deleted from the transcripts. The members who participated in the focus

group sessions were also required to sign a confidentiality agreement to safeguard the

59

anonymity of all the group members who had participated in the particular focus group.

Participants who had completed the verification survey were not identified, and remained

anonymous as a result. The participants‟ personal computer ID, the location, and the time that

the survey was completed were the only information that featured in the automatic electronic

mail response sent to my electronic mail box. I did not have information with which to

identify the participants who had completed the survey.

To assure the authenticity of data, I needed to ensure that the participants'

perspectives were reported on with little interpretation and judgement from myself. This

principle was exercised in the data collection and analysis stages. Clarification questions and

topical questions were the only types of questions posed to the participants during data

collection. As discussed, a personal journal was kept during data analysis to ensure that the

results generated were an authentic representation of the participants‟ meanings.

Since I am studying to become an industrial psychologist, it was also important for

me not to make any unfounded or inflated interpretations relating to industrial psychologists

or the research question. I also had to guard against becoming emotionally involved in the

data collected. Participants occasionally compared industrial psychologists and human

resource managers. I therefore had to ensure that I remained focussed on the fact that data

was required on the behavioural approach of industrial psychologists to the human resource

management domains as opposed to the difference between industrial psychology and human

resource management.

3.1.15 Strategies for ensuring quality research

Guba and Lincoln (1985) provide four criteria to evaluate the quality of a research

design, which are: credibility, confirmability, transferability, and dependability. The four

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criteria can be achieved by prolonged engagement, persistent observation, and triangulation

(Guba & Lincoln, 1985). In terms of the current research study, triangulation was used to

ensure that the findings were credible. As indicated earlier in this chapter, different and

multiple data collection modes were used, namely in-depth, semi-structured interviews and

focus groups. Credibility is regarded as the most important quality criteria, while

confirmability, transferability, and dependability add to the quality and trustworthiness of a

qualitative study (Guba & Lincoln, 1985). These criteria replace the traditional positivist,

quantitative criteria for determining the quality of good research, namely internal validity,

external validity, reliability, and objectivity (Schurink, 2009).

Credibility refers to the integrity of the research study, which is attained by ensuring

that the researcher constructs the outcomes as close to the participants' views as possible

(Schurink, 2009). Confirmability refers to whether the study can be confirmed through the

evidence provided (Schurink, 2009). Transferability refers to the extent to which the study is

transferable to another context (Schurink, 2009). Finally, dependability refers to the degree

to which the study was comprehensive, logical, well documented, and reviewed (Schurink,

2009). The strategies employed in the current study to meet the four criteria listed are

addressed hereunder.

During data collection, I evaluated my understanding of the participant's meanings

with the participant by summarising or highlighting key points of the participant's responses

to the questions posed. Where aspects of the participant's message were not clear, I requested

further clarification from the participant. In addition, a verification survey was constructed

and sent to participants for response in order to improve the credibility of the study. The

purpose of constructing and inviting participants to take part in the survey was to evaluate the

extent to which the main themes identified resulting from the data analysis reflected the

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participants‟ points of view. Another strategy employed to improve the credibility of the

findings was reflecting and recording notes in a personal diary during data analysis. The

purpose of recording reflections was to ensure that the participants‟ meanings were accurately

represented in this study.

As discussed, the data collected from the seven in-depth, semi-structured interviews

and the three focus groups were transcribed into text. During data analysis, the codes

allocated to the participants‟ words and phrases were recorded on the transcribed documents.

Once each focus group or interview had been analysed, a table was formulated, which

included all the codes created from the respective interviews. The coded data and the tables

created are evidence of data collection and analysis and, as a result, the quality criterion of

confirmability was met.

Lastly, my supervisors were engaged throughout the research process, from

conceptualisation to reporting on the findings of the results. The supervisors provided

guidance on the formulation of the research question, during data collection and during data

analysis. Consequent to my supervisors‟ guidance, rigour was reinforced and completeness

of the study was assured. I also reflected on the information obtained from the data

collection and during data analysis.

3.2 Integration

An overview of the research design was provided in this chapter. Ontology and

epistemology were, firstly, theoretically defined and, subsequently, described in terms of my

own personal beliefs. I related my own ontological and epistemic beliefs in terms of this

study to account for the impact that my beliefs had on this study. Secondly, the theoretical

underpinnings of the interpretive paradigm, the qualitative approach, and phenomenology

were discussed. The relevance of the research paradigm, the research approach, and the

62

research strategy used in this study were also elucidated. Thirdly, a purposive sampling

strategy was used in this study, and the criteria for participation were presented.

Triangulation was used to improve the quality of the findings, and was discussed in this

chapter. The data-gathering techniques used were also described in terms of theory, and

confirmed appropriate to the purposes of the study and the research paradigm utilised. The

logistics and technicalities of the research setting were briefly discussed. Content analysis

was described and discussed in terms of the practical analysis of the data gathered. The

structure and purpose of reflecting on the data gathering techniques and keeping a personal

journal were discussed. The construction of the verification survey was discussed, the details

of how the survey was sent to the participants, and received from the participants once the

survey was completed was also addressed. Lastly, the ethics of the research were considered

and reported on, and the strategies employed to ensure that the research was conducted to

meet the criteria of quality research were discussed.

In Chapter Four, the results of the study are provided. The process adopted to distil

first- and second-order themes from the vast amount of information obtained is discussed in

detail. Descriptions of the first- and second-order themes are also presented. The results of

the verification survey are discussed and presented in tabular format.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

The results of this study are presented in two main sections, namely first-order themes

and second-order themes. Before addressing the first- and second-order themes, the analytic

process of open coding is described in order to explain how the transcribed data were

analysed and subsequently condensed into codes. Then the process of further condensing the

codes to first-order themes is described and depicted in Table 9. The-first order themes are

listed and described in Table 10, where supporting quotations from the participants are

provided as evidence of the themes identified. I included excerpts from my journal that

describe personal insights gained from the data analysis. A higher level of conceptualisation

was required to progress from first-order themes to second-order themes in order to capture

the meanings of the participants concisely. The process of conceptualising the second-order

themes and categorising the first-order themes is discussed. Finally the results of the survey

conducted to determine the extent to which the results of this study reflect the participants‟

perspectives is discussed and presented in Table 12.

4.2 Open coding

The audio recordings of the seven in-depth, semi-structured interviews and the three

focus groups sessions were transcribed verbatim into text. The total number of words of the

transcribed text amounted to 131 813 for the interviews and the focus groups. Each interview

and focus group transcript was read through twice before coding the data, and each interview

or focus group session was analysed completely before reading and analysing the next

transcript.

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Data was coded each time the concept or idea was discussed by the participant(s).

The initial round of coding generated 328 codes in total for the interviews and focus groups.

It is also important to note that some information in the data was not coded due to the

irrelevance thereof to the research question. Once the data had been coded, a table was

formulated per interview or focus group. The table was structured around four fields namely,

codes identified, the number of times the code was noted in the data set, supporting

quotations, and important key words for the description of first-order themes. The table was

populated around the four fields identified per in-depth, semi-structured interview and focus

group.

4.3 First-order themes

First-order themes were identified by grouping the codes produced by the open coding

process. The 328 initial themes produced by open coding were reduced to 48. Codes were

categorised based on shared meanings to form first-order themes (cf. Corbin & Strauss,

1998). More specifically, codes were grouped to form themes based on the literal meanings

of the participants, inclusive concepts, and the essence of the participant‟s message. For

instance, where participants indicated that "the human resource management function is

determined by the organisational context," the phrases or examples provided by the

participants were coded and grouped together to form a theme based on the literal meanings

of the participants.

In terms of creating themes based on inclusive concepts, participants may have, for

instance, mentioned many different factors that restrict the use of psychology in the human

resource management domains. These themes were grouped together to formulate an

inclusive theme, and labelled "factors that inhibit the use of psychology in the human

resource management domains". Many of the different factors listed were often mentioned

65

less than five times in the transcripts, and for this reason an inclusive concept was formed to

retain the data. The inclusive concept "factors that inhibit the use of psychology within the

human resource management domains" retains the meaning of all the different examples that

were mentioned as inhibiting factors.

Lastly, in terms of creating themes from the essence of the participants' meanings,

participants provided examples of psychological theories that may underpin the human

resource management domains. As a result of the many theories identified, these were

grouped together to form the theme labelled "psychological component underpins the human

resource management domains." Table 9 demonstrates how each first-order theme was

formulated from the 328 codes generated in terms of the three criteria discussed within this

section. It is important to note that, in some cases, codes were generated using the literal

meanings of some participants, and the same codes were generated based on the essence of

another participant‟s meaning. Both participants were conveying the same meaning and, as a

result, the same code was used. Reference is made within the text and tables to follow to IP,

HR practitioner or manager and IPHR practitioner which represent industrial psychologists,

human resource management practitioner or manager and industrial psychologist human

resource management practitioner respectively.

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Table 9

Conversion of 328 codes to first-order themes

First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning

Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts

Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning

1. HPCSA‟s role is regulatory X X

2. HPCSA lacks understanding of industrial psychology

X

3. HPCSA‟s educational role X

4. HPCSA‟s and SIOPSA‟s roles in educating stakeholders

X

5. Internship programme inadequate X

6. Universities differ in terms of the prescribed curricula for the training of prospective IPs

X

7. IPs' training is inadequate in ensuring that IPs are able to apply psychological principles, theories, and models to the business context

X X

8. Experienced IPHR practitioners require more opportunities for professional development

X

9. Psychometrics distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners

X

10. Application of psychological principles in human resource management domains tends to distinguish IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners

X X

11. IPs tend to question the behavioural impact of business practices

X

12. IPs tend to think eclectically and integrate information when determining an appropriate solution for business problem

X X

13. IPs have unique training X

14. IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor

X

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First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning

Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts

Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning

15. IPs are inclined to protect the interests of people in the workplace

X

16. IPs are inclined to have a systems perspective

X

17. IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles in organisations

X

18. HR practitioners tend to focus on maintenance and survival issues; IPHR practitioners are inclined to focus on strategic and growth issues

X X

19. Factors that tend to distinguish an IPHR practitioner from an HR practitioner

X

20. IPs' professional identity in question X

21. IPs' direct reporting line as a inhibiting factor in the use of psychology within organisations

X

22. Little understanding of industrial psychology profession in organisations and society

X

23. IPs have limited scope to practise psychology within organisations

X X

24. IPs' potential contribution to organisations is limited by the perception that IPs' value-add is limited to psychometrics

X

25. HR practitioners are sometimes just as or even more effective than IPHR practitioners

X

26. Factors that inhibit the use of psychological principles, theories, and models when working within an human resource management function

X

27. Human resource management function determined by organisational context

X

28. Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

X

29. Organisational culture as an enabler for the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

X

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First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning

Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts

Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning

30. Leaders play a critical role in the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

X

31. Complimentary relationship between IP and HR practitioners

X X

32. IPs establish credibility through various means

X X

33. Human resource management as a function can make a strategic contribution

X

34. Psychological component underpins human resource management domains

X X

35. IPHR practitioners need to base their practice on evidence

X

36. IPs need to use current, valid, and reliable tools

X

37. IPs need to distinguish between fad and science

X

38. IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base

X

39. IPs need to have a strong personal stance X X

40. IPs need to challenge their own processes

X X

41. IP‟s need to play the role of a constructive critic in organisations

X X

42. IPs need more counselling skills X

43. HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective in their roles

X

44. IPs need to translate psychological principles, theories, and methods to the business context

X

45. IPs need to demonstrate their contribution

X

46. IPs are responsible for creating a context in which psychology is used within the human resource management domains

X X

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First-order themes Themes grouped together based on their literal meaning

Themes grouped together based on inclusive concepts

Themes grouped together based on the essence of the participants’ meaning

47. IPs need to enhance the credibility of the HRM profession

X

48. IPs should form a common professional identity

X

Themes that were coded fewer than five times in the transcripts were excluded from

the first-order themes. Due to the vastness of the data obtained and considering the

importance of retaining the meaning of the participants, excluding themes that were coded

less than five times in the transcripts was deemed acceptable. However, some themes that

were coded less than five times in the transcripts were indeed included in the study due to the

significance of the theme to the study. The first-order themes that were included in the 48

themes are: Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of

psychological principles, theories, and models; IPs need to distinguish between fad and

science; IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor; IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles

in organisations; and HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective

in their roles.

The reason for the inclusion of the first order theme: Organisations providing the

IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and

models, is due to the fact that this theme highlights the role that organisations can fulfil in the

use of psychology in the human resource management domains. In addition, the reason for

including the theme: IPs need to distinguish between fad and science, is due to the fact that

the theme relates to the importance of industrial psychologists relying on their scientific

knowledge to stay true to the scientific practice of psychology in the human resource

management domains. The scientist-practitioner model encapsulates the dual nature of

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industrial psychology (Britt & Jex, 2008) and the theme: IPs' scientific orientation is a

distinguishing factor highlights how important the scientist-practitioner model may be for

practitioner industrial psychologists. The purpose of including the theme: IPs tend to fulfil

specialist roles in organisations; was to demonstrate that although industrial psychologists

may at times fulfil generalist human resource management positions within organisations,

industrial psychologists tend to fulfil specialist roles within organisations. Lastly, the reason

for including the last theme: HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be

effective in their roles, was due to the fact that it raised the importance of acknowledging the

business aspect to successfully fulfilling the role of a human resource management

practitioner. By including this theme, the data would be enriched as industrial psychologists

fulfilling the role of HR practitioners would need to understand how the requirement for

business acumen would impact upon the application of psychology in the human resource

management domains.

Table 10 is presented to provide a list of the first-order themes formulated. Table 10

includes the first-order themes identified, the descriptions of each first-order theme, the

number of times the theme was identified in text, and supporting quotations as evidence of

the first-order theme. The descriptions of the first-order themes incorporate the nuanced

meanings of the participants. The quotations included in Table 10 illustrate the exact

meanings of various participants in relation to the first-order theme.

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Table 10

First-order themes

First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text

Quotations

1 HPCSA‟s role is regulatory

The HPCSA‟s role is to delineate and regulate the scope of practice of IPs and to protect the interests of the public.

12 P7: “…So, that is, for me, the two major roles. So, protecting the public and then making sure that whoever the public is exposed to would be competent in fulfilling their duties.” p.13 P1: “I think they are a regulatory body that should make sure that we practise within our scope of practice and that others do not overstep the scope...” p.20

2 HPCSA lacks understanding of industrial psychology

HPCSA does not understand the field of industrial psychology and fails to recognise the psychological components that underpin human resource management domains. As a result, the HPCSA cannot protect the public from harm caused within organisations. The HPCSA also fails to differentiate between industrial psychology and the medical model used for the other professions that fall within its jurisdiction.

21 P3: “I would say the Board needs to think beyond psychometrics... You are not necessarily held accountable to the psychological aspects of human resources development.” p.32 P7: “They (HPCSA) are not very good at protecting the public on the organisation side of what industrial psychologists do and what other charlatans do, like doing an organisational diagnosis and advising top management around the decisions they have to take over the next five years in terms of people in the organisation. So, you are affecting far more people...” p.14 P4: “…within that, it is so broad that, I feel, a lot of the times, that industrial psychology gets very lost within the sort of clinical psychology stuff.” p.14

3 HPCSA‟s educational role

The HPCSA should standardise the industrial psychology curricula across universities in South Africa as well as internship programmes. The HPCSA should regulate the continued education of IPs such that behavioural knowledge underpinning the human resource management domains is reaffirmed in the profession.

13 P3: “…where the Board can play a role is to consistently create either checks and/or development opportunities for people to begin to explore the behavioural components of what is normally considered to be… an HR domain.” p. 26 FG1 P3: “…but I would have liked the HPCSA to have been present there or to take that further and to say, 'okay let us call a national meeting for Head of Academic Departments of Industrial Psychology Departments, and let us talk about these things'. I know it is competition and cutting edge… but what is the common denominator in terms of psychology in HR?” p. 45 FG1 P3: “They just prescribe percentage this and percentage that. I need more bureaucracy from HPCSA to say: 'This is what the basic (internship) programme should be like.' ” p.47 P6: “And this is where I think the internship comes in, because I think it is critical that the HPCSA does set the right standards firstly at internship level…” p.19

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First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text

Quotations

4 HPCSA‟s and SIOPSA‟s roles in educating stakeholders

The HPCSA and SIOPSA should play an informative role to corporate South Africa on the role of the IP in organisations.

10 P5: “And again, I do not only think it is the industrial psychologists; I also think it is the Council that needs to play that informative role… and also to tell Corporate South Africa and other stakeholders what it is that we should not be doing so that they can look out also for the opposite." p.22 P2: “I think they should also have a better role or a more proactive role in educating all stakeholders, and that includes the end user, which is often corporates, you know, as to what the value is of an industrial psychologist and how is their contribution different to maybe the HR practitioner.” p.14

5 Internship programme inadequate

The current internship programme fails to ensure that graduates are sufficiently competent in practising within the main fields of industrial psychology.

8 P5: “You have also got a problem with internships happening in some companies or in some consulting companies, where the internship just focuses on a particular niche.” p.27 P6: “How they structure and agree on internships… I think what they currently have as guidelines and are approving, in my view, is hopelessly inadequate to truly equip a person who comes out of - let us assume the person does not have much working experience… then we give them one year internship and then we launch them out there and say they are now competent at all those fields.” p.20

6 Universities differ in terms of the prescribed curricula for the training of prospective IPs

Universities across South Africa prescribe different curricula for the training of prospective IPs.

8 P5: “…universities, they do not even agree exactly what - should there be a difference between human resources management and industrial psychology?. I am under the impression some of the universities has [sic] got a certain school of thought on it, and other universities differ, and this has been historically so.” p.8 FG1 P5: “Because, I think, in the past, as you have mentioned, I think some universities had more of a flavour of psychology in their training, where others have more of an HR management kind of focus… and I think it is important that that is sorted out on quite a high level in terms of what will be the role of psychology then in industrial psychology.” p.45

7 IPs' training is inadequate in ensuring that IPs are able to apply psychological principles, theories, and models to the business context

IPs' training fails to ensure that they are able to apply psychological theories, principles, and models within the business context.

19 P2: “…when I was trained as an industrial psychologist - say you did some, like, psychology and some social behaviour and some sort of very basic psychology one-on-one type stuff, but after that, if I look at it, you know, if you had to do a Master's in human resource management, you almost learn almost the same things, apart from perhaps the psychometric testing side of things again.” p.5 P4: “…but then, for me, there was also never a practical applied psychology - you know, taking it to the next step.” p.20 P5: “hold a view about B.A. and B.Com. qualifications, and I believe (I am not sure if it is true) B.Sc. Industrial Psychology type of qualifications - if you say you are an expert in employee behaviour at work and you walk into a company as a work psychologist and your other majors are, for argument's sake, philosophy… you are not equipped in the world of business to be a work psychologist.” p.28

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First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text

Quotations

8 Experienced IPHR practitioners require more opportunities for professional development

More development opportunities need to be made available for experienced IPHR practitioners to reaffirm psychology within industrial psychology when working within human resource management domains.

9

P3: “…so, if you train people in CPD, that you make sure that they do keep up with the profession. Are the training interventions designed in such a way that it does help people to reflect now, as a professional, on what are the psychological elements that you are talking about in a practice context?” p.50 P5: “So, you can do a year certificate or you can do a doctorate or a Master's degree, but where is that one week, two week programme for the businessman or woman that has been now out of university for ten or 15 years…?” p.32 P3: “In our last conference, I did not see anything around leadership. I saw a lot of psychometrics as to how do you best measure this or that thing… in the workplace that psychometrics is a small piece that sits there in this vast array of things that you expect a psychologist to go and play in. It is that small little speck there somewhere in the darkness.” p.29 FG2 P1: “I think, if you look at the bulk of the sessions, I think, probably 70% is aimed at assessments and, I think, something like the SIOPSA conference (should) maybe give a more HR function flavour to it, but with a strong theoretical underbolt.” p.30

9 Psychometrics distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners

Psychometrics is a tool used by IPs which distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners.

6 FG2 P4: “…And I also believe that my coaching sessions are made richer by the fact that I am able to interpret psychometric tools.” p.31 P7: “...the advantage that he/she would have is, firstly, of course, there is a legal advantage that they will be able to oversee the actions that are protected under the Act of 56 of 1974. Otherwise, an HR manager that is not a registered industrial psychologist will not be able to do that.” p.3

10 Application of psychological principles in human resource management domains tends to distinguish IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners

The IP has a deeper understanding of behaviour within the work context, which tends to distinguish the IPHR practitioner from the HR practitioner.

43 P1: “It would really only be us, because we understand group behaviours in organisations and we have the insight and the ability to deal with larger numbers.” p.12 P3: “But, I believe, fundamentally, when the industrial psychologist steps into any one of those practices within the organisation, it [sic] brings a deeper behavioural understanding of human behaviour within the workplace.” P2: “Ultimately, on a visible level, we do not do anything different than what the HR professional will do in organisations… But I believe what should be informing the design of the interventions, the methods, the processes, the strategies, is an understanding… of human behaviour within the context of organisations, of psychological theory then, if you want, so that your intervention is richer. So, there is a science you bring to it. There is an understanding, but the end product is still going to be a process or an intervention that would not look like a psychological intervention.” p12

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First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text

Quotations

11 IPs tend to question the behavioural impact of business practices

IPs are inclined to question beyond the obvious to determine the impact of business practices on behaviour.

14 FG1 P3: “But the industrial psychologist will sit back and say: 'What motivational impact is there on a bonus system?' ” pp12 FG1 P3: “…we go and look for anchors - why did this happen? We do not just solve the conflict. We go back and say: 'Why?' ” p.28 P1: “I think, if we have one question as a criterion, 'What does this imply in terms of human behaviour?' (If) I put this system on the table - 'What does it imply in terms of behaviour?' ” p.25 P1: “ -'If I do this, what will be the behavioural outcome? If I write this letter about the retrenchments, what will be the behaviour that follows upon this? Will there be acceptance? Will there be rejection? Will there be shock?…' ” p. 26

12 IPs tend to think eclectically and integrate information when determining an appropriate solution for business problems

IPs are inclined to identify appropriate psychological theories, models, and tools, and then choose what is best suited to solve the business problem. IPs tend to integrate different information to form a complete business solution.

7 P6: I would be drawing on a lot of my psychology theories, background, models, and there is not one that I use - I like to use them eclectically.” p.7 FG2 P3: “I think, that is when you sit in front of that person, it is not only the policy, or can you or can‟t you do it; it is all your theories - leadership theories, organisational theories, theories of behaviour, self confidence, self image - all of it runs through your head while you are listening to that person, and I think that is the difference” p.23 FG1 P4: “The industrial psychologist has more training and more exposure than the others, and it is being able to integrate whatever you think is needed to put a solution for business on the table.” p.14

13 IPs have unique training

The training provided to IPs is unique and equips IPs to deal with information uniquely within the workplace.

6 FG2 P4: “I think it is part of our training as industrial psychologists, and this is where I think I have seen the difference. Part of your training is a lot of introspection, a lot of self-review…” p.12 FG1 P5: “…I am sure it is experience, but I think it is also your academic kind of background that brings you to that level. Because, I know, at one point we had to write reports. We had to integrate psychometric information and whatever, and I think those kinds of things teach you to look at different things and bring it to something and come to a conclusion and a recommendation” p.17

14 IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor

IPs are inclined to base their decisions upon science. IPs' scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor.

4 P4: “It is about the validity and the reliability of what you are doing, and that you are not really necessarily going to plug into if you are not coming from the psychological perspective.” p.9 P4: “…if you go from an administrative perspective, you just want to put a process in place, where if it comes to performance management, for example, you really need to understand, 'Well, if you do it this way versus that way, which way is going to be most reliable and which way is going to be most valid?' ” p.8

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First-order themes Description of first-order themes No.of times in text

Quotations

15 IPs are inclined to protect the interests of people in the workplace

IPs have a professional responsibility and are inclined to protect the interests of the human element within organisations.

15 P5: “So, I am talking about ethics. I am talking about detrimental effect on employees and their behaviour.” p.20 FG3 P1: “I do not know for the rest of you, but the more and more I work with senior leaders in corporate organisations, the more I realise that they also make poor decisions because they do not have people checking them. They do not have somebody saying, 'But hang on a minute - what about the human element?' ” p.21 FG3 P3: But just by asking a few questions to this particular executive that was dealing with the transaction, you could see that they were not thinking about… the due diligence for them means it is a paper-based exercise. 'What is in the numbers? What is the payroll value? What is the head count? What is that…?' Not, 'How is the psyche going to affect, or psychology going to affect this whole process?' And if we do not tell them that - guess what? - they are not going to think about it.” p.45

16 IPs are inclined to have a systems perspective

IPs are able to identify different components of a situation and recognise how these components interact and relate to one another. IPs will then try to understand issues in context in order to practise holistically.

20 FG 1 P5: “…introduce performance management within a company. There are a lot of other things that you have to consider, and then you are pulling from all that information that you have in terms of how you are going to do change management. 'What will be the fears of people when they see this thing? ... What is the administrative nightmare if they are going to have to fill this thing in?' You are going to look at all those kinds of things…” p.16 FG1 P5: “…when you give advice to line managers. They can see, they can hear that, when you are talking, you can integrate all of these things - you are not only coming here with one little thing and say, 'Okay, I think the best thing is to do this.' It is a well-thought argument that you put on the table with all the information that you have…” p.16

17 IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles in organisations

IPs often fulfil specialist roles in human resource management departments within organisations.

3 FG2 P4: “The other thing that sprung to mind, you know - two words that will distinguish: HR practitioners generalists/industrial psychologist specialists.” p.16 FG3 P1: “...they had specialist industrial psychologists working in, what I would call, roles of centres of excellence. So, they would either be a talent management expert or they would be a strategic people resourcing expert, as opposed to a generalist HR role.” p.10

18 HR practitioners tend to focus on maintenance and survival issues; IPHR practitioners are inclined to focus on strategic and growth issues

The IPHR practitioner would tend to focus on the strategic and growth issues of the organisation, and the HR practitioner would be inclined to focus on maintaining current systems and procedures.

23 Fg1 P2: “if you are looking at traditional HR, it is more operational (to do the work) and then industrial psychology, it is not completely strategic but leaning more towards future and thinking of things like that, rather than just the immediate…” p.18 FG2 P3: “…often when we are driving or want to initiate certain things in the firm… one of our HR managers would need to do it - boom, boom, boom, boom, boom. And then you would get someone around the table… who is an organisational psychologist. She would say, 'But sit back… and just look at the context of what we are trying to do… Where is the firm at? What is happening at the leadership level? Where are we in terms of the financial year? How does it look in terms of the budget? Is this now the right time to be doing this?' ” p.12

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19 Factors that tend to distinguish an IPHR practitioner from an HR practitioner

Factors that distinguish an IP HR practitioner from an HR practitioner include: IPs have the skills to influence, IPs can be an advisor and facilitator within organisations, IPs are able to recognise the need for psychological intervention, IPs have knowledge and skills within consumer behaviour and ergonomics.

6 FG3 P5: “I had an intern who did her M on consumer behaviour, and that was excellent. The contribution she has made was a measurable contribution.” p.15 FG1 P1: “I think, where you come in as an industrial psychologist, and that is what I have seen over the years, that industrial psychologists have got the skills to influence an advisory.” p.8 FG3 P3: “We can add value which the HR practitioner cannot do in terms of facilitation, understanding people, advice to the line managers in terms of how to treat people, how to behave, which, if you have not got that industrial psychology background, I think, you are going to battle to do that.” p.14

20 IPs' professional identity in question

An IP‟s professional identity may become blurred when employed as a generalist HR practitioner in an organisation.

16 FG2 P1: “That is why, when they talk about the identity crisis of the industrial psychologist, I am thinking I can understand that, because I have seen both. I have seen good industrial psychologists that are good HR people, and I have seen people that are not industrial psychologists that are also good (human resource managers).” p.11 P3: “…as I said, it could be the identity, but it is also the way we think about ourselves as professionals within that context. Because, often, we lose that… people get caught up with having the title general manager, and the other thing (professional qualification) is a by-product. It is a title that I have professionally, but I do not really play in that space any longer.” p.55 P7: “We turn ourselves into quasi human resource practitioners. So, in a sense, we forfeit a whole calling as psychologists… But that says that, in the first place, we have to be secure in our own identity...” p.26

21 IP‟s direct reporting line as an inhibiting factor in the use of psychology within organisations

IPHR practitioners reporting to leaders who are non-human resource management or IP professionals inhibits the use of psychological principles, theories, and models within the human resource management domains.

13 P1: “So, you are a lone voice, very much, because the CEO will probably come from either a legal or a technical or a financial background… and you will fall in somewhere, two, three, or four, and you will be a lone voice against many others that are far more objective domains.” p.24 FG2 P4: “…we report in to MBAs and CAs most of the time, and that is a different animal on its own… numbers, figures, facts, and that sort of thing. And it is a hard sell-back to those guys, and it is hard to get resources out of them. And, again, that boils back to: 'Are my guys paid correctly? Are [sic] the transactional stuff in place? Are we compliant?' and that sort of thing” p.7

22 Little understanding of IP profession in organisations and society

There is little understanding of the IP profession.

11 P4: “I do not think that a lot of people necessarily see industrial psychology. I think there is a lot of ignorance around psychology and industrial psychology still.” p.24 FG2 P1: I think, the understanding also. I never tell people I am an industrial psychologist because now you must explain what it is. If people just hear the psychologist part… then they want to refer their husband that is schizophrenic…” p.43

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23 IPs have limited scope to practise psychology within organisations

IPHR practitioners have limited scope to practise psychology, due to economic factors, lack of time, needs of the business, fulfilling a generalist role as opposed to a specialist role, perception of the role of the HR function, prescriptive and rigid business practices, lack of resources, and being employed on a lower job level.

29 P6: “What makes it really hard going to [sic] apply psychology and get [sic] it in, is when the business is tight and it is difficult. Because, like we are in now at the moment, there is a double-dip, which is probably upon us, and then everybody just buttons down and tries to bring the revenue in and, 'Do not come and talk to me about this fancy stuff.' ” p.35 P1: “I am not 100% convinced that when they get into those positions, that they actually have the space to exercise industrial psychology… So I really doubt whether you have much space to be what you are actually supposed to be if you land up in an HR position.” p. 2 P4: “You know, I see it in myself. When you get so swallowed up in the day to day practicalities and pragmatic kind of concerns, you do not always think about 'Is this a right thing to do or is it just the thing that I am doing?' ” p. 34

24 IPs potential contribution to organisations is limited by the perception that IPs' value-add is limited to psychometrics

The perception that the value-add of industrial psychology is limited to psychometric assessment detracts from the value IPs can add in other areas.

14 P3: “And so our psychological content is restricted to psychometrics, and the more we restrict ourselves, there the further removed we are really getting away from the reality that we are trying to serve, which is an organisational context to a large extent.” p.37 FG3 P3: “You know, I sometimes just worry. The word industrial psychology equals assessment. That is the perception that exists currently. If you are an industrial psychologist, you assess. I think, me, as an industrial psychologist, can add a lot more value, not just doing assessment, and that is up to us to show the business that you can add that value.” p.13

25 HR practitioners are sometimes just as or even more effective than IPHR practitioners

HR practitioners who are not IPs may, at times, be just as effective or may even be more effective than IPHR practitioners in dealing with behaviour within the workplace.

7 FG1 P5: “…I think there are also HR practitioners out there that are very good in that (human behaviour), and they have that skill, but I just think we are actually supposed to be able to do that very well because we have the training...” p.24 P2: “I have seen very good HR practitioners who probably know more about psychology than many industrial psychologists might know.” p.15

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26 Factors that inhibit the use of psychological principles, theories, and models when working within an HRM function

Factors that inhibit the use of psychology when working as an IPHR practitioner include the South African employment legislation, organisations' politics, professional competition between HR practitioners and IP, fast-paced work environment, no demand for IP professionals in the employment market, career progression in human resource management roles, underlying agendas at the workplace, not being recognised as a psychologist, scope of practice not clearly defined, and the inability to explain what we do as professionals in organisations.

13 P2: “I am just saying, I suppose the environment has also become so fast-paced and continuously changing that people are often running around fighting fires more than actually sitting down and thinking about what they are doing or thinking about how they are going to apply psychological practice.” p.24 FG3 P1: “And I do also think that the generalist/specialist argument is underlying in that process. I think that HR generalists are trying to protect their territory, and I think that they consider industrial psychologists to be specialists as opposed to generalists. So, I also think that there is a professional competition going on.” p.14 FG1 P1: “We (HR) are quite a regulated profession/function in South Africa. And I think, what then happens, what the lack is and where I see the gap, is we do not really get to what we have to do from the ideal point of view where you must look at people as the differentiator in a company.” p.5

27 Human resource management function is determined by organisational context

The size and nature of the organisation are likely to determine the extent to which the IPHR practitioner is able to practise psychology within the human resource management domains.

19 FG3 P4: “But I also think the nature and size of the company plays a huge role… big companies can afford to have these dedicated functions that look after leadership and talent development… Smaller companies do not have that luxury. So, you have generalists running around there trying to do everything, and most of the attention then gets focused on the transactional side of the business and you tend to drift away from the… more psychology side of people management.” p.6 P4: “So, that kind of company is more likely to put more pressure on HR to be using psychological principles as opposed to a company that is more like a law firm… where their HR is probably going to be more focused on actually if we get paid in time.” p.27

28 Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

Organisations that make resources available to the IPHR practitioner enable the use of psychological principles, theories, and models within the human resource management domains.

4 FG2 P4: “Sometimes it is as simple as actually throwing money at the problem. So, allowing me to go to training - both the time to go to it and also the costs, are sometimes quite exorbitant. So, for example, the SIOPSA conference - none of us attended this year because times are tough in the organisation. So, that is another year where we are not getting that fellowship…” p.32 FG3 P4: “I spent a few years in Defence, and there is also lots of money to spare there and they also had dedicated areas looking at specifics. Now that I am in the corporate world, that is a luxury. Affordability is probably one of the biggest arguments in cost in terms of what should and should not be provided.” p.7

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29 Organisational culture as an enabler for the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

An organisational culture that values its employees is development-orientated and flexible enables the IPHR practitioner to use psychological principles, theories, and methods.

10 P6: “If you were in a company that was very rigid and had very rule-bound ways of doing these things, it would be more challenging, I think, to bring psychology in, because, inevitably, you would want to make changes.” pp.36 FG2 P3: “…but generally speaking, there is a culture towards development, which makes our roles, our lives, a lot easier, and guys are more receptive and more open to hearing what we have to say.” p.45 P2: “And, I suppose, by creating a culture and instilling values in an organisation where things like collaboration and listening are part of the daily behaviour of the organisation, it would become easier...” p18

30 Leaders play a critical role in the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

The leaders of an organisation play a critical role in enabling the IPHR practitioner to use psychological principles, theories, and models.

10 FG3 P1: “But it helps if exco and leadership place priority on the psychology of the workplace and their people. And if they really, genuinely do value people as their most important asset and not that is just a by-line for selling our organisation, you know, I think it depends a lot on the leadership framework.” pp29 FG3 P4: “…you can make yourself heard but, ultimately, the decision-making, the powers of the people make that decision - eventually the guys, maybe they will see from a productivity point of view and a cost point of view everything is going down the tubes, and then they will listen” p.35

31 Complimentary relationship between IP and HR practitioners

The relationship between the human resource manager and the IP should be complimentary where HR practitioners provides the wherewithal in managing people and IP provides the behavioural knowledge. An IPHR practitioner should adopt both roles in fulfilling their function within the organisation.

21 P7: “that is why human resource management and industrial psychology are on two sides of the same coin… The one is the wherewithal - how to manage them - and the other one is the psychology of people in the workplace...” p.6 FG1 P5: “IO psychologists are in HR-typical positions, and sometimes, as an industrial psychologist, you are fulfilling typical HR roles. So, it is very interlinked.” p.54 P5: “There are people that walk in there with a very strong academic view in saying human resources management and industrial psychology are two separate circles. Unfortunately, they cannot be separated - not in the world of work as we know it.” p.26 FG1 P1: “industrial psychologists cannot go without HR, and HR cannot go without industrial psychologists. We should not be too exclusive because then you have got a problem...” p.19

32 IPs establish credibility through various means

IPs may establish their credibility in various ways which includes professional integrity, evidence based practice, changing behaviour and demonstrating rand value of contribution.

19 P1: “…and you will be a lone voice against many others that are far more objective domains. Yours is a subjective, fluffy domain in their eyes. So, unless you present yourself as a scientist professional, much the way they do - I think that is where the catch lies” p.25 FG2 P2: “…but that you have to then have such an impact that you maintain consistency and demand that everyone then should be handled under the same benchmark, and not some without doing the selection and psychometric and some do… That gives you the credibility.” p.39 P3: “I believe the effectiveness lies insofar as you can change some of those behavioural aspects of these various practices, that if they (IPs) can play in that space the credibility will increase dramatically in organisations.” p.6

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33 Human resource management as a function can make a strategic contribution

The purpose of the human resource management function is to ensure that the strategic objectives of the organisation are met through managing talent.

12 P2: “It is to help the organisation achieve its vision through perhaps then also focusing on aligning the people management practices in achieving that.” p.2 FG1 P1: “HR should be a strategic partner from the beginning.” p.5 F2 P1: “So, what we are there to do is to translate the business strategy into a people strategy, so that it enables Line to make money and to do business, and that then obviously entails a lot of detailed stuff.” p.3

34 Psychological component underpins human resource management domains

There is a psychological component that underpins each human resource management domain.

69 P7: “Underlying each of those HR value chain aspects are psychological aspects.” p.6 P4: “You know, even if you look at things that seem quite black and white, like employee relations or pay, it is not really, because there is always a psychological dynamic behind pay, and there is always a psychological dynamic behind how you manage a disciplinary enquiry, or how you handle a case at the CCMA.” p. 4

35 IPHR practitioners need to base their practice on evidence

IPHR practitioners need to rely on science to guide their practice within organisations.

15 P2: “…and it has been scientifically validated, we should take note of that and weave that knowledge into our interventions.” p. 13 P3: “But in order for the industrial psychologist to advise this, he/she needs to have done some work to say that, 'There is a very good theoretical base for what I am going to suggest to the organisation.' ” p.41 P1: “...we do not know what other people think, so we have to devise methods, to do proper surveys, to obtain information, to use proper statistics, to use our scientific knowledge, almost more than what we use our theory-based knowledge.” p.18

36 IPs need to use current, valid, and reliable tools

Methods used within organisations need to be scientifically reliable, valid, and appropriately suited to the needs of the organisation.

8 P7: “I think they must be reliable methods (also its methodologies)… So what I am saying in that sense is it must be researched and informed methods. Secondly it must be valid to the situation. It must be able to produce the results you want to produce and that has also been research-related… It must work. It must make a difference…” p.12 P3: “…first thing you want to know… Is there a body of knowledge there that supports this thing strongly enough? But then secondly, … Does that fit what we are trying to do in our organisation…” p.21 P4: So, it is about the latest research. It is about the validity and the reliability of what you are doing...” p.9

37 IPs need to distinguish between fad and science

IPs should differentiate between theories and methods that are trends as opposed to theories and methods that are substantiated by valid and reliable research and supported by a solid theoretical foundation.

4 P4: “You need to be able to differentiate between the trends and the pop psychology aspects as opposed to the stuff with the real depth.” p.14 P3: “You try out some ideas, some of them which are not necessarily scientifically valid but it is the latest fad that is going on. An industrial psychologist almost needs to take a critical position on that and say, 'Is it really valid, the way that we will be introducing this thing, or is it just the latest fashion that everybody is trying to wear?' ” p.20

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38 IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base

IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base to keep up with developments within the industrial psychology discipline and within the business world.

23 P2: “…it is our job as psychologists to stay abreast with those kinds of developments so that we can use that knowledge in what we do.” p.12 P2: “You should stay abreast with developments. You should read and understand and stay abreast with developments in your field. Secondly, you should then apply and think and reflect about how these things can be built into your work and interventions.” p.20

39 IPs need to have a strong personal stance

IPs need to have a clear professional stance in the world of work, such that they are able to influence business decisions.

24 P1: “A lot can be done by enhancing what is the level of self-appraisal of psychologists. I think if they can go out there with a stronger stance, that, 'We are psychologists; this is what we believe should happen; this is how it should be done.' ” p.3 P1: “I think industrial psychologists do not often take such a strong stance… (IPs) do not go out there like the lawyer and… say 'we are going to end up in court guys; we cannot do this.' We are far softer in our approach… it is not a stance that says: 'No ways; it is not going to work!' ” p.4 P3: “…Industrial psychologist needs courage in that space… You need courage in terms of how you deal with that particular situation because you are dealing with very powerful people in the organisation…” p.27

40 IPs need to challenge their own processes

IPs need to actively reflect, introspect and challenge their own mind-sets and practices to determine whether they are practising from a psychological knowledge base.

16 P7: “Another interesting one, of course, is to ask another industrial psychologist to review what you have done, to say 'Do you think I have built in the best psychological principles, concepts, and theories into this practice?' " p.24 P3: “...in order for us to be effective in those domains as industrial psychologists, we need to question our own frameworks by which we work within these domains…” p.20 P3: “ 'Am I asking questions that the psychologist in that situation would be asking?'... my mind tuned in to say, 'Do I look with a psychological lens to this thing that I am doing in the working environment?' ” p.54

41 IPs need to play the role of a constructive critic in organisations

IPs need to constructively question and challenge business practices.

9 P3: “If you do not keep that kind of critical perspective, you, as an industrial psychologist, lose the possibility of becoming a real professional in that regard. And that, I would say, would be applicable to any one of these.” p.20 FG2 P3: “We really probe. I think what we try and do is get them to reflect themselves, to think about what they actually are doing, what they have done… also a bit of a sanity check in saying: 'Think about this; why are you doing this?… ' ” p.35 P3: “(An) industrial psychologist has a real opportunity to stand always as a critic of what is going on - not a critic to break down, but to be constructive and say: 'What can we do differently about it?' So you always look with this critical perspective at what is going on around you.” p.24 P1: “It will have to be the psychologist in the organisation challenging the status quo…” p.16

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42 IPs need more counselling skills

IPs need to have more counselling skills in order to provide psychological assistance in critical situations that require immediate psychological intervention.

6 P1: “It was an HR person, an industrial psychologist, who said that I needed at that point counselling skills and crucial, crucial clinical psychologist skills.” p.13 P1: “I think we need to be well equipped to deal with sudden emergencies and even short-term interventions. I think many of the coping strategies imply two or three or four meetings. It does not imply six months of deep psychological counselling. But a lot is to be said for counselling there and then, and for a credible person on site.” p.14 P4: “How do you handle the conflict? How do you draw on your counselling…? We do not do enough counselling, or, at least, we did not.” p.20

43 HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective in their roles

HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be an effective a business partner.

4 P4: “I am not necessarily sure that being an industrial psychologist is going to make you a better partner to the business. You know, maybe having an M.B.A. or maybe having an HR practitioner who has an MBA or some kind of business qualification makes him a better partner to the business.” p.19 FG3 P1: “...you can very clearly see why business sometimes takes a decision to employ into an HR Exec role; somebody who does not have an HR Head. Because the perception is that traditional HR people do not have business acumen” p.39

44 IPs need to translate psychological principles, theories, and methods to the business context

Psychological principles, theories, and models need to be applied practically to the business context. The application of these psychological principles, theories, and models need to be applied implicitly, such that the intervention/solution does not appear to be psychological in nature.

21 FG3 P4: “The worst thing we can do, in my opinion, is labelling it. Do not go with the psychological mumbo-jumbo to line management. Do not do that. Subtly tell them. I mean, I did not say to this guy, 'Did you think about the psychological impact?' I mean, you will lose them there and then.” p.47 P3: “Is it just going to come and apply another motivational theory and then you hear people saying: 'Stop your theory - what is the action? What is the practical stuff?' you know.” p.21 P2: “So, again, it is about - the trick is by taking your knowledge and transforming it into something that is palatable to the company.” p.23 P2: “...applying their knowledge of psychology, if you like, in the corporate context without necessarily making it explicit. Because often line people just start finding that completely iffy and esoteric.” p.4

45 IPs need to demonstrate their contribution

IPs need to demonstrate the value that they add within organisations.

7 FG3 P5: “to put a rand value to the contribution that the initiatives that we have put in place could be evaluated against… hereafter, I kept on doing it, and up to now we still get an excellent bottom line on the initiatives that we do.” p.13 FG1 P5: “I think, if we have to start also living up to that and saying but what is the value that we will add in terms of that” p.63 FG3 P1: “...we can bring an element of quantifying our value-add through (asking): 'How did this intervention have an effect on the team?'… I do think that we are taught to quantify and analyse, and we should be justifying that value-add to the business in statistical ratios.” p.22

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46 IPs are responsible for creating a context in which psychology is used within the human resource management domains

IPs are responsible for creating the context where psychology can be used within the human resource management domains.

24 FG3 P3: “If am not going to do these things and sell these things and make it work, it is just not going to happen … many a time we look and say how are we going to create our own context to make sure that we are 'onmisbaar' you know, as industrial psychologists.” p.29 P1: “I think from an organisation point of view, we need to be proactive. Us believing that organisations will change to accommodate us is a fallacy. I do not think that will happen.” p.4 FG3 P5: “…I think we need to influence the situation to be more psychologically inclined.” p.34

47 IPs need to enhance the credibility of the human resource management profession

By enhancing the credibility of the human resource management profession, the perception of human resource management is improved, and the IPHR practitioners have more credibility within organisations.

12 FG1 P1: “Anybody can move in. The professionalisation of HR practitioners has not been pushed as far as it should be” p.49 FG1: “…we are the people who are not doing justice to our own profession by the people we employ in the HR departments.” p.51 FG3 P1: “And I am not being snooty about it, but I am saying the profession of HR is so very diluted that when we are trying to play a role as industrial psychologists in HR, you almost get drowned in a profession that has lost its integrity and credibility for a lot of reasons.” p.39

48 IPs should form a common professional identity

IPs need to form a common vision and identity. IPs then need to work together towards creating an understanding of the profession amongst stakeholders.

6 P5: “If we can get 1 000 people (IPs) to broadly think the same, broadly communicate the same, and broadly act the same, we are touching about 1 000 companies.” p.25 P5: “Pull together the psychology professionals across business South Africa more purposefully” p.33 P5: “I would get all of the people (IPs) infused, I would get them aligned, I would get a common understanding and a common framework, and then I would begin to basically get them to make a difference.” p.38

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4.4 Insights from my personal journal

An excerpt from my personal journal reads as follows: “(Influencing) organisational

behaviour and individual behaviour (is) not exclusive to IP (as people with) MBAs or skilled

business people (have knowledge and skills to influence human behaviour in the

workplace).” P6 indicated that influencing individual and organisational behaviour is not

exclusive to industrial psychologists in the workplace, and that other professions and

occupations are able to tap into this knowledge and effectively influence behaviour in the

workplace. P6 added that, despite this, industrial psychologists are expected to work within

the domain of influencing behaviour at work, otherwise they are not practicing as industrial

psychologists. I found this an important insight to record, since understanding and

influencing behaviour in the workplace is not exclusive to industrial psychologists, but rather

industrial psychologists are expected to be the behavioural specialists in the workplace.

Another extract from my personal journal reads as follows: “Credibility of IP rests on

(the) ability to infuse and practise psychology implicitly” and “On a visible level (IPs) do not

do anything different.” P2 indicated that industrial psychologists should retain their

credibility in the workplace by ensuring that they do not make the use of psychological

principles, theories, and methods explicit. A bit later on in the interview, P2 indicated that,

on a visible level, the interventions that industrial psychologists design and develop may

seem similar to those of human resource managers. P2 explained that industrial

psychologists may weave behavioural theories into their interventions, yet the use of

behavioural knowledge may not be made explicit by the industrial psychologist. P2 indicated

that the industrial psychologist may lose credibility with fellow colleagues if an intervention

sounds psychology-based. It is suggested that, perhaps the work performed by industrial

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psychologists may look the same as the work performed by human resource managers as

industrial psychologists may want to retain their credibility with colleagues.

4.5 Second-order themes

Second-order themes were formulated by grouping first-order themes together. There

are nine second-order themes namely: the HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s role in

affirming psychology in industrial psychology; education of prospective and experienced IPs

needs to be revised; factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines; factors

that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace; factors that enable

an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace; IPHR practitioners should

practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human resource

management domains; IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling

their role as an HR practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations;

IPHR practitioners should have certain competences to ensure that psychology is applied

within the organisational context; and IPs have a responsibility to affirm psychology in

industrial psychology. The second order themes are indicated in Table 11. Included in Table

11 are the first-order themes with arrows from their respective second-order themes,

illustrating the groups of first-order themes that relate to the second-order themes.

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Table 11

Second-order themes

First-order themes 2nd order themes Description

1 HPCSA‟s role is regulatory HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s roles in affirming psychology in industrial psychology

HPCSA and SIOPSA have roles to fulfil in ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology.

2 HPCSA lacks understanding of IP

3 HPCSA‟s educational role

4 HPCSA‟s and SIOPSA‟s roles in educating stakeholders

5 Universities differ in terms of the prescribed curricula for the training of prospective IPs Education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be revised

The education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be revised to ensure that psychology is practised within the human resource management domains.

6 IPs' training is inadequate in ensuring that IPs are able to apply psychological principles, theories, and models to the business context

7 Internship programmes inadequate

8 Experienced IPHR practitioners require more opportunities for professional development

9 Psychometrics distinguishes IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners Factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines

Industrial psychology is distinguished from other professions and disciplines due to certain factors.

10 Application of psychological principles in human resource management domains tends to distinguish IPHR practitioners from HR practitioners

11 IPs tend to question the behavioural impact of business practices.

12 IPs tend to think eclectically and integrate information when determining an appropriate solution for business problems.

13 IPs have unique training

14 IPs scientific orientation is a distinguishing factor

15 IPs are inclined to protect the interests of people in the workplace

16 IPs are inclined to have a systems perspective

17 IPs tend to fulfil specialist roles in organisations

18 HR practitioners tend to focus on maintenance and survival issues; IPHR practitioners are inclined to focus on strategic and growth issues

19 Miscellaneous factors that distinguish an IPHR practitioner from an HR practitioner

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First-order themes 2nd order themes Description

20 IPs' professional identity in question Factors that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace

There are certain inhibiting factors that restrict the use of psychology within the workplace.

21 IPs' direct reporting line is a limiting factor in the use of psychology within organisations

22 Little understanding of IP profession in organisations and society

23 IPs have limited scope to practise psychology within organisations

24 IPs' potential contribution to organisations is limited by the perception that IPs' value-add is limited to psychometrics

25 HR practitioners are sometimes just as or even more effective than IPHR practitioners

26 Miscellaneous factors that inhibit the use of psychological principles, theories, and models when working within an human resource management function

27 Human resource management function is determined by organisational context

28 Organisations providing the IPHR practitioner with resources enables the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

Factors that enable an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace.

There are certain factors that enable the use of psychology within the workplace. 29 Organisational culture as an enabler for the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

30 Leaders play a critical role in the use of psychological principles, theories, and models

31 Complimentary relationship between IP and HR practitioners

32 IPs establish credibility through various means

33 HRM as a function can make a strategic contribution

34 Psychological component underpins human resource management domains

35 IPHR practitioners need to base their practice on evidence

IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human resource management.

In order to ensure that psychology is used within the human resource management domains, IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific knowledge base.

36 IPs need to use current, valid, and reliable tools

37 IPs need to distinguish between fad and science

38 IPs need to continuously update their knowledge base

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First-order themes 2nd order themes Description

39

IPs need to have a strong personal stance

IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as a HR practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations.

IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as a HR practitioner. This assertive and enquiring approach ensures that psychology is practised within organisations.

40 IPs need to challenge their own processes

41 IPs need to play the role of a constructive critic in organisations.

42 IPs need more counselling skills

IPHR practitioners should have certain competences to ensure that psychology is applied within the organisational context

Certain competences are required to ensure that psychology is applied by the IPHR practitioner within the organisational context.

43 HR practitioners should have business acumen in order to be effective in their roles

44 IPs need to translate psychological principles, theories, and methods to the business context.

45 IPs need to demonstrate their contribution

46 IPs are responsible for creating a context in which psychology is used within the human resource management domains

IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology.

IPs are responsible for ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology. 47 IPs need to enhance the credibility of the HRM profession

48 IPs should form a common professional identity

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Second-order themes were formulated by grouping together the first-order themes that

were similar in words, referred to similar broad concepts, or summarised similar concepts

into a concise theme. First-order themes that were grouped together to form a second-order

theme based on words included the words "HPCSA" and "SIOPSA." All first-order themes

that referred to the "HPCSA" or "SIOPSA" were grouped together to form a second-order

theme. Many participants referred to aspects that enabled or inhibited them from using

psychology within the predominant human resource management domains. Inhibiting and

enabling factors are examples of first-order themes that were grouped together, based on

similar broad concepts. Two second-order themes were formed as a result, namely factors

that enable and inhibit the IPHR practitioner from using psychological principles, theories,

and models within the workplace. Participants also referred to aspects that made IP

distinguishable from other disciplines and professions, and these aspects were grouped

together to form another second-order theme. This second-order theme was formed based on

the same broad concept of distinguishing factors.

The broad concepts used to capture the meaning of some of the first-order themes

include the education of prospective and experienced industrial psychologists; IPHR

practitioners should practise from a scientific base; IPHR practitioners should have certain

competences; and IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology.

In the first instance, first-order themes that relate to the training and development of

prospective and experienced industrial psychologists, curricula prescribed by universities,

and the internship programmes all relate to the education of industrial psychologists as a

broader concept. For this reason, these first-order themes were then grouped together to form

the second-order theme relating to the education of industrial psychologists. The first-order

themes describing IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base include industrial

psychologists distinguishing between fad and science, updating their knowledge base, using

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valid and reliable tools, and basing their practice on science. Thirdly, being able to translate

psychology into a language or an intervention that is accepted within the business context,

being able to demonstrate your value as an industrial psychologist, and having business

acumen and counselling skills all relate to the broader concept of competence. In the last

instance, the first-order themes relate to the broader concept of responsibility. Industrial

psychologists have a responsibility to enhance the credibility of human resource

management, for creating their own context that enables the use of psychology in the human

resource management domains and, lastly, to form a common professional identity.

The second-order theme that condenses similar concepts into a concise theme is: IPs

should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as an HR

practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations. The second-order

theme is described by the first-order themes that relate to industrial psychologists challenging

their own processes and being the constructive critic in organisations. The second-order

theme also includes the descriptor that IPs need to have a strong personal stance.

The purpose of the second-order themes is to provide a succinct account of the

participants‟ points of views. As far as possible, the second-order themes should broadly

represent most of the data obtained from the participants (Schurink, 2009). In order to test

whether the above identified second-order themes and the descriptor first-order themes

represented the participants‟ views, an online survey was sent by electronic mail to all the

participants. As discussed in section 3.2.13 of Chapter Three, the survey included the nine

second-order themes as main headings with their respective descriptor first-order themes, as

depicted in Table 11. The first-order themes served to explain what was meant by the

second-order theme, and the participants were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed

or disagreed with the nine second-order themes only. The rating scale ranged from strongly

agree, agree, neither agree or disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree with each second-

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order theme. Participants were provided a comment box in which to share any comments on

each second-order theme they were rating. The comments shared by the participants in the

survey were not analysed for the purpose of this study. A total of 21 participants participated

in this study, and only 15 of the 21 participants completed the survey.

The results of the survey are summarised in Table 12, and the number represents the

percentage of people who either strongly agreed, agreed, neither agreed or disagreed,

disagreed, and strongly disagreed with the second-order themes. In sum, out of 135

responses received from the 15 participants who completed the survey, six participants

responded that they neither agreed nor disagreed with second-order themes numbered 2, 3, 4,

7, and 9 in Table 12. A total number of three participants disagreed with second-order

themes numbers 3 and 8 as indicated by Table 12. Where participants indicated in the

comment box what they didn‟t agree with, these comments were considered and are reported

on in the discussion section. The rest of the responses were positive, and respondents either

agreed or strongly agreed with the rest of the themes identified. This means that 126 of the

135 responses agreed or strongly agreed with the themes identified. In sum, 93% of the

responses of the participants who participated in the survey reacted positively to the themes

identified.

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Table 12

Summary of results of the verification survey

Second-order theme Strongly agree

Agree Neither agree or disagree

Disagree Strongly disagree

1 HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s role in affirming psychology in industrial psychology

13.33%

86.66%

0 0 0

2 Education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be revised

40.00%

53.33%

6.66%

0 0

3 Factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines

13.33%

66.66%

6.66% 13.33%

0

4 Factors that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace

20.00%

73.33%

6.66%

0 0

5 Factors that enable an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace

13.33%

86.66%

0 0 0

6 IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human resource management domains.

40.00%

60.00%

0 0 0

7 IPs should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as a HR practitioner to ensure that psychology is applied within organisations.

33.33%

60.00%

6.66%

0 0

8 IPHR practitioners should have certain competences to ensure that psychology is applied within the organisational context

40.00%

53.33%

0 6.66%

0

9 IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology.

46.66% 40.00% 13.33% 0 0

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4.6 Integration

The results of this study were reported in this chapter. Firstly, the process and the

level of abstraction used to generate codes for the data gathered was discussed. Since the

number of codes generated as a result of the open coding analysis method amounted to 328,

the formulation of the 48 first-order themes required elucidation. Table 9 demonstrated how

each first-order theme had been formulated from the codes generated. The first-order themes

were then presented in tabular format, and each first-order theme was concisely described to

summarise the nuanced meanings of the participants. Similarly, the conceptualisation of the

nine second-order themes from the first-order themes was described, and the categorisation of

the 48 first-order themes within the nine second-order themes was illustrated with arrows in

Table 11. Insights from my personal journal were also included in this chapter. Lastly, the

results of the verification survey conducted were presented numerically in Table 12.

Although some participants disagreed with some of the themes, 93% of the responses

obtained from the participants who responded to the survey agreed with the results. The

comments provided where participants disagreed with the themes in the survey as well as the

nuanced meanings of the nine themes are addressed in Chapter Five.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

The aim of the study was to determine how psychology could be practised by

industrial psychologists within the human resource management domains. Ideally, industrial

psychologists should gain a better understanding of how to approach the human resource

management domains from a behavioural perspective as a result of this study. In response to

the research question, the results of the study will be discussed in terms of the main themes

that were elicited from the in-depth, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. The nine

main themes are: the HPCSA‟s and professional association‟s roles in affirming psychology

in industrial psychology (theme 1); education of prospective and experienced IPs needs to be

revised (theme 2); factors that distinguish IP from other professions and disciplines (theme

3); factors that inhibit an IPHR practitioner from using psychology in the workplace (theme

4); factors that enable an IPHR practitioner to use psychology within the workplace (theme

5); IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is

applied in human resource management domains (theme 6); IPs should adopt an enquiring

and assertive approach when fulfilling their role as an HR practitioner to ensure that

psychology is applied within organisations (theme 7); IPHR practitioners should have certain

competences to ensure that psychology is applied within the organisational context (theme 8),

and IPs have a responsibility in affirming psychology in industrial psychology (theme 9).

Supporting quotations and literature will be used where possible to validate the links and

inferences made from the main themes identified.

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5.2 Discussion

5.2.1 The Health Professions Council of South Africa’s and the professional

association’s roles in affirming psychology in industrial psychology

5.2.1.1 The regulatory role of the Health Professions Council of South Africa

The role of the HPCSA within the profession of industrial psychology is accepted as

being that of regulating the scope of practice and protecting the public from harm. However,

it is suggested that the HPCSA fails to recognise the psychological components that underpin

the human resource management domains, and it was indicated that the HPCSA lacks an

understanding of industrial psychology. It was also suggested by the participants that the

HPCSA fails to differentiate the profession of industrial psychology from the other

professions that fall within the HPCSA‟s regulatory scope, since the medical model is applied

to regulate the practice of industrial psychology. Therefore, the scope of practice of

industrial psychologists may not be well defined. P7 indicated that, as a result of the scope of

practice not being well defined, the HPCSA is not able to effectively protect the public from

harm in some instances by stating: “They are not very good at protecting the public on the

organisation side of what industrial psychologists do and what other charlatans do, like doing

an organisational diagnosis and advising top management around the decisions they have to

take over the next five years in terms of people in the organisation.”

5.2.1.2 The Health Professions Council of South Africa’s role in the education

and training of industrial psychologists and the role of the Society for Industrial

and Organisational Psychology for South Africa in educating organisations of

the value of industrial psychologists

In addition to the regulatory role, it was found that the HPCSA may need to influence

the education of industrial psychologists. Universities across South Africa prescribe different

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curricula for the education of prospective industrial psychologists. As a result, the HPCSA

may need to standardise the South African curricula for students in industrial psychology to

ensure that they are schooled from similar perspectives and from the industrial psychological

knowledge base. As a result of their training, industrial psychologists should be able to

identify the behavioural components that underpin the human resource management domains.

It was also found that the HPCSA may need to standardise the internship programmes such

that prospective industrial psychologists‟ practical training is similar. P5 expressed his

concern that an internship is determined by the specialisation and type of the organisation in

which the internship programme is completed by stating: “You have also got a problem with

internships happening in some companies or in some consulting companies where the

internship just focuses on a particular niche.” In addition, it was indicated by P6 that the

internship programmes are too short and do not allow the graduate to gain sufficient

competence in human resource management and influencing behaviour within the workplace.

Some participants suggested that the HPCSA should create development opportunities

for experienced industrial psychologists to explore the psychological components

underpinning the human resource management domains. It was also found that the HPCSA

may need to regulate the training of experienced industrial psychologists to ensure that they

continuously develop in the psychological aspects underpinning the human resource

management domains. Lastly, the HPCSA as well as SIOPSA, could play an informative

role to organisations, educating them of the value that industrial psychologists can add within

the organisational context. Accordingly, it was found that the HPCSA and SIOPSA have

roles to play in ensuring that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology.

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5.2.2 Education of prospective and experienced industrial psychologists needs to

be revised

As indicated, the education of industrial psychologists may need revision. Besides the

suggestion that the prescribed curricula differ amongst the universities, it was also stated that,

depending on the university, the students‟ industrial psychological training would be

influenced more by either human resource management or psychology. It appears that the

disparity in the perspectives of universities may need to be addressed to prepare industrial

psychologists for practising from a psychological knowledge base in the human resource

management domains.

Industrial psychology finds practical application within the business context (Bergh,

2009; Conte & Landy, 2007; Doyle, 2003; Muchinsky, 2000; Strumpfer, 2007) and, as such,

it was suggested that the training of industrial psychologists needs to include how

psychological principles, theories, and models can be practically applied to the business

context. As P4 expressed “…but then, for me, there was also never a practical applied

psychology - you know, taking it to the next step.” Additionally, P5 indicated that some

registered industrial psychologists do not have a basic understanding of the world of work, as

some qualifications in industrial psychology, for example, include a B.Sc degree in industrial

psychology. It was emphasised by P5 that industrial psychologists need to understand the

business context in order to effectively practise as an industrial psychologist.

It was suggested that the further education and training of experienced industrial

psychologists may also need to be revised to ensure that psychology is reaffirmed in

industrial psychology. More development opportunities, such as short courses relevant to the

field of industrial psychology, could be made available to experienced industrial

psychologists. Some participants suggested that the training or development opportunities

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need to be pertinent to IPHR practitioners so that they are updated on psychological theories

and models that can be applied practically in the human resource management domains.

5.2.3 Factors that distinguish industrial psychologists from other professions and

disciplines

Despite the proposed revision of industrial psychology education, it was indicated by

the participants that the training that industrial psychologists receive is a distinguishing factor

of the profession. As indicated by Radford (2003), professionals are taught from a unique

and shared body of knowledge that informs the practice of the professional. As such,

industrial psychologists may approach workplace problems from an industrial psychological

or behavioural perspective due to being educated from the unique and shared knowledge base

of the industrial psychology discipline. Consequently, industrial psychologists' education

may be a distinguishing factor.

Participants provided many other distinguishing factors that may not necessarily be

exclusive to industrial psychologists. It was proposed that industrial psychologists are, as a

result of their training, able to deal with information in such a way that they are able to think

eclectically. Participants reported that industrial psychologists are able to identify industrial

psychological theories and models relevant to the situation, and integrate the information to

form a complete business solution (a respondent to the verification survey disagreed with this

particular distinguishing factor, and no reason was provided). Lastly, by acknowledging the

component parts of a situation and understanding how these parts interact with and relate to

one another, it was suggested that industrial psychologists are also able to think systemically.

It was also suggested that industrial psychologists have a deep understanding of

individual, group, and organisational behaviour within the workplace. P6 indicated, however,

that understanding, predicting, and influencing human behaviour within the workplace are

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skills that are not unique to industrial psychologists. It was suggested that industrial

psychologists are, however, expected to understand, predict, and influence behaviour within

the workplace, as industrial psychologists are the workplace behaviour specialists (van

Vuuren, 2010).

It was suggested by P3 that psychometric assessments are tools available to industrial

psychologists, and are used to deepen their understanding of behaviour in the workplace. The

use of psychometric assessments was reported as another distinguishing factor of the

profession of industrial psychology. Industrial psychologists are legally entitled to use

psychometric assessments (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974, 2010). This suggests that

industrial psychologists have access to a tool to solve workplace problems or enhance

organisational functioning that other occupations or professions may not have access to.

It was suggested that another distinguishing factor of the profession of industrial

psychology is that industrial psychologists have a scientific orientation and are trained to

asses the validity and reliability of an intervention, and ensure that the intervention is

appropriate to the needs of the situation. Other distinguishing factors proposed by

participants were that industrial psychologists can add value in consumer behaviour and

ergonomics, and may fulfil specialist roles in human resource management domains within

organisations (a respondent from the verification survey didn‟t strongly agree with the fact

that industrial psychologists fulfil specialist roles within organisations). It was also suggested

that industrial psychologists are able to identify the need for psychological intervention

within organisations, and have the skills to influence, advise, and facilitate when interacting

with fellow colleagues and line managers. In addition, it was proposed that IPHR

practitioners tend to question the impact of interventions and business practices on behaviour.

It was indicated that industrial psychologists have a professional responsibility and are

inclined to protect the interests of people within the workplace. Lastly, it was suggested that

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human resource managers may tend to focus on maintenance and business survival issues,

while IPHR practitioners may focus on strategic and growth issues.

As alluded to above, most of the distinguishing factors listed are not unique to the

industrial psychology profession, although industrial psychologists are most likely to

demonstrate these factors. Perhaps due to the similarity in the industrial psychology and

human resource management work content, industrial psychologists may want to differentiate

themselves by indicating distinguishing factors. Added to this argument, it was also

suggested by some of the participants that human resource managers may be just as or even

more effective in understanding and influencing behaviour within the workplace. It was

found that industrial psychologists may question their professional identity as a result of this

perception. Despite the industrial psychologists' attempts to differentiate themselves and

their seemingly blurred identity, the approach of the industrial psychologist to the workplace

is the unique value-add of the profession. Industrial psychologists are educated from the

industrial psychological knowledge base that is founded upon the principles of psychology.

Industrial psychologists apply the principles of psychology to the work context and, as a

result, are expected to approach the human resource management domains from a

behavioural perspective. Industrial psychologists‟ unique value-add is the behavioural

science approach to the work context.

5.2.4 Factors that inhibit industrial psychologist human resource management

practitioners from using psychology in the workplace

It was suggested that the nature and size of the organisation often determine the scope

of the human resource management function within organisations. P4 provided an example

of how the nature of the company would determine the human resource management

function: “So, that kind of company is more likely to put more pressure on HR to be using

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psychological principles as opposed to a company that is more like a law firm… where their

HR is probably going to be more focused on ... 'if we get paid in time.' ” In addition, it was

suggested that smaller organisations with limited resources may require the human resource

management function to attend to all the human resource management domains without

sufficient resources for designing psychologically informed practices and interventions.

Another inhibiting factor in the use of psychology within the human resource

management domains suggested is the IPHR practitioner‟s direct reporting line. It was

suggested that, in general, the human resource management practitioner reports to a

professional who does not have the same regard for people and psychology in organisations

as the IPHR practitioner. It was suggested that the IPHR practitioner finds it difficult to

reason the need for resources that allow the use of psychology within the human resource

management domains as a result. Although it seems plausible that the direct reporting line of

the IPHR practitioner may be a limiting factor, a respondent from the verification survey

disagreed. No further comment was provided by the respondent. It was also suggested that

the IPHR practitioner may be amongst very few, if any, professionals who will consider the

behavioural impact of business decisions, which makes it difficult for the IPHR practitioner‟s

voiced concerns to be regarded as important by colleagues.

Besides the direct reporting line as an inhibiting factor, it was proposed that IPHR

practitioners have limited scope to practise psychology. It was suggested that the limited

scope can be attributed to economic factors, having to meet the needs of the business, being

an HR generalist trying to fulfil multiple human resource management tasks, the general

perception of the role of the human resource management practitioner within organisations,

prescriptive and rigid business practices, lack of resources, and being employed on a lower

job level where the HR practitioner is unlikely to have much influence on business decisions.

The same respondent who disagreed with the direct reporting line as an inhibiting factor also

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disagreed with the fact that IPHR practitioners have limited scope to practise psychology in

organisations, and no further comment was provided. Other factors that may inhibit the use

of psychology within the human resource management domains include:

the South African employment legislation may place a heavy burden on HR

practitioners to ensure that the company is compliant with the provisions of

the different employment Acts, and this burden may detract the IPHR

practitioner from using psychology within the human resource management

domains;

the hidden agendas of colleagues and employees as well as organisational

politics may negate the trust relations between employees, and may inhibit the

IPHR practitioner from applying the principles of psychology within the

workplace;

professional competition between human resource managers and industrial

psychologists;

low demand for industrial psychologists in the employment market;

career progression for industrial psychologists is perceived to be fulfilling and

succeeding in human resource management roles within organisations rather

than fulfilling typical industrial psychology roles within organisations;

industrial psychologists not being recognised as psychologists when fulfilling

human resource management functions in organisations;

the fast-paced work environment;

the scope of practice of an industrial psychologist not being well defined; and

industrial psychologists‟ inability to explain what they do as professionals

within organisations.

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The perception that industrial psychologists‟ value-add within the workplace is

limited to psychometric assessments limits the potential contribution that industrial

psychologists can add in many other areas. This perception is perhaps explained by the lack

of understanding of the industrial psychology profession in general. Some participants

indicated that they are hesitant to make their professional registration known for fear that

people may mistake them for the stereotypical psychologist treating their patients on a couch.

The lack of understanding of the industrial psychology profession is perhaps exacerbated by

the similarity in the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource managers.

Industrial psychologists may at times question their own professional identity and

may forfeit their identity as a psychologist whilst functioning as a human resource

management practitioner. In this regard, P7 stated: “We turn ourselves into quasi human

resource practitioners. So, in a sense, we forfeit our whole calling as psychologists… But

that says that, in the first place, we have to be secure in our own identity...” Additionally,

some participants reported that industrial psychologists may question their professional

identity due to the perception that human resource managers are sometimes just as or even

more effective than industrial psychologists in understanding and influencing behaviour in

the workplace. Although a few participants highlighted the effectiveness of human resource

managers (who are not industrial psychologists) in understanding and influencing behaviour

in the workplace, a respondent in the verification survey disagreed with this theme.

As indicated, industrial psychologists are behaviour specialists in the workplace,

using behavioural science to understand, predict, and influence behaviour in organisations. If

human resource managers are also perceived to be providing behaviour knowledge to the

organisation, industrial psychologists may question their unique value-add. Industrial

psychologists may, as a result, fail to recognise their behavioural approach to the workplace

as a unique contribution, and may forfeit their identity as a workplace psychologist.

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5.2.5 Factors that enable industrial psychologist human resource management

practitioners to use psychology within the workplace

From the participant‟s narratives, there appears to be psychological components that

underpin the human resource management domains. Industrial psychologists are expected to

bring behavioural science to the workplace, and the affirmation of the psychological

components underpinning the human resource management domains demonstrates the unique

contribution that industrial psychologists can add within the same domains. Despite the

industrial psychologist's role within the human resource management domains and within the

workplace, it was suggested that the relationship between industrial psychologists and human

resource managers should be complementary.

P8 succintly suggested a complementary relationship between industrial psychologists

and human resource managers by stating: “Industrial psychologists cannot go without HR and

HR cannot go without industrial psychologists. We should not be too exclusive, because then

you have got a problem...” A complementary relationship is not only proposed between

industrial psychologists and human resource managers, but also in terms of how an IPHR

manager functions within the human resource management domains. This means that an

IPHR practitioner should be able to manage the talent of the organisation as well as provide

the behavioural science underpinning the human resource management domains. P6

indicated that, before an IPHR practitioner can use behavioural science within the human

resource domains, the IPHR practitioner needs to be competent in personnel management.

Perhaps one of the most critical enablers of the use of psychology within the human

resource management domains are the leaders of the employing organisation. If leaders

sincerely value the contribution that people make to the organisation, the use of psychology

in the human resource management domains is made easier. An organisational culture that is

characterised as valuing people, placing emphasis on growth and development, and is flexible

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will aid the use of psychology within the organisation. In addition, organisations that make

resources available to the IPHR practitioner and acknowledge the strategic contribution that

an IPHR practitioner can make to meeting the objectives of the organisation, enables the use

of psychology within the human resource management domains.

Being acknowledged as a strategic partner may rely on the the credibility of the

profession and the person fulfilling the IPHR practitioner role. It was suggested that

establishing credibility within organisations enables the use of psychology within the

organisation. Once industrial psychologists have established credibility within the

organisation, their advice and interventions will be trusted. It was suggested that industrial

psychologists can establish credibility in various ways, which include practising with

professional integrity by being fair and consistent, changing behaviour within the workplace,

demonstrating the rand value of their contributions and, lastly, by employing evidence-based

practice.

5.2.6 Industrial psychologist human resource management practitioners should

practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is applied in human

resource management domains

It is suggested that IPHR practitioners should practise from a scientific base to ensure

that psychology is used within the human resource management domains. In order to practise

from a scientific base, industrial psychologists should continuously update their knowledge

base to stay abreast with the latest developments within industrial psychology and other

related fields. Therefore, industrial psychologists should engage with scientific psychological

literature. Industrial psychologists should also be able to determine the quality of research

results and whether research outcomes are supported by a body of knowledge before

implementing the findings to their own context. Industrial psychologists should also employ

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interventions and methods that are scientifically valid, reliable, and appropriate to the needs

of the organisation.

5.2.7 Industrial psychologists should adopt an enquiring and assertive approach

when fulfilling their roles as human resource management practitioners to

ensure that psychology is applied within organisations

As discussed, employing evidence-based practice can establish an IPHR practitioner's

credibility within the workplace if they base their advice and/or interventions on theory

and/or research. The IPHR practitioner‟s colleagues may consider suggestions made by the

IPHR practitioner more readily as a result. Also, IPHR practitioners may need to adopt an

assertive approach when making recommendations to leaders. It was suggested that IPHR

practitioners firstly need to have a clear professional attitude on what their role is within

organisations. IPHR practitioners may then need to maintain their position with assertiveness

on critical or non-negotiable advice or recommendations provided to leaders. Additionally, it

was suggested that industrial psychologists need to challenge the status quo where necessary,

and may need to adopt a critical perspective on the organisation‟s business practices and

situations for constructive purposes. In this regard P3 suggested: “the industrial psychologist

has a real opportunity to stand always as a critic of what is going on - not a critic to break

down, but to be constructive and say, 'What can we do differently about it?' So, you always

look with this critical perspective at what is going on around you.”

Industrial psychologists may need to not only critically reflect on business practices,

but may also need to critically reflect on their own practices. It was suggested that industrial

psychologists need to challenge their own mental frameworks. By questioning whether they

are approaching the human resource management domain from a psychology point of view,

industrial psychologists can begin to work from a psychological perspective. It was

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suggested by P7 that IPHR practitioners could even ask other industrial psychologists to

review and asses the extent to which the intervention designed is informed by the best

psychological principles, theories, and methods.

5.2.8 IPHR practitioners should have certain competences to ensure that

psychology is applied within the organisational context

Designing an intervention using psychological theories, principles, and methods need

not be explicit. It was suggested that industrial psychologists need to be able to translate

psychology concepts and terms into business language and outcomes. Industrial

psychologists need to be able to apply psychology practically to the work context, so that it

has practical relevance for the business. In addition, the industrial psychologist needs to be

able to translate the psychology language into business language, as failure to do so may

result in industrial psychologists losing credibility amongst their colleagues. P2 expressed

the need for industrial psychologists to translate their knowledge base into a language better

understood by their colleagues: “So, again, it is about… taking your knowledge and

transforming it into something that is palatable to the company.”

Decoding psychology for the business context requires a certain competence.

Industrial psychologists need to have a measure of business acumen in order to understand

how to make psychology relevant and practical for the business context. Industrial

psychologists also need to possess other competences within the workplace in order to affirm

psychology in human resource management domains. Industrial psychologists need to be

competent at demontrating the value of their contributions to the organisation, which may

include calculating the rand value of interventions or by delivering on business outcomes.

Lastly, it was suggested by P1 and P4 that industrial psychologists need more

counselling skills. It was suggested by P1 that industrial psychologists need counselling

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skills in order to provide credible psychological assistance in critical situations that require

immediate intervention. Respondents from the verification survey contested this proposal,

and stated that industrial psychologists do not need counselling skills. Another respondent of

the verification survey suggested that industrial psychologists should have the necessary

skills to counsel upon completion of their Master's degree and training.

5.2.9 Industrial psychologists have a responsibility in affirming psychology in

industrial psychology

In addition to the competences required, industrial psychologists have a responsibility

to affirm psychology in industrial psychology. P1 indicated that industrial psychologists

need to self-manage such that they do not wait for the HPCSA to delineate the scope of

practice. Industrial psychologists can make scientifically informed proposals to government

in order to influence legislation regarding the role of industrial psychologists within

organisations as well as other factors that influence employees and employers.

It was suggested that industrial psychologists are responsible for enhancing the

credibility of human resource management as a way in which to create a context where

psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology. It was suggested by P12 that human

resource management positions are, at times, diluted with job incumbents who are not

qualified to fulfil the role of a human resource manager. By ensuring that qualified people

are employed in human resource management functions and by influencing the

professionalisation of human resource management, the perception and credibility of the field

will be enhanced. If human resource managers have more credibility within the workplace,

their advice and suggestions may be valued, which may allow the IPHR practitioner more

scope to practise psychology within the human resource management domains. It was

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suggested by a respondent to the verification survey that the credibility of human resource

management can be enhanced as a result of job incumbents behaving professionally.

It was further suggested that industrial psychologists may need to create a shared

professional identity. P5 suggested that, once the curricula of the universities have been

standardised, the scope of practice well defined, and there is a shared idea of the role of

industrial psychologists within organisations, industrial psychologists will be able inform

corporate South Africa of the value that they can add within organisations. As another

example of how industrial psychologists should create a common identity, P17 indicated that

industrial psychologists need to network with each other. The networking will serve the

purpose of sharing professional experiences and learning from each other, as opposed to

operating alone within their roles in organisations.

5.3 Integration

In this chaper, the nine main themes were reported on, and the nuanced meanings of

the participants were elaborated upon. Participant phrases were included in the discussion for

emphasis, and literature was included, where appropriate, to motivate an argument. For

transparency, where respondents from the verification survey commented and disagreed with

a main theme or the specific first-order theme (descriptor), these comments were also

reported. It appears that there are various elements that contribute to the use of psychology

within the human resource management domains. These elements are summarised and

depicted graphically in the following chapter in order to construct an explanatory, futuristic,

ideal framework for the application of psychology by industrial psychologists in the human

resource management domains.

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CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction

Since it is the aim of this study to understand how psychology could be applied in the

human resource management contexts by industrial psychologists, it was expected that

participants would indicate that industrial psychologists are mostly responsible for applying

behavioural science in the human resource management domains when employed as human

resource management practitioners. Other stakeholders were also identified in Chapter Five,

who could support the use of psychology in the human resource management domains and, as

such, the outcome of this study can provide valuable information to the stakeholders

involved. It is intended that through outlining the roles of the stakeholders, industrial

psychologists may also acknowledge their roles to influence and collaborate with the

stakeholders concerned. The following chapter elucidates the recommended responsibilities

of the stakeholders involved.

Firstly, an overview of the study is discussed, and a brief summary of the main

findings is provided. As it was the intended purpose of this study to create a futuristic

framework for the application of psychology within the human resource management

domains, the main findings will be depicted graphically. Figure 2 is an explanatory figure.

The limitations of this study are discussed following the recommendations to the identified

stakeholders. The chapter is concluded by providing the reader with my final thoughts on the

study.

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6.2 Overview and main findings

An exploratory study was conducted into how psychology could be practised by

industrial psychologists when operating in the human resource management domains. As a

result of the exploratory nature of the study, a qualitative research approach was utilised in

order to answer the research question. The data collection methods used were consistent with

the qualitative reseach methodology, and included seven in-depth, semi-structured interviews

and three focus groups. The information obtained from the interviews and focus groups was

transcribed into text and analysed. Content analysis was used to analyse the data gathered.

Consequent to the data collection and analysis, nine main themes were recognised as

relevant to the purpose of the study. The main themes identified provided a general outline

of the findings made. It was found that action may be required from a multitude of sources in

order to ensure that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology. These sources include

the HPCSA, SIOPSA, designers of the industrial psychology curricula, universities, the

industrial psychologist and, to a lesser degree, organisations. It was also found that there are

factors that inhibit and enable the use of psychology within the human resource management

domains as well as factors that may distinguish industrial psychologists from other

professions and disciplines. The main findings are elucidated below.

The predominant message from the participants with regards to the HPCSA is that

there is a lack of understanding of industrial psychology. It was found that the HPCSA may

have a role to fulfil in the education of industrial psychologists, and could play an informative

role, along with SIOPSA, in educating organisations on the value that industrial psychologists

can add. Accordingly, it is suggested that the HPCSA and SIOPSA have roles to fulfil in the

affirmation of psychology in industrial psychology.

It was also found that the current education of industrial psychologists may need to be

revised. In addition to the standardisation of the industrial psychology curricula across South

112

African universities, internship programmes may need to be reviewed, and could be designed

against what is required for an industrial psychologist to be competent at a junior level. The

main finding within this theme, however, was that the industrial psychology curricula should

ensure that graduate industrial psychologists have a good understanding of how psychology

relates to and is applied within the human resource management domains and the business

context.

The third main finding was the many disinguishing factors of the profession provided

by the participants. As discussed, most of these factors are not exclusive to the industrial

psychologist, but industrial psychologists may be more inclined to demonstrate these

characteristics. In addition, it was suggested that industrial psychologists should recognise

their value-add as behavioural experts within the organisation, as opposed to attempting to

distinguish themselves on the basis of work content. As indicated in the literature study of

Chapter Two, the work content of industrial psychologists and human resource managers is

similar and, consequently, there may be very few differentiating factors based on the work

content. The most predominant distinguishing factor found was that industrial psychologists

have a deep understanding of behaviour within the workplace. Industrial psychologists could

therefore apply behavioural science to the human resource management domains and the

organisational context.

Industrial psychologists may not always have the scope to practise psychology within

the human resource management domains. Industrial psychologists may have to fulfil

generalist human resource management roles within organisations, which may limit the

amount of resources available to practise psychology. Another important inhibitor to the use

of psychology within the business context may be that the IPHR practitioner may be working

with other professions who may not have the same perspective on the value of people within

organisations as the IPHR practitioner. Although it was not a predominant theme in the

113

study, it is worth noting that the suggested blurred identity of industrial psychologists is

another important inhibiting factor. As a result of the seemingly blurred identity of some

industrial psychologists, they may not acknowledge the unique value-add of their behavioural

science knowledge to the workplace.

The most dominant first-order theme found was that there are psychological

components that underpin each human resource management domain. This finding affirms

the use of psychology within the human resource management domains. Besides the

affirmation of the psychological components underpinning the human resource management

domains, there are other important enablers of the use of psychology in the workplace.

Leaders and an organisatonal culture that genuinely value the contribution that employees

make, the availability of resources, the credibility of the industrial psychologist, the

complementary relationship between human resource management and industrial psychology

and, lastly, being given the opportunity to make a strategic contribution to the organisation‟s

goals are other enablers of the use of psychology within the workplace.

By acknowledging some of the enablers for the use of psychology within the human

resource management domains, the characteristics of an enabling organisational context are

chrystalized. Regardless of the organisational context, industrial psychologists should

practise from a scientific base to ensure that psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology.

For instance, industrial psychologists practising from a scientific base would be able to

distinguish between pop psychology and science, and use current, valid, and reliable tools to

practise. More importantly, it was found that IPHR practitioners may need to continuously

update their knowledge base in order to practise from a scientific base.

As previously discussed, using evidence-based practices is important for industrial

psychologists to establish their credibility within organisations. IPHR practitoners may work

114

among other professionals who may not share the same perspective on the value of people

within organisations, and using evidence-based practices may not be enough to be influential.

It was found that industrial psychologists need to adopt an enquiring and assertive approach

when fulfilling their role within organisations. Industrial psychologists should have a strong

personal stance and the courage to constructively question business practices and situations.

In addition, industrial psychologists need to question their own mental frameworks and

practices so as not to become too complacent in their practice.

Another important finding as a result of the study was that industrial psychologists

may need the competence to seamlessly apply psychology practically to the business context.

By implication, the industrial psychologist‟s contribution must have practical relevance for

the organisation and, as such, so should the use of psychology. The industrial psychologist

should also ensure that the use of psychology within the human resource management

domains occurs implicitly. The ability to apply psychology practically and implicitly to the

business context is important for the industrial psychologist‟s credibility.

Lastly, it was found that, despite the inhibitors and the enablers of the use of

psychology within the organisational context, the industrial psychologist is responsible for

creating the context within which psychology is affirmed in industrial psychology. Perhaps it

would be unrealistic to wait for the ideal organisational context or for the scope of practice to

be defined for the profession. Further, IPHR practitioners may always face challenges that

may inhibit the use of psychology within the human resource management domains.

Industrial psychologists, as a result, are ultimately responsible for the use of psychology

within the human resource management domains, while the active involvement of the

relevant stakeholders will provide support for the use of psychology in the work context.

115

Figure 2 was designed to explain graphically an ideal state for the use of psychology

within the human resource management domains. For the purposes of depicting an ideal state

for the application of psychology in the human resource management domains by industrial

psychologists, the distinguishing factors, the enabling and inhibiting factors, the revision of

the education of industrial psychologists, as well as the industrial psychologists'

responsibility for creating a context for the use of psychology were not included in Figure 2.

As such, Figure 2 depicts the various stakeholders that could support the use of psychology in

the human resource management domains. The HPCSA, designers of industrial psychology

curricula, universities, and SIOPSA are depicted as blocks that support the industrial

psychological profession. In addition, Figure 2 illustrates that the industrial psychology

knowledge base is the basis for the practice of psychology in the human resource

management domains. More specifically, it was found in this study that business acumen and

demonstrating the value-add of industrial psychology are important for the application of

psychology in the human resource management domains. Industrial psychologists may need

to have a strong personal stance, challenge their own practices, and be the constructive critic

within the organisation. Lastly, it was found that the application of psychology within the

human resource management domains should be practiced through the principles of

behavioural science.

116

Organisational context

Application of psychology

Figure 2

A futuristic framework for the application of psychology in human resource management domains (an explanatory figure)

Industrial psychology profession

Indu

stria

l psy

chol

ogy

know

ledg

e ba

se

Competences:

Business acumen and demonstrating value

add.

Attitude:

Strong personal stance, challenge own processes, be a

constructive critic

Beh

avio

ural

scie

nce

Human resource

management domains

HPCSA SIOPSA Universities and designers of industrial psychology curricula

117

6.3 Recommendations

As suggested, various stakeholders could be informed about the results of this study.

Each stakeholder may have a unique role to fulfil in supporting the use of psychology within

the human resource management domains. The HPCSA, SIOPSA, the designers of industrial

psychology curricula, universities, industrial psychologists who are employed as human

resource management practitioners, and organisations are the identified stakeholders.

It is suggested that the scope of practice of an industrial psychologist may need to be

reviewed. An accurate scope of practice would not only clarify the parameters of practice,

but also the competences required to perform within the human resource management

domains from the psychological knowledge base. Internship programmes could be

redesigned, the continued professional development of IPHR practitioners could be

influenced, and the industrial psychology curricula could be standardised as a result. It is

also suggested that the HPCSA, in collaboration with academics and practitioner industrial

psychologists, could engage on the issues relating to the education of prospective and

experienced industrial psychologists.

As previously discussed, the HPCSA and SIOPSA, in collaboration with industrial

psychologists, could inform organisations of the value that industrial psychologists can add.

It is also suggested that SIOPSA should encourage the presentation of papers at conferences

that highlight the use of psychology within the human resource management domains. The

presentation of research relevant to IPHR practitioners would serve to further the education

of experienced industrial psychologists fulfilling human resource management practitioner

roles.

The designers of industrial psychological curricula may need to include modules that

require students to create links between psychology and the human resource management

118

domains. The curricula could also include modules that ensure industrial psychologists have

business acumen in order to understand the organisational context within which industrial

psychology is applied. In addition, industrial psychologists could develop skills in

communicating psychological principles and theories in such a way that it is readily accepted

by other professions within the organisational context. The designers of industrial

psychology curricula may need to incorporate exercises that develop these skills.

It is suggested that universities could reconsider the perspectives from which

industrial psychologists are being trained. As discussed, some universities offer industrial

psychology training in human resource management courses, which, as a result, may dilute

the behavioural science that tends to distinguish industrial psychologists from other

professionals. In addition, universities could consider offering experienced industrial

psychologists more development opportunities in order to update their knowledge base on

developments within industrial psychology.

Perhaps once organisations acknowledge the value that industrial psychologists can

add, organisations may create the context within which psychology may be used.

Organisations may consider providing industrial psychologists with the resources and the

scope to practise psychology within the work context, which will empower IPHR

practitioners to use psychology within the human resource management domains.

Lastly, industrial psychologists need to practise from a scientific base, adopt an

enquiring and assertive approach when fulfilling their roles as IPHR practitioners, and should

assume responsibility for affirming psychology within industrial psychology. As such,

industrial psychologists working as human resource management practitioners may need to

contribute to the amendment of the scope of practice. The contribution of IPHR practitioners

to the amendment of the scope of practice is critical to the affirmation of psychology within

119

industrial psychology, since competences are derived from the scope of practice to train

prospective and experienced industrial psychologists. Lastly, industrial psychologists

functioning in human resource management domains may contribute by collaborating with

the HPCSA, the designers of industrial psychology curricula, SIOPSA and universities to

influence decisions that may support the application of psychology in human resource

management domains.

Perhaps further research may be required to focus specifically upon the competences

required to practise psychology within the human resource management domains. Since this

study was exploratory in nature, various aspects relating to the use of psychology within the

human resource management domains were provided. This research study has provided the

context, critical competences, and attitudes required of an IPHR practitioner. Future research

could focus on the important competencies required to use psychology within the human

resource management domains where the outcome of the study would suggest a competency

framework. The study could be embarked upon using a qualitative research approach, and

interviews could again be used to collect data. The interviews could be structured around the

human resource management domains, where the participants would need to elaborate on the

behaviours that they would employ to use psychology within the identified human resource

management domains. A quantitative survey could also be used to identify the competencies

required to apply psychology in the human resource management domains. The quantitative

survey could include a comprehensive list of competencies for respondents to select, or rate

the extent to which they believe that the competencies are important for the application of

psychology to the human resource management domains. Once the data have been collected,

a competency framework could be formulated.

Throughout this study, it may have been assumed that the application of behavioural

science in the marketplace is recognised as valuable by organisations. Perhaps another

120

research topic could include the investigation of the perceptions of the market on the value-

add of industrial psychologists. Possibly, the relevance of behavioural science in the

workplace needs to be explored in order to gain a different perspective on the application of

psychology in the human resource management domains. This study could be embarked

upon using quantitative methods, where a survey could be constructed and completed by

business leaders and middle management. It is suggested that the outcome of the study could

inform industrial psychologists, firstly, of the perceptions of the marketplace on the value-add

of industrial psychologists, but also provide industrial psychologists with information that

could enhance their relevance to organisations.

6.4 Limitations

Some of the participants in the study found the following question difficult to answer:

“What psychological principles should you use when working within the predominant human

resource management domains?”. Participants often asked that the question be repeated, or

asked what was meant by the question. Many participants did not understand what was

meant by "psychological principles." Therefore, the interview questions were sent to the rest

of the interview participants a few days before the interview took place, so that they could

prepare for the interview. The participants often did not have time available to read the

interview questions before the time and, as a result, this strategy was unsuccessful.

Securing participants to participate in the focus group proved to be quite challenging.

The ideal number of participants in a focus group is between nine and 12 people (Schurink, &

Schurink, 2011). The amount of people who took part in the focus groups amounted to five

people in the first focus group, four people in the second focus group, and five people in the

third focus group. These numbers are substantially less than the amount recommended by

Schurink and Schurink (2011).

121

Lastly, the verification survey was constructed around the main themes found and, as

a result, limited the respondents' ratings to the main themes. It was found that, while some

participants agreed with the overall theme, they may have disagreed with some of the

descriptor first-order themes. The outcome of the verification survey results might have been

more accurate, had the respondents been able to rate the overall theme as well as the first-

order descriptor themes.

6.5 Final thoughts

The purpose of this study was to determine how psychology could be practised in the

human resource management domains in order to provide an ideal framework for the

application of psychology by industrial psychologists in the human resource management

domains. It is apparent from the participants‟ narratives that the psychological components

underpinning the human resource management domains affirm the relevance of psychology

within the human resource management domains and the unique contribution that industrial

psychologists can make. It appears, however, that some industrial psychologists functioning

as human resource managers may be finding it difficult to apply psychological principles in

the human resource management domains. Perhaps the organisational context is not

supportive of the use of psychology, or there are many other inhibiting factors present. I

believe that an inhibiting factor worth noting is the blurred professional identity of industrial

psychologists working as human resource managers. It appears that, due to the blurred

identity, IPHR practitioners may question their unique value-add within organisations and,

consequently, may not approach the human resource management domains from a

behavioural perspective. It is suggested that if industrial psychologists reflect on their

practices in the human resource management domains and perhaps apply the framework

presented within this study, they may be able to entrench behavioural science in the human

122

resource management domains. Furthermore, if industrial psychologists acknowledge their

role of influencing the relevant stakeholders to support the use of psychology in the human

resource management domains, future generations of industrial psychologists may experience

less inhibiting factors and more enabling factors for the use of psychology in the same

domains. Consequently, psychology could be affirmed in industrial psychology, specifically

when future industrial psychologists are employed in human resource management functions.

123

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