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Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Weabmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

Nwamarah Uche

Faculty of Education

Department of Educational Foundations

IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON

SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN

BAYELSA STATE

ABIDDE, EBENADE

PG/M.ED/12/62372

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Title page

IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON SECONDARY

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN BAYELSA STATE

BY

ABIDDE, EBENADE

PG/M.ED/12/62372

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR

THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF EDUCATION (M.ED) IN

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING

SUPERVISOR: DR. S. C. UGWOKE

SEPTEMBER, 2014.

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APPROVAL PAGE

This project has been approved for the degree of Masters in Educational

Administration and Planning by the Department of Educational Foundations,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

BY

Dr. S. C. Ugwoke Rev. Dr. L. K. Ejionueme (Supervisor) (Internal Examiner)

Prof. G. C. Unachukwu Dr. D. U. Ngwoke (External Examiner) (Head of Department)

Prof. I. C. S. Ifelunni (Dean, Faculty of education)

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CERTIFICATION

ABIDDE, EBENADE a Post Graduate student in the Department of

Educational Foundations with Registration Number PG/M.ED/12/62372, has

satisfactory completed the requirements for the award of MASTERS IN

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING. The work

embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in part or full for

any diploma or degree of this or any other University.

DR. S. C. UGWOKE DR. D. U. NGWOKE

(Supervisor) (Head of Department)

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DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to the Almighty God.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my indebtedness and gratitude, first to the Almighty

God who has not failed to give me the inspiration I needed in life.

I sincerely appreciate the committed effort of my supervisor, Dr. S. C.

Ugwoke for his professional guidance and constructive supervision. A very big

thanks to him for making this research work a reality and success out of his

busy schedule. He has been a loco parentis from the start of this programme.

I also acknowledge the goodwillof my lecturers Prof. N. Ogbonaya, Ass.

Prof. A. I. Oboegbulem, Rev. (Dr.) L. K. Ejionueme, Dr. (Mrs.) I. O. Ezenwaji,

Dr (Mrs.) G. T. U. Chiaha, Dr. (Mrs.) J. I. Anyanwu, Dr. M. A. Obidoa and Dr.

L. N. Onuigbo, also my lecturers in Niger Delta University Prof. A. C. Egumu,

Dr. F. G. Paulley, Dr. Y. D. Torunarigha, Dr. TambouGesikeme and Dr.

Lawrence Ikati for the privilege to tap from their wealth of knowledge. Thanks

also to my fiancée Julie Zimoghen and my friends Ebiye John Robert,

Ogboloma Terrence Tarimotimi, Obi Augustine Ifeanyi, Emedolu Chigozie

Ifeanyi, OkenjomGodian Patrick,Emamuzo Margaret, Osunju Johnand my

siblings and a host of colleagues whose support and encouragement made this

research work a reality.

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Finally I express gratitude to my parents Mr. Akeenawerekumo Fidelis

Abidde, Mr. & Mrs. Tobi, Mr. & Mrs. Felix Abidde for sponsoring and

contributing to the success of my Education and M.ED programme in particular.

May the Almighty God bless you all for your efforts.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - i

Approval page - - - - - - - - - ii

Certification - - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - v

Table of content - - - - - - - - - vii

List of tables - - - - - - - - - xi

List of figures - - - - - - - - - xii

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 11

Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - 12

Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 13

Scope of the Study - - - - - - - 15

Research Questions - - - - - - - 15

Hypotheses - - - - - - - - 16

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Conceptual Framework - - - - - - - 18

Concept of Climate - - - - - - - 18

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Concept of Climatic Change - - - - - - 20

Concept of Awareness - - - - - - 30

Concept of Principalship - - - - - - 31

Concept of Administration - - - - - - 40

Theoretical Framework - - - - - - 52

Anthropogenic Global Warming Theory - - - - 52

Planetary Process Theory - - - - - - 54

Human Relations Theory - - - - - - 56

Behavioural Science theory - - - - - - 57

Review of Empirical Studies - - - - - - 58

Related studies on climatic change awareness of

secondary school principals - - - - - - 58

Related studies on impact of climatic change on students’ learning in

secondary school - - - - - - - - 60

Related studies on impact of climatic change on human

resource performance - - - - - - - 61

Related studies on impact of climatic change on secondary school

educational facilities - - - - - - - 63

Related studies on extent schools receive financial aids in the event of

climatic change effect - - - - - - - 64

Summary of Literature Review - - - - - 65

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD

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Design of the Study - - - - - - - 68

Area of the Study - - - - - - - 68

Population of the Study - - - - - - - 69

Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 69

Instrument for Data Collection - - - - - - 70

Validation of Instrument - - - - - - 70

Reliability of Instrument - - - - - - 71

Method of Data Collection - - - - - - 71

Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - 71

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

Research Question 1 - - - - - - - 73

Research Question 2 - - - - - - - 75

Research Question 3 - - - - - - - 77

Research Question 4 - - - - - - - 78

Research Question 5 - - - - - - - 80

Hypothesis 1 - - - - - - - - 83

Hypothesis 2 - - - - - - - - 84

Hypothesis 3 - - - - - - - - 85

Summary of the Findings - - - - - - - 86

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS

AND SUMMARY

Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - 87

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Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 92

Educational Implication of the Findings - - - - - 92

Recommendations - - - - - - - 93

Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - 94

Suggestions for further Studies - - - - - - 95

Summary of the Study - - - - - - - 95

REFERENCES - - - - - - - - 97

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Corrected Questionnaire - - - - 105

APPENDIX B: Validated Instruments - - - - 108

APPENDIX C: Population Distribution - - - - 117

APPENDIX D: Major Greenhouse Gases - - - - 121

APPENDIX E: Sources of Fossil Fuel Combustion - - - 122

APPENDIX F: Mass of Carbon iv Oxide emitted per quantity of

energy for various fuels - - - - - 123

APPENDIX G:Atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 at

different time horizon for various greenhouse gases - 124

APPENDIX H: Causal Factors of Climatic Change - - - 125

APPENDIX I: Photos of Communities submerged by water - - 126

APPENDIX J: Data Analysis of Trial Tested Instruments - - 128

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland

Areas of Bayelsa State on Climatic Change Awareness - - 73

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Table 2: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland Areas of Bayelsa

State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on Students’

Learning in Secondary Schools - - - - - 76

Table 3: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland Areas of Bayelsa

State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on

Human Resource Performance in Secondary Schools - - 77

Table 4: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland

Areas of Bayelsa State on the Extent of Climatic Change

Impact on Secondary School Educational Facilities - - 79

Table 5: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland

Areas of Bayelsa State on the Extent Principals Receive

Financial Aids to Ameliorate Climatic Change

Impact on Secondary school Educational Facilities - - 81

Table 6: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in

Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa State on

Climate Change Awareness - - - - - 83

Table 7: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in

Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa State on the Extent of

Climatic Change Impact on Students’ Learning in

Secondary Schools - - - - - - - 84

Table 8: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in

Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa state on the Extent of

Climatic Change Impact on Secondary School

Educational Facilities - - - - - - - 85

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1: Functions of Administration - - - - - - 36

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Abstract

The study examined the impact of climatic change on secondary school administration

in Bayelsa State. Five research questions and three null hypotheses guided the study.

Ex-post-facto research design was used for the study. The population of the study was

501 government secondary school principals. The population size (501) was

manageable by the researcher so there was no sample and sampling technique. A self-

developed instrument containing 45 items titled Impact of Climatic Change on

Secondary School Administration Questionnaire (ICCSSAQ) was used for data

collection. The data generated from the trial testing were analyzed using Cronbach

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Alpha statistics and the overall reliability index of 0.95 was obtained. Mean and

Standard Deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test was used

to analyze the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Findings of the study

revealed that climatic change awareness among secondary school principals is low.

The findings further showed that climatic change has great extent of impact on

students’ learning, human resource performance, and secondary school educational

facilities, also principals get little extent of financial aid to cushion climatic change

effect on educational facilities. Based on the findings, some recommendations were

made which include; that necessary information and programmes be put in place to

enlighten principals on the causes of climatic change and its outcomes and the effect it

has on the effective administration of secondary schools, and there should be

guidelines in the construction of classroom blocks and be equipped with the necessary

equipment to allow for ventilation, as it will also help the staff in the discharge of their

professional duties among others.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Climate is an area's long-term weather patterns. It could be described as the

average temperature and precipitation of an area over time. According to the

American Meteorological Society, (AMS) (2011), it is the average weather condition

of a place taken over a prolonged period of time. It is the statistics of temperature,

humidity, pressure, wind, rainfall, sunshine intensity, particle count and other

meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over a long period of time,

usually 30years and above(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),

2007).While weather is the present atmospheric condition such as the intensity of

sunshine and amount of rainfall for the day, climate is the average of these

meteorological elements collected over a very long period of time. The measure of

these meteorological elements is necessary for the study of climate, which is referred

to as climatology. Climatology is the scientific study of average weather conditions of

a place over a period of time (AMS, 2011). Details of climate records are known

through measurements from instruments like thermometers, barometers, and

anemometers and are usually presented as weather information. The instruments used

in studying weather are periodically modified to fit modern use, and must thus be

considered when studying the climate of past centuries which is referred to as

paleoclimatology (Spencer, 2007).

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Paleoclimatology is the study of prehistoric climates on a global or regional

scale from evidence preserved in glacial deposits, sedimentary structures, and fossils

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2007). It refers to the

study of past climate over a great period of the earth's history to show periods of

stability and variation which can indicate whether climate follows regular cycles

(IPCC, 2007). It uses evidence from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, coral, and rocks

to determine climatic change.

Climatic change is the complete variation or average state of the atmosphere

over time scale ranging from decades to millions of years in a region or across the

entire globe which can be caused by processes internal to the earth, external forces

from space (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, human activities(Arctic

Climatology and Meteorology (ACM), 2008). In recent time, especially in the context

of environmental policy, the term ‘climatic change’ often refers to variation in

environmental and atmospheric composition, including the rise in average surface

temperature known as global warming (IPCC, 2007). Global warming is the heating of

the earth’s surface which results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating towards

space (Oreskes, 2004). In some cases, the term climatic change is used with a

presumption of human causation as stated in the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2008). Climatic change in the context of

this study refers to the variation in the statistical distribution of average weather

conditions over a prolonged period of time.

Climatic change can be described as the biggest environmental issue of our

time. It is a topical issue worldwide because of its attendant problems that are

threatening the sustenance of man and his environment. The effects of climate change

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are particularly becoming more severe in the under-developed and developing

countries (Small and Nicholis, 2003). Climatic change has become the new reality of

our time. It brings with it changes in weather patterns that can have serious

repercussions on human beings by upsetting seasonal cycles, harming ecosystems and

water supply, affecting agriculture and food production, causing sea-levels to rise

among others. Climatic change has a cumulative effect on natural resources and the

balance of nature. Its effects are already visible in Nigeria.

The causes of climate change have been attributed mostly to human activities.

For the past decades, human activities such as urbanization, deforestation, population

explosion, industrialization and the release of greenhouse gases are the major

contributing factors to climatic change (Odjugo, 2010). Greenhouse gases sometimes

abbreviated GHGs is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within

the thermal infrared rays (National Energy Information Center (NEIC), 2013).

Nigeria’s economy depends largely on natural resources (crude oil) which is

richly deposited in the Niger Delta region. The Niger Delta region of Nigeria is

reported to have over 123 gas flaring sites making Nigeria one of the highest emitters

of greenhouse gases in Africa (Thaddeus, Chukwudumebi, Nnaemeka and Victoria,

2011). A study by the World Bank (2008) revealed that Nigeria accounts for roughly

one-sixth of worldwide gas flaring. For instance, Nigeria flares about 75% of her gas

and all take place in the Niger Delta region. The flares have apparently contributed

more greenhouse gases hence climatic change in the region.

The activities of oil exploration, the release of industrial wastes, and other

household activities such as burning of fossil fuel, have inevitably released more

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greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, thereby, leading to the depletion of the ozone

layer. Ozone layer is a layer of the upper atmosphere, from 15 to 50km/10 to 30miles

above the earth’s surface, where most atmospheric ozone collects, absorbs harmful

ultraviolet radiation from the sun (NEIC, 2013). According to Ekpoh and Ekpoh

(2011), this results to sea-level rise, killer flooding, water salination, increase in

rainfall among others. The impact could manifest in food security challenges, damage

to infrastructure, social dislocation which also affects educational activities.

Education is absolutely the basic instrument of economic growth and

technological advancement of any society (Oyebade, Oladipo, and Adetoro, 2009). It

is also regarded as instrument par excellence and the means of achieving human

capital and national development (Ayeni, 2012). Education has also been described by

Adegbesan (2010), as the bedrock of every society and tool for nation building.

Education is what each generation gives to its younger ones, which makes them

to develop attitudes, abilities, skills and other behaviours which are of positive value

to the society in which they live (Amaele, 2003). Education is a process of initiating

the child into cherished norms and skills, designed and implemented by the mature or

adult members of the society to effect the desired changes in the younger or less

matured ones, from generation to generation. In this direction, education is the basic

tool that sharpens the mind of the individual preparing him to fit into the society. It is

as a result of its importance that the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) in her

National Policy on Education has organized education into pre-primary education,

primary education, secondary education and tertiary education. However before now

Nigeria had practice 6-3-3-4 system of education, which is six years primary

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education, three years junior secondary education, three years senior secondary

education and four years tertiary education.

Pre-primary education is the initial stage of organized instruction designed

primarily to introduce very young children to a school-type environment. It includes

the crèche, nursery and kindergarten. It is basically done among others to effect a

smooth transition from home to school and also to prepare the child for primary

education, while primary education comes in between early childhood education and

secondary education. It is the education given to children between the aged 6 to 11.

According to FRN (2004), the primary level is the key to the success or failure of the

whole education system, since the rest of the education system is built on it.

Secondary education is the education children receive after primary education and

before tertiary education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2012). It is the education given

to children between the ages of 12 – 18 (Oboegbulem and Onwurah, 2011). It is

splitted into two parts, three years junior secondary school (JSS) and three years

senior secondary school (SSS).

In Nigeria, secondary schools are located in the urban and rural areas to meet

the demands and aspirations of the people living in both settings, and it is not different

in the case of Bayelsa State. Bayelsa State is mostly surrounded by water, with some

few urban areas, but most villages are in the creeks. For the purpose of this study, the

location will be categorized in to upland and lowland areas. The upland areas are

those communities and villages where secondary schools are sighted and are easily

accessible with the aid of vehicles, motor vans and motor-cycles, due to the

availability of good access roads. The lowland areas are communities and villages in

the creeks where secondary schools are sighted, but can only be accessed through the

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river with the aid of local wooden boats and engine boats. Both areas were affected

during the 2012 flood disaster and secondary education activities takes place in these

areas.

The broad goals of secondary education are to prepare the individuals for

useful living within the society, and for higher education. Specifically, secondary

education, according to FRN (2012) shall:

Provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of

a higher level, irrespective of sex, social state, religion or ethnic

background, offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in

talents, opportunities and future roles, provide trained manpower in the

applied science, technology and commerce at sub-professional grades,

develop and promote Nigerian languages, art and culture in the context

of world’s cultural heritage, inspire students with a desire for self-

improvement and achievement of excellence, foster national unity with

an emphasis on the common ties that unites us in our diversity, raise a

generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views

and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those

values specified under our broad national goals and live as good

citizens, provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for

agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development (p;14).

In Nigeria, the principal who could be either male or female is the head of the

secondary school. The principal is regarded as the Chief Executive and he/she is

responsible for all that happens in the school (Oyedeji and Fasasi, 2006). As the Chief

Executive, the principal assigns duties to staff according to their ability and

specialization, though all responsibilities still reside in him/her as the accounting

officer. Arikewuyo (2009) sees the Principal as a manager, administrator, an

exemplary leader, counselor, a public relations officer, a nurse and even a messenger.

Being the person in charge of administration, the principal performs the duties of

planning, organizing, directing, staffing, controlling, reporting and budgeting.

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Administration is the art of organizing human and material resources for the

purpose of achieving organizational objectives. Administration is the component part

of management concerned with facilitating the accomplishment of the objectives of an

organization through the systemic management of constraints and careful utilization of

the available limited resources which include human, material, equipment, supplies,

finance, space and work ethics or technology (Peretomode, 2001). On the other hand,

educational administration is the arrangement of the human and material resources

and programmes available for education and carefully using them systematically for

the achievement of articulated objectives (Mgbodile, 2004). However, for the purpose

of this study, effective administration is the ability of an educational administrator to

coordinate available resources (learning programme, staff personnel, educational

facilities and finance) to produce results that meet educational expectations.

Staff personnel are sometimes referred to as human resource are the employees

of an organization. Human resource administration refers to the managing of human

capital within an organization or industry (WiseGeek, 2013). In the school situation,

staff personnel administration forms an important responsibility of the school

administrator in achieving the goals of the school in particular and of education in

general (Mgbodile, 2004). Staff in secondary school include not only the teachers, but

also the non-teaching staff; clerks, watchmen, labourers, cooks, and laboratory

attendants. Mgbodile further stressed that teaching and non-teaching staff are the most

important weapons in the hands of the administrator in achieving educational

objectives. In other to achieve educational goals and objectives, there is the need for

staff to be provided with the necessary educational facilities to discharge their duties.

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Educational facilities refer to non-human and non-financial resources. They

include all movable and immovable materials, which are used for teaching, learning

and other school activities (Abdulkareem and Fasasi, 2010). They are synonymous

with school physical facilities, school material resources, school plant and school

facilities. Olagboye (2004) stated that educational facilities consist of instructional

resources such as audio and visual aids, graphics, printed materials, display materials

and consumable materials. They also include physical resources such as land,

building, furniture, equipment, machinery, vehicles, electricity, water supply and

infrastructure. In another dimension Ojedele (2004) identified three components of

educational facilities. These are school infrastructure, such as buildings and

playgrounds; instructional facilities (teaching-learning materials, equipment and

furniture) and school physical environment (beautification of the school environment).

Thus, there are different kinds of facilities that could be used for teaching and learning

purposes. They are located within and outside school premises and are under the care

of the school principal. With the availability of quality educational facilities, the

educational programme could be adequately implemented.

The programme of guidance is the aspect of the educational programme which

deals with helping the students to become adjusted to their present situation and to

plan their future in line with their interests, abilities and special needs. As the school

administrator, the principal plans, directs and supervises all teaching and learning

activities to achieve the school’s educational goals and objectives. In other to achieve

this, the school administrator has to be provided with the needed financial resource for

the day-to-day running of the school.

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Finance is an important resource that helps business organizations to stay alive.

For any organization or society to function well, it must be financially viable. Finance

is a body of facts, principles and theories dealing with the raising and using of funds

by individuals, business firms, educational institutions and government (Ogbonnaya,

2012). Financial management is the managerial activities which deals with planning,

controlling, and organizing the financial resource of an organization; that is, the

management of the finances of a business in order to achieve the financial objectives

of the business (Donnell and Koontz, 2004). More so Onye (2000) opined that

financial management may be defined as the process involved in ensuring that

financial resources are obtained and used both profitably and effectively, that is, in the

accomplishment of the objectives of the organization. The essence of financial

management is the effective and efficient administration of an organization’s financial

resources to achieve the stated goals of the organization.

The principal is the accounting officer is entrusted with the responsibility of

controlling the revenue accruing to the school and ensuring judicious utilization of

Parents Association (PA) levy. In order to raise fund to complement the efforts of the

government, the principal can establish a very good rapport with the Parents

Association, Board of Governors, Old Students’ Association and Non-Governmental

Organizations for fund raising activities (Ekundayo, 2010).

The resources stated above (human, educational facilities, programme of

learning and finance) are of utmost importance to the school administrator for the

achievement of educational goals and objectives. With the availability and good

condition of these resources, effective administration of secondary schools can be

achieved. But climatic change events has affected educational facilities, which has

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been brought to low quality, teachers and students were displaced, educational

programme could not be successfully implemented due to low quality of educational

facilities and displacement of students and staff, financial resource available to school

administrators are deployed to salvage the situation on ground.

It is expected that as part of his/her duties, the principal is to create a safe

learning and healthy school environment for both the teachers and students for

effective teaching and learning (The Wallace Foundation, 2013). A safe environment

for teachers to discharge their professional duties, free of threats from both internal

and external forces. The American Academy of Pediatrics (2002) defines a healthful

school environment as one that protects students and staff against immediate injury or

disease and promotes prevention activities and attitudes against known risk factors

that might lead to future disease or disability. The physical school environment

encompasses the school building and all its contents including physical structures,

infrastructure, furniture, and the use and presence of chemicals and biological agents;

the site on which a school is located; and the surrounding environment including the

air, water, and materials with which children may come into contact, as well as nearby

land uses, roadways and other hazards (World Health Organization, 2008). For the

safety of the students and staff, the administrator has to be conversant with the

physical environment where the school is situated.

In creating a healthful school environment, the administrator is expected to be

grounded in the climatic and weather conditions of the community/society where

his/her school is located such as the sunshine and rainfall pattern, this will enable the

principal to inform staff and, most especially, students on the pattern of dressing when

there is excessive rainfall and sunshine. Climatic change has its way of affecting the

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smooth administration of education, according to Das (2010), in the areas of

destruction of school buildings, school facilities, obstruction of academic

programmes, students and staff health, school transportation and impeding the receipt

of educational materials from central authorities.

The 2012 flood disaster in Bayelsa state is as a result of climatic change and it

brought educational activities to a standstill. Children who were supposed to be in

school were at various refugee camps seeking shelter. As critical as the impact of

climatic change is, it is not clear whether secondary school principals in Bayelsa State

are aware of what climatic change is or its impact in the administration of secondary

schools. It is as a result of this that the researcher seeks to find out the impact of

climatic change on secondary school administration in Bayelsa state.

Statement of the Problem

Climatic change is no doubt one of the most important environmental issues

facing the world today. This is evidenced by the spate of conferences, campaigns,

reports and researches on climatic change in the past two decades. Presently, there is

widespread consensus in the scientific community and even among politicians that

climatic change is happening and that the impacts are already present in our

environment. Climatic change phenomenon has serious deleterious consequences for

the earth in the form of significant variations in regional climates, recurrent droughts,

excessive heat waves, windstorms, killer floods, among others. There are noticeable

consequences of climate change in Nigeria such as intense thunderstorms, widespread

floods, incessant droughts, water salination, and desertification, among others.

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Recently in 2012, some states in Nigeria experienced flooding which had effect

on their economy, political activities, and social activities. This made some schools to

suspend academic activities for months in some states. School plants in various states

were affected. In Bayelsa state, displaced community members used school desks and

chairs for fire woods, schools became refugee camps; students, parents and even

teachers were displaced. With all these consequences, pressure is still on secondary

school principals for effective administration of secondary schools. Notwithstanding

this, there have been warnings from meteorologists about flooding that could be worse

in the coming years compared to the 2012 flooding. But there is doubt of achieving

effective administration of secondary schools by principals amidst climatic change

phenomenon. Are principals aware of climatic change? What impact does it have on

effective administration of secondary schools? Do principals get support to ameliorate

these consequences? These are the basic questions the researcher wants to provide

answers to.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of climatic change

on secondary school administration in Bayelsa state. Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. Ascertain the extent of principals’ awareness of climatic change in Bayelsa

state.

2. Find out the extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in

secondary schools in Bayelsa state.

3. Determine the extent of climatic change impact on human resource

performance in secondary schools in Bayelsa state.

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4. Determine the extent of climatic change impact on secondary school

educational facilities.

5. Find out the extent to which principals of secondary schools receive financial

aids to ameliorate climatic change effects on educational facilities.

Significance of the Study

Theoretical significance of this study will be anchored on the Human Relations

Theory. This theory emphasizes on the human resource as an important factor in the

achievement of organizational goals. It is assumed that workers will achieve better if

their welfare is taken into consideration. This shows that secondary school principals,

staff and students will perform effectively when adequate attention is given to their

welfare and needs. This will help to achieve educational goals.

This implies that principals should be adequately provided with the necessary

resources needed for the day-to-day running of secondary schools as it will ensure the

achievement of educational objectives, which is the basis for effective administration.

Also effective administration of secondary schools will be achieved if the school

principal is able to develop good principal-staff relationship and good principal-

student relationship then they can work as a formidable team.

Practically, the findings of this study will be useful to the following groups;

Ministry of education, school administrators, Non-governmental Organizations,

government and other researchers.

The findings of this study will call for the need for organizing seminars,

workshops and conferences by the Ministry of Education on climatic change. The

Ministry of Education will enlighten principals of secondary schools on climate

28

change and its effects on educational administration. The findings will enable the

Ministry of Education to enlighten community members on school-community

relationship and the importance of physical facilities in the achievement of

educational goals, so as to stop vandalizing school facilities when taking refuge in

school buildings due to climatic change.

The findings of this study will help school administrators to appreciate that

effective administration cannot be achieved singlehandedly hence the benefits of

having team spirit. This will enable them to build good relationship with their

administrative team, staff and students to draw up academic programmes to suite the

times and seasons.

The findings of this study will help Non-governmental organizations and

philanthropists to contribute to the achievement of educational goals, by identifying

areas schools need help and thereby channel their resources to those areas to enable

schools get back on track especially as it relates to provision and or reconstruction of

school facilities destroyed by natural disasters.

The findings of this study will bring to the notice of the government and its

agencies the need to provide adequate resources principals need for the achievement

of educational goals. It will also enlighten various state governments on the need to

fashion out means of ameliorating the consequences schools might face as a result of

climatic change.

Finally, the findings of this study will help other researchers to understand the

level of awareness principals have about climatic change and how it has affected

educational administration. It will also help other researchers to find out other areas in

29

education that climatic change has affected. It will also assist them in their review of

empirical literature.

Scope of the Study

This study shall be carried out in the eight (8) local government areas in

Bayelsa state. It will involve all the principals of government secondary schools in

Bayelsa state.

However, the content dimension will focus on the extent of awareness

secondary school principals have about climatic change, the impact it has on students’

learning, human resource performance, secondary school educational facilities and the

extent of financial aids to secondary schools affected by climatic change.

Research Questions

The following research questions are formulated to guide the study:

1. To what extent are principals aware of climatic change?

2. To what extent does climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary

schools?

3. To what extent does climatic change impact on human resource performance in

secondary schools?

4. To what extent does climatic change impact on secondary school educational

facilities?

5. To what extent do principals receive financial aid to ameliorate climatic change

effect on educational facilities?

30

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses are formulated to guide the study and will be

tested at 0.05 level of significance.

H01. There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals

in lowland and upland areas on awareness of climatic change.

H02. There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals

in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climatic change impact on

students’ learning in secondary schools.

H03. There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals

in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climate change impact on

secondary schools’ educational facilities.

31

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The literature related to this study was discussed under the following sub

headings: conceptual framework, theoretical framework, review of empirical studies,

and summary of literature review.

Conceptual Framework

• Concept of Climate

• Concept of Climatic Change

• Concept of Awareness

• Concept of Principal

• Concept of Administration

Theoretical Framework

• The

Anthropogenic Global Warming Theory

• The Planetary Processes Theory

• Human Relations Theory

• Behavioural Science Theory

Review of Empirical Studies

Related studies on climatic change awareness of secondary school principals

Related studies on climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary school

Related studies on climatic change impact on human resource performance

Related studies on climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities

Related studies on extent schools receive financial aids in the event of climatic change

32

Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Climate

Climate is the average weather for a particular region over a long period

(Washington State Department of Ecology, 2012). It is the weather condition of an

area over a number of years (Mama and Osinem, 2007). It is the regular pattern of

weather conditions of a particular place. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC, 2001) glossary definition shows that:

Climate is the "average weather within a given duration". It is the

statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant

quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or

millions of years. The classical period is usually 30 years and the

quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature,

precipitation, and wind. It includes the statistics other than the average,

such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations (p;5).

Climate is also defined as the average weather patterns existing throughout

several years over a large portion of earth's surface (Amanda, 2013). It describes the

total of all weather seasons (dry and rainy), and special events (like tornadoes,

cyclones and floods). Climate tells us what it is usually like in a place. Therefore,

climate varies from weather because weather is concerned only with short term

events.

Climate is composed of long-term average weather patterns; it encompasses the

average measurements of various meteorological elements like humidity, atmospheric

pressure, wind, precipitation and temperature (IPCC, 2007). In addition to these

components, earth's climate is also composed of a system consisting of its atmosphere,

oceans, land masses and topography, ice and biosphere. Each of these is a part of the

climate system for their ability to influence long-range weather patterns. Ice, for

33

example, is significant to climate because it has a high albedo, or is highly reflective,

and covers 3% of the Earth's surface, therefore helping to reflect heat back into space

(Amanda, 2013).

An area's climate is normally a result of a 30-35 year average. Scientists have

been able to study past climate patterns for a large part of Earth's history through

paleoclimatology (IPCC, 2007). In order to study past climates, paleoclimatologists

use evidence from ice sheets, tree rings, sediment samples, coral and rocks to

determine how much Earth's climate has changed through time. With these studies,

scientists have found that Earth has experienced various periods of stable climate

patterns as well as periods of climatic changes in the past ( Amanda, 2013). However,

the modern climate record is determined through measurements taken via

thermometers, barometers (an instrument measuring atmospheric pressure) and

anemometers (an instrument measuring wind speed) over the past few centuries.

Climate is the typical weather conditions experienced at any location or area

over series of years. Weather conditions, such as rainfall, sun intensity, surface

temperature and other meteorological elements, are recorded on interval for years and

the average taken at the end of the targeted period is referred to as the climate of the

location where such data are collected. Over historical time span, there have been a

number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, such as latitude, altitude,

proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains (IPCC, 2007).

Many global issues are related to climate, including basic needs such as food, water,

health, and shelter. Climate variations may threaten basic needs with increased

temperatures, sea level rise, changes in precipitation, and more frequent or intense

34

extreme events (Karl, Melillo, and Peterson, 2009). It is predicted that food security,

water and other key natural resources may be threatened by climatic change.

Concept of Climatic Change

Climatic change is the significant and lasting variation in the statistical

properties of the average weather system when considered over long periods of time,

regardless of cause (IPCC, 2001). Climatic change can be referred to as variation in

the average weather that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activities in

addition to natural events that alter the composition of the atmosphere over

comparable time periods. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to climatic

variation caused by human activities, as opposed to earth's natural processes (United

Nations (UN), 2000). In the context of environmental policy, the term climatic change

has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming. Global warming refers

to the increase in the surface temperature of the earth. Climatic change includes global

warming and everything else affected by increasing greenhouse gases level (IPCC,

2007). Climatic change is a long-term shift in the weather condition of a specific

location, region or planet. The shift is measured by changes in features associated with

average weather, such as temperature, wind patterns and precipitation (UN, 2000). It

may be a shift in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around

the average conditions (IPCC, 2007). When the average weather of a specific area is

altered between two different time periods, then climatic change has occurred

(Peterson, 2009).

Climatic change usually occurs when there is an alteration in the total amount

of the sun's energy absorbed by the earth's atmosphere and surface. It also happens

35

when there is a change in the amount of heat energy from the earth's surface and

atmosphere that escapes to space (the region beyond earth’s atmosphere) over an

extended period of time (IPCC, 2001). A region's climate is generated by the climate

system, which has five components: atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, land

surface, and biosphere (IPCC, 2011). Scientists actively work to understand past and

future climate by using observations and theoretical models. Borehole temperature

profiles, ice cores, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial processes, stable

isotope and other sediment analyses, and sea level records provide a climate record

that spans the geologic past (Kasting and Seifert, 2002). Physically-based general

circulation models are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data,

make future projections, and link causes and effects in climatic change. In other

words, what is observed now is used to compare with what was known to determine

and understand the changing trend of climate. Recent data are provided by the

instrumental records which indicate the activities that lead to climatic change. The

activities that lead to climatic change are broadly classified into anthropogenic causes

(human-activity-related) and natural causes (earth’s natural activities which are non-

human-activity-related).

Causes of Climatic Change

Anthropogenic (Human) Causes

Earth is heated by the sun which serves as the natural source of warmth thus

generates the needed temperature for life forms and other activities on the planet.

Most of the sun's energy passes through the space to warm the earth's surface, oceans

and atmosphere. The rate at which energy is received from the sun and the rate at

36

which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of the earth

(IPCC, 2007). In order to keep the atmosphere's energy budget in balance, the warmed

earth also emits heat energy back to space as infrared radiation (Allison, 2009). As the

energy radiates upward, is absorbed by clouds and molecules of greenhouse gases in

the lower atmosphere. The emitted energy goes in all directions, some back towards

the surface of the earth and some upwards, where other molecules higher up absorb

the energy (Allison, 2009). This process of absorption and re-emission is repeated

until finally, the energy escapes to the region beyond earth’s atmosphere called space.

This natural process is known as the greenhouse effect. However, because much of the

energy is recycled downward, earth’s surface temperatures become much warmer than

usual which would not have been so if the greenhouse gases level were balanced in

the atmosphere (Allison, 2009). Without the abundance of the greenhouse gases,

earth's average temperature would be -19°C instead of +14°C (National Aeronautics

and Space Administration (NASA), 2011). This made scientists under the auspices of

the intergovernmental panel on climate change to agree that the main cause of the

current global warming trend is human’s increase of the greenhouse gases (GHG) into

the atmosphere which blocks heat from escaping to the space (Oreskes, 2004;IPCC,

2007).Over the past centuries, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has

been relatively stable until greenhouse gas concentrations began to increase due to the

rising demand for energy caused by industrialization, high population, changing land

use, bush burning and human settlement patterns(IPCC, 2011), which have resulted to

climatic change.

The earth's climate has changed throughout history but the current warming

trend is of particular significance because most of it is human-induced and occurring

37

at an unmatched rate for the past centuries (Gabriele, 1996).In its recently released

Fourth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group

of 1,300 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the

auspices of the United Nations, concluded that there is more than 90% probability that

human activities over the past centuries have warmed planet earth (IPCC, 2007). The

industrial activities which modern civilization depends on have raised atmospheric

CO2 (Carbon dioxide) levels from 280 parts per million to 379 parts per million in the

last centuries. The report also concluded that there is a better than 90% probability

that human-produced greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane and nitrous oxide have

caused much of the observed increase in earth's temperature in the last century.

Over the last century, the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil and the

increased level of deforestation has raised the concentration of atmospheric gases such

as CO2 (IPCC, 2007). Industrial and other steam engines are also known to release

CO2. The clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human activities have

also contributed to the abundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Trees and

other smaller plants replenish the atmosphere with oxygen while utilizing the

available CO2 during photosynthesis (Osinem, 2005). During respiration, the trees and

grasses inhale CO2 and exhales oxygen (O2). This process decreases the harmful level

of CO2 in the atmosphere and increases the supply of O2. The variation in the supply

and utilization of CO2 affects the percentage composition of gases in the GHG layer in

the atmosphere. The layer of GHG primarily contains water vapour and other gases

such as CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (IPCC, 2007).

The GHG layer at normal and balanced composition of gases acts as a thermal blanket

for the earth, absorbing heat and warming the surface to a life-supporting average of

38

59 degrees Fahrenheit (15°C), (United States Global Change Research Program

(USGCRP),2009). Excess or deficient supply of any of the GHGs affects the balance

of the GHG layer. The GHGs, when in excess supply in the GHG layer, block heat

from escaping from the earth’s atmosphere into space. The excess long-lived GHGs

which remain semi-permanent in the atmosphere, which do not respond physically or

chemically to changes in temperature, are described as "forcing" climatic change

whereas gases, such as water vapour, which respond physically or chemically to

changes in temperature are seen as "feedbacks" (Lockwood, 2009).

A natural system known as the "greenhouse effect" regulates temperature on

earth. Both natural and human factors that can cause climatic change are called

‘climate forcings', since they push, or ‘force' the climate to shift to new values. The

greenhouse gases (forcings) are ranked according to their importance and

contributions (see appendix D). This means that gases contributing to the greenhouse

effect include: water vapour, CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and halocarbons (Kiehl &

Kevin, 1997).

Carbon iv oxide (CO2) is a very important component of the atmosphere. CO2

is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcanic eruptions and

through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning of fossil

fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by a third (1/3) since

the Industrial Revolution began (Naomi, 2004). This is the most important long-lived

"forcing" of climatic change. The seven sources of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion

(with percentage contributions for 2000–2004) are liquid fuels, solid fuels, gaseous

fuels, cement production, flaring gas industrially and at wells, non-fuel hydrocarbons

and international bunker fuels of transport (see appendix E).

39

CO2 is relatively emitted from various fuels. One liter of gasoline, when used

as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cm3) of carbon iv oxide, a

greenhouse gas (Engber, 2006).Mass of carbon iv oxide emitted per quantity of energy

for various fuels is shown in appendix F.

Methane is a hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and

human activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and

especially rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management

associated with domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a

far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but is much less abundant in the

atmosphere (Naomi, 2004). Nitrous oxide is a powerful greenhouse gas produced by

soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers,

fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.

Halocarbons is a family of chemicals that include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),

(which damage the ozone layer), and other human-made chemicals that contain

chlorine and fluorine. CFCs are synthetic compounds of entirely industrial origin used

in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and released to

the atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction

of the ozone layer (Naomi, 2004).Ozone layer is a thin veil of ozone 25 - 40 km above

the earth’s surface, which protects life below from the portion of the sun’s ultraviolent

radiation that otherwise damage forms of life (Osinem, 2005). The ozone veil is being

damaged by chemical released on the earth’s surface, notably CFC. Each 1%

reduction in ozone is likely to cause an increase of about 2% in ultraviolent rays

(Osinem, 2005). Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and Global Warming Potential

(GWP) for several greenhouse gases see (appendix G).

40

Most greenhouse gases are extremely effective at absorbing heat escaping from

the earth and keeping it trapped (Church and White, 2006). In other words, it takes

only small amounts of these gases to significantly change the properties of the

atmosphere. By comparison, the atmospheric greenhouse gases that cause the earth's

natural greenhouse effect total less than 1% of the atmosphere while 99% of the dry

atmosphere consists of nitrogen and oxygen, which are relatively transparent to

sunlight and infrared energy, and have little effect on the flow of sunlight and heat

energy through the air (NASA, 2011). A little bit of greenhouse gas goes a long way

as that small percentage increased the earth's average surface temperature from -19°C

to +14°C - a difference of about 33°C (NASA, 2011). Because the concentration of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is so low, human emissions can have a significant

effect. For example, human emissions of CO2 currently amount to roughly 28 billion

metric tons per year (IPCC, 2001). In the next century human emissions will increase

the concentration of CO2in the atmosphere from about 0.03% currently to almost

certainly 0.06% (doubling), and possibly to 0.09% (tripling)(IPCC, 2001).

Currently, CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in the past several

million years (AMS, 2011). This corresponds to the increase during the transition

from a glacial to an interglacial period, which under natural conditions, however,

would have taken several thousand years. According to Lemke (2006);

The natural climate system has produced interglacial periods and ice

ages, which caused dramatic changes, especially in the northern

hemisphere. However, during the past eight ice ages, the CO2

concentration was always about 180 CO2ppmv (parts per million by

volume). In the warm periods, this value increased to 280 CO2ppmv.

The duration of the transition between the CO2 minimum (180) in a

glacial period and the CO2 maximum (280) in an interglacial period

took about 20,000 years. Currently we live in an interglacial period and

CO2ppmv measures as high as385, which are due to anthropogenic

41

greenhouse gas emissions. This means that man have released to the

atmosphere as much CO2 as was recorded during the transition from a

glacial to interglacial period, what took 20,000 years to change, we have

now realized in only 200 years (p;18).

In summary, human activities which are regarded as the anthropogenic causes

of climate change include mainly the release of CO2 and other greenhouse gases

through burning of fossil fuel, gas flaring, emissions from combustion engines and

other numerous industrial activities. Others include, but not limited to, deforestation

and clearing of land as well as urbanization.

Non-anthropogenic (Natural) Causes

This refers to the non-anthropogenic (non-human-related) activities but of the

natural processes. Natural causes of climatic change include variations in ocean

currents (which can alter the distribution of heat and precipitation), orbital variation

(alteration of the earth’s eccentric, angular and precession axis),solar output (variation

in sun’s intensity), plate tectonics (motion resulting from deformation of rocks) and

large eruptions of volcanoes, which can sporadically increase the concentration of

atmospheric particles, blocking out more sunlight (IPCC, 2001).Climatic changes can

be attributed to very small variations in earth’s orbit that alters the amount of solar

energy which the earth planet receives (Lockwood, 2009). The energy from the sun is

distributed around the globe by wind, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect

the climates of different regions (Allison, 2009). Thus a change in the direction and

speed of global wind and ocean currents results in a variation in the pattern of

distribution of solar energy which directly alters average weather of earth, particularly

in regions surrounded by water bodies.

42

These causative activities of nature and man have resulted to chemical and

physical change of activities on earth, most of them are not favourable to the

environment and occupants of earth; plants and animals, and their effects are visible

on earth.

Consequences of Climatic Change

In a report titled, Preparing for a Changing Climate, the Washington State

Department of Ecology (2012) observed that rising levels of carbon dioxide and other

heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere have warmed the Earth and are causing wide-

ranging consequences, including rising sea levels; melting snow and ice; more

extreme heat events, fires and drought; and more extreme storms, rainfall and floods.

Scientists project that these trends will continue and in some cases accelerate, posing

significant risks to human health, our forests, agriculture, freshwater supplies,

coastlines, and other natural resources that are vital to economy, environment, and

quality human life.

In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted that

warming oceans and melting glaciers due to global warming and climatic change

could cause sea levels to rise 7-23 inches by the year 2100. Worldwide, densely

populated coastal communities and infrastructure that supports them would be

affected (such as city buildings and homes, roads, ports, and wastewater treatment

plants). Some would be flooded or more vulnerable to storm damage. In flat terrain,

the shoreline could move many miles inland. However, according to Ishaya and Abaje

(2008), despite the fact that efforts have been made towards fighting climatic change

43

from scientific views, research and policies directed towards indigenous knowledge

and perception are highly needed.

Global concern regarding the devastating consequence of climatic change has

emphasized the need for creating awareness and building community capacity for

adaptation strategies to mitigate the effects of climatic change. As pointed out by

Naclimuthu and Vijayakumari (1993), the need of the hour is to make people sensitive

towards nature through a strong programme of climatic change awareness. This is

imperative in the sense that, there are some misconception and misunderstanding of

climatic change issues.

In a study conducted by Ishaya and Abaje (2008) on indigenous people’s

perception on climatic change and adaptation strategies in Jema’a local government

area of Kaduna State, Nigeria, it was reported that in terms of awareness, 13% of the

respondents agreed that there is a high level of awareness on climate change in the

study area, 33% of the respondents said they do not know, and majority, 54% of the

respondents, declined saying that the awareness on climatic change is very weak in the

study area and Nigeria as a whole. According to the UNDP report (2010), the level of

awareness about climatic change is rather low in Nigeria, and it is likely to continue if

no intervention measures are taken. The survey noted that the awareness of climatic

change was highest at the federal level. This dropped sharply at the state and local

government levels, where real action is needed. These misconceptions, according to

Aladag and Ugurlu (2009), are probably due to, among other things, the complexity of

the science involved, the uncertainties and controversies surrounding them. Climatic

change awareness involves creating knowledge, understanding and values, attitude,

44

skills and abilities among individuals and social groups towards the issues of climatic

change for attaining a better quality environment (Ekpoh and Ekpoh, 2011).

Concept of Awareness

Awareness is a word derived from aware. According to Merriam Webster’s

online Dictionary (2013), aware means having knowledge of something. It implies

vigilance in observing or alertness in drawing inferences from what one experiences

(aware of changes in climate). Awareness is having knowledge about something. It is

the ability to know that something exists, having knowledge or experience of a

particular thing (Walter, 2007). Awareness also means having special interest in or

experience of something and so being well informed of what is happening in that

subject at the present time. According to Dictionary.com (2013) it is the state or

condition of being aware; having knowledge. Awareness is the state or ability to

perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns. However,

knowledge is understanding of or information about a subject which has been obtained

by experience or study, and which is either in a person’s mind or possessed by people

generally (Walter, 2007). Hence, knowledge is derived from information but it is

richer and more meaningful. It includes familiarity, awareness and understanding

gained through experience or study, and results from making comparisons, identifying

consequences, and making connections. Consciousness is awareness of or sensitivity

to a particular issue (Microsoft Encarta Dictionary, 2009). Consciousness is the

quality or state of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It is

sentience, awareness, subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness,

having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind. Conscious

awareness is a process of recognizing what is going on inside and out, the effects of

45

decisions and actions, and the interaction between a complex array of factors and

forces (Working for Good, 2012). Hence, it is seeing, observing our thoughts and

recognizing our feelings and the effect they have on us, others and our surroundings.

Awareness also is seen as the constant energy that underlies our consciousness,

regardless of content, regardless of functionality or irrationality, regardless of culture

(Cohen, 2009). Awareness itself is the constant in a field of constant change. It may be

focused on an internal state, such as a visceral feeling, or on external events by way of

sensory perception. Awareness is an understanding of the activities of others, which

provides a context for one’s own activity (Wolfgang, Christian, Peter and Hendrik,

2000). It therefore, can be defined as what is manifest in all forms of perception, in all

forms of knowing. Awareness is qualified by different objects such as global

awareness, self-awareness, consumer awareness, environmental awareness, among

others. It is observed from the assertions however, that awareness is the understanding

of an individual about a thing, the understanding of happenings, events and changes

taking place in one’s environment/vicinity. Lipman (2013) emphasized that awareness

is a critical and important trait of successful leaders. A successful leader must be

abreast about happenings in his/her immediate environment to make right decisions

and to lead effectively.

Concept of Principalship

A principal is an individual who directs and monitors the academic and non-

academic activities within a school environment. The principal is the individual who

plans and implements the daily routines within an educational setting (Exforsys,

2006). The school principal is the highest-ranking administrator in secondary school

46

(Kermit, 2012). According to Peretomode (2001), the principal as the head of the

school, is usually appointed as a result of qualification and seniority.

At the head of every secondary school in Nigeria is the principal, who is

regarded as the chief executive and responsible for all that happens in the school

(Oyedeji and Fasasi, 2006). As the chief executive, the principal assigns duties to

those who could perform the duties, though all responsibilities still reside in him/her

as the accounting officer. Arikewuyo (2009) sees the Principal as a manager,

administrator, an exemplary leader, counselor, a public relations officer, a nurse and

even a messenger. It is he that develops and implements the educational programmes

of the school, procures staff, provides facilities and equipment, keeps school records

including records of school funds, as well as creates a conducive teaching and learning

atmosphere in school (Mgbodile, 2004).

Functions of the Principal

In specific terms, Oboegbulam and Onwurah (2011) viewed the functions of

the Principal as follows:

• Development and implementation of educational programme

This function according to Peretomode (2001) can be further broken down into

two categories which are namely:

Structuring of school for purpose of instruction:

For effective teaching and learning to take place in a school, a conducive

atmosphere which is devoid of confusion must be created. One of the ways by which

the principal can do this, is by clearly identifying positions and roles, and acquainting

47

position occupants with their roles and the relationship that is supposed to exist

between role occupants.

Curriculum Implementation:

The principal should be seen to be playing the role of the team leader in

relation to curriculum implementation. The principal should play this role by way of

serving as a guide to the various teachers either directly or in conjunction with the

heads of various department in terms of helping identify relevant goals to the

community, planning and selecting relevant learning experiences, helping to

implement programme improvement and evaluating programmes change.

• Staff Personnel Administration.

One of the first responsibilities of the secondary school principal in the area of

staff personnel administration is identification of the staff needs of his school

(Mgbodile, 2004). The identification of staff needs involves determining the

qualifications and the area of specialization of staff for recruitment. Once this is done,

the principal then makes request to the Post Primary Schools’ Management Board, or

the Secondary Education Management Board or the Teaching Service Commission as

the case may be for recruitment and posting of staff to his school.

The second responsibility of the principal in the area of staff personnel

administration is orientation of new members of staff, students and community

members into the school. This will help students and staff to settle down in their new

school and job. The third responsibility of principal in the area of staff personnel

administration is the assignment of duties to staff. The fourth is conducting a

programme of staff improvement through classroom observations and other forms of

48

evaluation. This includes supervising instruction and supervision of co-curricular

programmes like sports activities (Peretomode, 2001).

• Students’ Relations Functions:

The principal ensures that students offered admission meet government

regulations (Mgbodile, 2004). The next thing he does is grouping students accordingly

for purposes of instruction. This move would help to save time that would be

judiciously used for the provision of instruction. Actually students are classified in

learning groups in keeping with the experience that instruction becomes easier if

students are taught in groups whose members have the same level of assimilation.

The principal supervise and monitor the admission of students into boarding

houses and should take care of the welfare of boarders. He is expected to ensure that

students who are repeating are adequately cared for. The principal is expected to

address students’ transfer as the occasion demands and take note of all students who

are withdrawing from the school for whatever reasons.

• Community Relations Function:

Community relation is the degree of understanding and goodwill existing

between the school and the community. The principal, based on his training and

interaction finds out and articulates the perceived educational needs and expectations

of the immediate community (Peretomode, 2001). For the development of human

relations, the principal endeavours to participate in communal activities to which he is

invited. The principal maintains a good channel of communication with the Parents

Association for purposes of getting new ideas, remaining sensitive to the feelings of

parents and acquainting parents and guardians with the problems of the school.

49

• Financial Function:

Principals are usually delegated authority from the board of trustees for the

day-to-day financial management of the school. Principals are responsible for

monitoring and controlling school expenditure to make sure that money is carefully

spent on the school’s priorities, as planned and budgeted. Principals report regularly

to the school board of trustees on financial management; and prepare annual audited

financial reports. Principals may delegate financial management tasks to school

employees and may also pay for external accounting services (New Zealand Ministry

of Education, 2013). The Principal however retains full responsibility for the financial

records and reporting. Every Principal has a responsibility to maintain sound financial

systems, understand key financial information about their school and provide

appropriate reporting.

The Commonwealth Secretariat (1993) also adduced the functions of the

Principal to include the following: managing and deploying school resources

efficiently, allocating school accommodation appropriately, ensuring satisfactory

standards of maintenance and cleanliness of school facilities, organizing staff

development in school, guiding curriculum implementation and change, managing the

developmental appraisal system, whole school evaluation and new integrated quality

management system, creating a professional ethos within the school by involving staff

members in decision making, and Managing restructuring and redeployment of

teachers.

In carrying out these functions, Wong and NG (2003) contended, Principals are

to demonstrate their ability to lead through: professional knowledge, organizational

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and administrative competence, ability to work out a good school policy and put it

into effect, skill in the delegation of authority, ability to understand the professional

problems of teachers, and give professional guidance, and ability to establish good

working relationships with staff and parents.

Leadership functions of the Principal

Principals combine and coordinate various kinds of resources by carrying out

four basic leadership functions: planning, organizing, leading and monitoring

(Lunenburg, 2010). The relationships of these functions are shown in figure 1 below.

Figure i: Four functions of administration.

Source: Adopted from; Lunenburg, F.C. (2010). The principal and the school: what

do principals do?

Planning

Generally, planning defines where the school wants to be in the future and how

to get there (Parker, 2011). Plans and the goals on which they are based give purpose

and direction to the school, its subunits, and contributing staff. For example,

1. Planning

2. Organization

3. Leading

4. Monitoring

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supposing the principal in a school decides that the school should attempt to increase

the number of students reading in each of the class by 20 percent by the year 2014,

this goal and the methods needed to attain it would then serve as the planning

framework for the school (Gardiner, 2011). The school counselors, social workers,

school psychologists, library media specialists, department heads, and teachers would

direct all efforts to the achievement of the set goal.

Planning is important because it provides staff with a sense of purpose and

direction, outlines the kinds of tasks they will be performing, and explains how their

activities are related to the overall goals of the school (Oosterlynck, 2011). Without

this information, staff would not know precisely how to use their time and energies

efficiently and effectively. Subsequently, they would respond to their job

responsibilities randomly, wasting valuable human resources.

Planning is a prerequisite to other leadership functions. In particular, it

becomes the basis for monitoring and evaluating actual performance (McDonnell,

2011). That is, plans made during the first step become benchmarks or criteria against

which to measure actual performance in the monitoring step. Unless plans are

formulated and mutually agreed on, there is relatively little value or basis for

measuring the effectiveness of the school outcomes (Lunenburg and Irby, 2006;

Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2008). In addition, comparing planned and actual results

provides the principal with a sound basis on which to make necessary adjustments in

the school's plan of action.

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Organizing

Once principals have developed workable plans and the methods for attaining

them, they must design an organization that will successfully implement the plans.

Organizing involves three essential elements (Argyris, 2011): developing the structure

of the organization, acquiring and developing human resources, and establishing

common patterns and networks.

In a very basic sense, designing the structure of the organization involves

creating the organizational chart for a school (Jones, 2010). The principal establishes

policies and procedures for authority relationships, reporting patterns, the chain of

command, departmentalization, and various administrative and subordinate

responsibilities. Then the principal takes steps to hire competent personnel. When

necessary, the principal establishes programmes for training new personnel in the

skills necessary to carry out their task assignments. Finally, the principal builds formal

communication and information networks, including the types of information to be

communicated, direction of communication flows, and reductions in barriers to

effective communication.

Organizing at the upper levels of an organization usually includes designing the

overall framework for the school (Grant, 2011). Organizing in the school is usually

more specific and may involve the following specific activities (Burton, 2007):

developing methods to help people understand what portion of the job is their

responsibility; coordinating individual efforts through work schedules to avoid

unnecessary delay in task accomplishment; designing an efficient system for making

day- to-day work assignments when these are necessary; and cross-training personnel

53

or providing for substitute personnel to avoid disruptions in the flow of work caused

by absenteeism.

Leading

Once plans are formulated and activities are organized, the next step is leading

staff members to achieve the school's goals. Although planning tells principals what to

do and organizing tells principals how to do it, leading tells principals why the staff

member should want to do it. Recently, the leading function is also called facilitating,

collaborating, or actuating (Lunenburg, 2010). Leading entails guiding and

influencing people.

The principal's role can be defined as getting things done by working with all

school stakeholders in a professional learning community (Hord and Sommers, 2008).

Principals cannot do all of the work in schools alone. They must, therefore, influence

the behavior of other people in a certain direction. To influence others, the principal

needs to understand something about leadership, motivation, communication, and

group dynamics. Leading means communicating goals to staff members, and infusing

them with the desire to perform at a high level (English, 2008). Because schools are

composed largely of groups, leading involves motivating entire departments or teams

as well as individuals toward the attainment of goals.

Monitoring

When principals compare expected results with actual results, and take the

necessary corrective action, they are performing the monitoring function. Deviations

from past plans should be considered when formulating new plans. As shown in

Figure 1, monitoring completes the cycle of leadership functions.

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Monitoring is the responsibility of every principal. It may simply consist of

walking around the building to see how things are going, talking to students, visiting

classrooms, talking to staff, or it may involve designing sophisticated information

systems to check on the quality of performance, but it must be done if the principal is

to be successful (Blankstein, Houston, and Cole, 2010).

The success with which principals carry out these functions determines how

effectively the school operates. A school is created to perform a set of tasks and

achieve a number of stated goals, the most important of which is student learning

(Blankstein, 2010). It is the principal's job as the administrator to attain goals by

working with all school stakeholders in an atmosphere of a professional learning

community (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Karhanek, 2010). This involves planning,

organizing, leading, and monitoring. It is the principal who will lead the school

through administrative success.

Concept of Administration

Administration is the coordination and organization of the efforts of a group of

people and materials for the achievement of set goals and objectives of an

organization. According to Manilla (2003), administration is the coordination of

human and material resources towards the attainment of some predetermined

objectives. It is concerned with working with people and materials to accomplish the

purpose of an enterprise.

Administration is also concerned with the guidance, leadership and control of

the effort of a group of people towards the achievement of common goal. Peretomode

(1996) defined administration as performance of executive duties, the carrying out of

55

the policies and decisions to fulfill a purpose and controlling of the day-to-day

running of an organization. The definition implies that administration involves not just

implementation of policies and programmes of an organization, but also its day-to-day

functioning. Okon (2004) stated that administration involves directing the affairs of an

organization in such a way that its pre-determined objectives and goals are achieved

through the use of appropriate resources. From the definitions, it can be deduced that

administration is the use of men, materials and funds to achieve set objectives. It is

concerned with making the personnel to perform effectively by using available tools

provided for them.

On the other hand, educational administration is the activities of planning,

organizing and coordinating the human, materials and financial resources for the

attainment of the objectives of a school. Ochai (2012) defined educational

administration as a way of coordinating the scarce resources of educational

institutions namely; manpower, finance, and capital equipment so as to achieve

desired educational objectives. Ogbonnaya (2007) defined educational administration

as the planning, organization, coordination and control of human and material

resources towards the attainment of pre-determined objectives. According to Anuna

(2004), educational administration is the process through which manpower, funds and

instructional materials are harnessed for the attainment of educational goals. It is the

process of mobilizing the staff to perform effectively and efficiently by using the

materials provided for them to achieve educational goals. It is observed from the

definitions that all administrative efforts in the context of formal education are geared

towards the enhancement of effective teaching and learning. According to Ochai

(2012), the concern of the school administrator or school head is to direct the efforts

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of teachers, students and other staff in the school towards the achievement of school

goals and objectives.

Human Resource Administration

Human resource administration is the planning, procuring, directing and

harnessing of personnel for the achievement of organizational goals and objectives. It

is the practice of managing people at work. According to Ibukun (2003), it is

concerned with the recruitment, welfare, training, promotion, motivation, transfer and

discipline of staff.in essence, human resource administration is the act of staff

selection, recruitment, development, transfer, posting, discipline and supervision. It is

also the function of organization which provides for the utilization of human resources

to achieve both the objectives of the enterprise and the satisfaction and development

of the employees.

Human resource administration refers to manpower activities of an

organization which embrace recruitment of staff, staff maintenance, training and

development compensation, personnel policies and evaluation of staff for educational

activities (Mgbodile, 2004). It is the harnessing of the totality of people’s skills,

energies, talents, latent capacities, social characteristics like belief to achieve

educational objectives and simultaneously making the people to be part and parcel of

an organization in fulfilling its goals (Peretomode, 2001). It is the systematic

utilization of human potentials to realize educational objectives and staff contentment.

Human resource administration form an important responsibility of the school

administration in achieving the goals of the school in particular and of education in

general in the sense that it involves identifying and satisfying staff needs of the school

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and satisfying them. According to Peretomode (2001), teaching and non-teaching staff

are the most important weapons in the hands of the administrator in achieving

educational objectives. In this respect, the welfare of the staff is a priority to the

school administrator.

However, owing to climatic change events in the society, the health and

welfare of staff could be threatened. The wellbeing of the staff as well as their families

are of great importance as long as effective job performance is concerned. Staff could

be distracted as well as displaced as sea level rise will increase risk of flooding,

displacement of people, salinization of drinking water resources. Sickness and death

due to diarrheal and other climatic change related diseases and sicknesses such as

malaria, rift valley fever, yellow fever, meningitis, plague, cholera and dengue fever

are projected to increase due to alteration in the hydrological cycle and decrease in

freshwater availability (Cruz, Harasawa, Lal, Wu, Anokhin, Punsalmaa and Huu-Ninh

(2007). In many African countries, these factors already threaten human health, such

as malaria increase due to climatic change as varying weather condition favour the

proliferation of carrier agents (Boko, Niang, Nyong, Vogel, Githeko, Medany and

Yanda, 2007). By 2020, between 75 and 250 million people are projected to be

exposed to increased water stress and by 2050, between 350 million and 600 million

people in Africa are projected to experience increased water stress due to climatic

change (Boko et al, 2007). They also stand the chances of facing hunger as climatic

change affects food production.

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School Facility Administration

School facility administration refers to the activities of the school administrator

that has to do with planning, controlling, procurement, provision, maintenance, and

directing the use of school facilities. School facilities, school physical facilities, school

plant and educational facilities are words used interchangeably and they all have the

same meaning. School facilities are the non-human and non-financial educational

resources belonging to the school. According to Mgbodile (2004), they refer to the

school site, the buildings, the play grounds, the equipment and material resources

provided in the school for effective teaching and learning operations. They also

include all movable and immovable materials, which are used for teaching, learning

and other school activities.

Educational facilities consist of instructional resources such as audio and visual

aids, graphics, printed materials, display materials and consumable materials

(Olagboye, 2004). They also include physical resources such as land, building,

furniture, equipment, machinery, vehicles, electricity and water supply infrastructure.

In another dimension Ojedele (2004) identified three components of educational

faculties. These are school infrastructure, such as buildings and playgrounds;

instructional facilities (teaching-learning materials, equipment and furniture) and

school physical environment (beautification of the school environment).Thus, they are

different kinds of facilities that could be used for teaching and learning purposes.

They are located within and outside school premises. They enable the teacher to do

his/her work very well and help the learners to learn effectively.

School facilities are directly related to the school curriculum. The programmes

of the school are expressed, as it is, through the school site, the buildings, play

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grounds, the arrangement and design of the buildings. The successful implementation

of any educational programme depends mostly on the quality of available school

facilities that are to be provided for such programme (Lawanson and Gede, 2011).

According to Abraham (2003), the type of atmosphere required for effective learning

is that consisting of better school buildings, more and better teaching facilities.

Abraham further stated that the quality of education that our children get bears direct

relevance to the availability or the lack of physical facilities and overall atmosphere

where the learning takes place. Also in the words of Lawanson and Gede (2011) are

these wise saying “Excellent school facilities and dedicated teachers are basic

ingredients of good educational programme. It is of this importance that the school

administrator draws a good plan on the effective usage of available facilities, when it

will be used, and the number of students and staff at a time. The principal provides

adequate maintenance and replacement of facilities if need be.

Educational facilities in Nigerian schools are already in a decrying state.

Adding to this state of appalling facilities, climatic change will cause more damage to

the limited available facilities. According to IPCC (2007), the rising level of the sea

could affect densely populated coastal communities and infrastructure that supports

them would be affected such as city buildings and homes, roads, ports and wastewater

plants. School infrastructures including school buildings, play grounds, laboratories,

and other school equipment could be submerged as a result of the incessant rain falls

that could lead to over flooding.

School facilities are subject to depreciation. Depreciation is the wear and tear

of an asset. Depreciation could occur naturally or man-made. School facilities when

submerged in water could lose their value, play grounds will become water logged or

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be affected by excessive heat from the increase in temperature, books in school

libraries could be destroyed by wide spread flooding. There have been recorded cases

of destruction of school properties. According to Das (2010), in countries such as

Bangladesh, there are already instances of very negative impact on educational

infrastructure due to severe cyclone and flood that had destroyed school infrastructure,

disrupting transport, and interrupting teaching and learning.

School Finance Administration

School financial administration is that area of the school principal’s

administrative duty that deals with the financial resources of the school. It is that

activity of management which is concerned with the planning, procuring and

controlling of school financial resources (Ochai, 2012). Financial management is the

managerial activities which deals with planning, controlling, organizing the financial

resource of an organization; that is, the management of the finances of a business in

order to achieve the financial objectives of the business (Donnell and Koontz, 2004).

Onye (2000) opined that financial management may be defined as the process

involved in ensuring that financial resources are obtained and used both profitably and

effectively, that is, in the accomplishment of the objectives of the organization. It is a

managerial activity which is concerned with the planning and controlling of an

organization’s financial resources (Anene, 2001).

A school’s financial management is the “execution by a person in a position of

authority of those management actions (regulated tasks) connected with the financial

aspects of schools and having the sole purpose of achieving effective education”

(Motsamai, Lynette and Corene, 2011). Similarly, Joubert and Bray (2007) describe a

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school’s financial management as the performance of management actions connected

with the financial aspects of a school for the achievement of effective education.

Financial resources mean purchasing power, in the form of cash or credit Ukeje

(2006). The essence of financial management is the effective and efficient

administration of an organization’s financial resources to achieve the stated goals of

the organization.

The backbone of an institution is finance and the principal is the manager of

this finance. The principals are therefore the officers controlling vote. The school

principal has been recognized as a key position in administration of schools. The

administrative effectiveness and efficiency of the principal in management of the

school and human resource tend to determine, to a large extent, the organizational

climate of the school, especially in the area of finance (Bessong, Ubana and Udo,

2012). Whether or not he has a bursar, he has the responsibility of seeing to it that

adequate financial position is made in the budget for his school. It is often his

responsibility to see that the allocation in the school budget is spent according to the

directives of his employer and in accordance with the financial regulations and

procedures (FGN 2004). He invariably has to decide in the order of priority how to

carry out his expenditures. He may be responsible for certain types of revenue

collection, such as tuition fees, caution fees, caution deposits, examination fees, and

uniform fees and so on. Receipts have to be issued for all such monies. If he is an

imprest holder, he should see that records are carefully kept of all items of

expenditure.

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He has to see that a good system of accounting is often maintained in the

school. In this respect, proper accounting procedure laid down by his employer should

be followed. In most schools, this is the responsibility of the bursar but the principal

still has to fulfill a supervisory function. The principal is the chief executive and

accounting officer who is entrusted with the responsibility of controlling the revenue

accruing from the school and ensuring judicious utilization of PA levy. According to

Ekundayo (2010), in order to raise fund to complement the efforts of the government,

the principal can establish a very good rapport with the Parents Association, Board of

Governors, Old Students’ Association and Non-Governmental Organizations for fund

raising activities.

For decades one of the main problems facing education in Nigeria is inadequate

funding. The funding of education has been on the decline. This in turn has had

adverse effect on the quality of education and effective educational administration

(Ekundayo, 2010). There has been other pressing issues (infrastructure, health,

security among others) competing with education on the budget of the federal

government. With the upsurge of climatic change, revenue accruing to education will

be on the decline as government attention will be directed to emergency and pressing

issues such as reconstruction of roads affected by climatic change, provision of food

as there is food insecurity, housing and provision of health services for displaced

persons during disasters. More so, administrators of secondary schools affected by

climatic change could be forced to channel available limited financial resources to the

servicing of affected educational facilities. This will however have a serious effect on

effective administration of schools and the delivery of qualitative education.

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Student Personnel Administration

Student personnel administration refers to the activities of the school

administrator in directing, organizing and teaching students in such a way as to ensure

the attainment of the desired objective of secondary education (Mgbodile, 2004). It is

aimed at the satisfaction of learners needs in the areas of provision of admission,

registration, orientation, hostel accommodation, health services, and computation of

results and supervision of school programmes, apart from the normal classroom

instruction, which facilitates the attainment of the desired educational objectives

(Ochai, 2012).

In every school system, the student is at the centre of the education. It therefore

becomes the responsibility of the school administrator to ensure that all school

programmes are propelled toward developing to the fullest the personality of the

student. According to Ochai (2012), if the students are to benefit from the education

process, their intellectual, physical, social and psychological needs as well as the

educational needs of the students have to be well catered for. To cater for the needs of

the students, the school administrator ensures that the institution’s instructional

programmes are well planned and executed for the benefit of the student.

Student personnel administration involves decision making and implementation

of policies of the school with regards to student education. The decision making

process involves forecasting, planning and organizing the students and other resources

such as manpower, capital, equipment and financial resources which are necessary for

effective teaching and learning in secondary schools (Mgbodile, 2004).

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According to Save the Children’s ‘Legacy of Disasters’ and UNICEF’s ‘Our

Climate, Our Children, Our Responsibility’ (Das, 2010), the children will be the

hardest hit by the increasingly frequent and severe weather events, desertification and

flooding brought by climate change. It is obvious that students in riverine areas will

suffer from vector borne diseases, such as malaria (mosquitoes) and sleeping sickness

(tsetse fly) as a result of flooding and children in dry lands may suffer from chronic

heat rashes as a result of increase in temperature. The increased risk of diseases such

as malaria, dengue fever and water-borne infections for both students and teachers due

to these events further disrupts educational programmes (Das, 2010).

Since climatic change will affect every citizen, every part of our environment,

infrastructures and every aspect of our lives, students’ academic programmes and

learning activities and academic achievement will be affected. This is due to the fact

that other school resources (human, school facilities and school finance) are seriously

affected by climatic change events. The 2012 flooding forced both staff and students,

and even administrators out of school, they became refugees in various camps in

Bayelsa State.

Effective School Administration

Administration is the art of combining and coordination of resources for the

achievement of set goals and objectives. Administration is the component part of

management concerned with facilitating the accomplishment of the objectives of an

organization through the systematic management of constraints and careful utilization

of the available limited resources which include human, material, equipment, supplies,

finance, space and work techniques or technology (Peretomode, 2001). On the other

65

hand, educational administration is the arrangement of the human and material

resources and programmes available for education and carefully using them

systematically for the achievement of articulated objectives (Mgbodile, 2004). In other

words, to achieve set educational objectives the school head/administrator must carry

out certain administrative functions such as planning, controlling, coordinating,

organizing, budgeting and directing all available resources. The resources available to

school administrators are the staff personnel (teaching and non-teaching staff), school

physical facilities, school finances and the student personnel.

In achieving effective administration, school heads anchor their work on

central issues of teaching and learning and continuous school improvement.

According to School Improvement in Maryland (2013), the combination of three

concepts constitutes the foundation for positive improvement results: meaningful

teamwork; clear, measurable goals; and the regular collection and analysis of

performance data. Effective administrators lead their school through the goal-setting

process in which student achievement data is analyzed, improvement areas are

identified and actions for change are initiated. This process involves working

collaboratively with staff and school community to identify discrepancies between

current and desired outcomes, to set and prioritize goals to help close the gap, to

develop improvement and monitoring strategies aimed at accomplishing the goals, and

to communicate goals and change efforts to the entire school community. Effective

Principals ensure that staff development needs are identified in alignment with school

improvement priorities and that these needs are addressed with appropriate

professional learning opportunities.

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Effective principals, according to The Wallace Foundation (2013), do the

following; Shaping a vision of academic success for all students, one based on high

standards, creating a climate hospitable to education in order that safety, cooperative

spirit and other foundations of fruitful interaction prevail, cultivating leadership in

others so that teachers and other adults assume their parts in realizing the school

vision, improving instruction to enable teachers to teach at their best and students to

learn to their utmost, managing people, data and processes to foster school

improvement.

Climatic change poses threat to school administrators in the areas of school

improvement and effective school administration, since effective administration is the

ability of the school administrator to effectively coordinate available human, material

and financial resources. School teachers will not be available to teach students when

they are affected and displaced by climatic change events, students will not be

available for teachers to teach, hence the disruption of educational programme

mapped out for the school calendar year. This could also affect the effective

monitoring of educational activities in schools by administrators.

Theoretical Framework

This study will adopt the anthropogenic global warming theory, planetary

process theory, human relations theory and the behavioural science theory.

Anthropogenic Global Warming Theory

The anthropogenic global warming theory of climate change as propounded by

the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change of the United Nations (2007) states

that man and his activities is the sole cause of the recent climatic change. The theory

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contends that human emissions of greenhouse gases (principally CO2, methane, and

nitrous oxide), industrialization and development, burning of fossil fuel and coal, gas

flaring, jet contrails, irrigation of deserts and deforestation are causing catastrophic

rise in global temperatures. The mechanism whereby this happens is called the

enhanced greenhouse effect. Energy from the sun travels through space and reaches

earth. According to the theory, the earth’s atmosphere being transparent, allows free

passage of the sun’s ray to reach the planet’s surface where some of it is absorbed and

others reflected back as heat. Certain gases in the atmosphere, called “greenhouse

gases,” absorb the reflected radiation, resulting to warmer atmosphere.

The theory further indicated that water vapour is the major greenhouse gas,

responsible for about 36 to 90% of the greenhouse effect, followed by CO2 (<1 to 26

percent), methane (4 to 9 percent) and ozone (3 to 7 percent). These estimates are the

subject of much dispute among scientists, hence their wide ranges. During the past

century, human activities such as burning wood and fossil fuels and cutting down or

burning forests are thought to have increased the concentration of CO2 in the

atmosphere by approximately 50%. Continued burning of fossil fuels and

deforestation, the theory postulates doubled the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Earth’s climate responds to several other types of external influences, such as

variation in solar radiation and in the planet’s orbit, but these “forcings,” according to

the proponents of AGW, cannot explain the rise in earth’s temperature over the past

three decades. The forcing caused directly by man-made greenhouse gases is also

small, but the AGW theory posits that positive feedbacks increase the effects of these

gases between two- and four-fold. A small increase in temperature causes more

evaporation, which places more water vapour in the atmosphere, causing more

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warming, less ice and snow cover, more exposed ground and open water and thus

increase in absorption of solar radiation.

The AGW theory believes that man-made CO2 is responsible for floods,

droughts, severe weather, crop failures, species extinctions, spread of diseases, ocean

coral bleaching, famines, and literally hundreds of other catastrophes. All these

disasters will become more frequent and more severe as temperatures continue to rise.

Nothing less than large and rapid reductions in human emissions of greenhouse gases

will save the planet from these catastrophic events. This implies that school principals

need to pay attention to human activities in their school environment and communities

where there schools are located that could aggravate climatic change and have adverse

environmental changes that could affect the effective administration of educational

activities. The anthropogenic global warming theory helped the study to understand

that climatic change is caused by human activities.

Planetary Processes Theory

This theory as propounded by Milankovic (1941) and modified by Gray (2009)

holds that climatic change is as a result of natural processes which take place within

and outside the earth without man’s influence. The planetary process theory postulates

that bio-thermostat, ocean currents, and planetary motion in addition to solar

variability through gradual processes result to climatic change over prolong time. The

theory explains that bio-thermostatic processes involving the negative feedbacks from

biological and chemical progressions entirely offset positive feedbacks by rising CO2.

These processes act as a “global bio-thermostat” keeping temperatures in equilibrium.

Such bio-thermostatic processes include the planetary motion, solar variability and

ocean current processes.

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The ocean currents process explains that global temperature variations over the

30 years were due to the slow-down of the ocean’s Thermohaline Circulation (THC).

THC refers to a part of the large-scale ocean movement that is driven by global

density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The term

“thermohaline” is derived from “thermo” referring to temperature and “haline”

referring to salt content, factors which together determine the density of sea water.

Wind-driven surface currents (such as the Gulf Stream) travel polewards from the

equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high latitudes

(forming North Atlantic Deep Water). This dense water then flows into the ocean

basins. When the THC is relatively weak (as it was during the periods 1910–1940 and

1970–1994), the earth-system typically has less evaporation, cooling and deep ocean

upwelling of water, during which energy accumulates in the ocean’s upper mixed

layer over a period of a decade or two and after which the global ocean begins to

warm. The warmed oceans result in increased global temperature thus ice melting,

change in precipitation, sea level rise leading to general flooding and coastal erosion.

The planetary processes theory further attributes the change in climate to the

movement and rotation of the earth. The earth, like every other planet, orbits in the

galaxy with the sun at one point or the other, referred to as planetary motion process.

The planetary motion process explains that most or all of the warming of the latter

part of the twentieth century is due to natural gravitational and magnetic oscillations

of the solar system induced by the planet’s movement through space. The position of

the earth relative to the sun determines the amount of solar energy to reach the

surface. The closer the earth to the sun the higher the solar energy thus increased

surface heat which influences the global temperature. These relative positions

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modulate solar variations and/or other extraterrestrial influences of the earth, which

then drive climatic change. Solar variability process explains that the sun accounts for

most or all of the warming in the late twentieth century and will determine climate in

the twenty-first century regardless of man-made greenhouse gas emissions. Changes

in the brightness of the sun are caused by sunspots – bursts of energetic particles and

radiation – that vary in frequency in cycles of roughly 11, 87, and 210 years. These

cycles cause changes in the amount of electromagnetic radiation – also called “solar

wind” – that reaches earth and its atmosphere, which in turn affects earth’s climate. In

summary, the planetary processes theory posits that these naturally occurring

progressions combined influence the climatic makeup of the earth over a long period

of time thereby leading to climate change.

The planetary process theory is relevant to this study to understand that

climatic change occurs naturally, and that natural occurrences like earthquake could

lead to climatic change. This implies that school administrators should note that there

are natural occurrences that could affect the effective administration of schools.

Each of anthropogenic global warming theory and the planetary processes

theory of climatic change is unique and relates to this study as they distinguishably

explains the various causes of climatic change, separating between human and natural

causes. These theories aided this research in understanding the various causes of

climatic change.

Human Relations Theory

This theory as propounded by Mary Parker Follet in 1868 holds that the human

factor is the most important in any organization. It sees the people and their

relationship in organization as key factor. It is of importance that the needs, feelings,

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beliefs and attitudes of organizational members are taken into consideration, as it is

only when individuals are humanly treated that they can have the motivation to

participate actively in the achievement of organizational goals. The theory is

applicable to all organizations, establishments and institutions.

The implication of this theory to this study is that it creates an environment

where the school administrator and staff (teaching and non-teaching) will work

harmoniously towards the achievement of educational goals and objectives. Based on

the basic elements of this theory, the principal should pay attention to teachers’ and

students’ welfare. The teachers as the tools for achieving educational goals and

objectives should be motivated, developed and maintained. The principal as the school

administrator must have a good relationship with school staff as it will help them to

have knowledge on the challenges facing the school. The school staff will work

effectively and efficiently when their needs are met. This implies that it is of great

importance that the school administrator considers the welfare and well-being of

teachers and students during climatic change events as they play a very important role

in the achievement of educational goals and objectives of the school.

Behavioural Science Theory

Behavioural science theory focuses on human behaviour in a formal

organization. The proponent of this theory is Chester I. Bernard (1886 – 1961). The

theory emphasizes on the study of observable and verifiable human behaviour in

organizations using scientific procedures. The basic assumption of the behavioural

science theory is that managers must know how to deal with people. The theory also

emphasizes that people achieve much when they work together than when they are

working alone in a formal organization. Furthermore, Bernard stressed that the

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survival of a formal organization is dependent upon two concepts which refers to as

“effectiveness and efficiency”. Effectiveness is system oriented, having to do with the

achievement of cooperative purposes or organizational goals, while efficiency is

personal (person oriented). It refers to feeling of satisfaction one derives from one’s

membership in the organization.

The behavioural theory shows that it is no longer desirable to concentrate either

on the work alone or on the worker alone, but an integration of the two is considered

more helpful in the realization of organizational and personal goals.

This means that school administrators must ensure that there is equal attention

to human welfare as well as the achievement of set educational objectives. This also

means that neither human element nor achievement of educational objectives should

be sacrificed for another.

The relevance of this theory to this study is that school administrators must

give attention to the interest of their staff (teaching and non-teaching) as well as the

achievement of educational goals. This will however enable administrators and staff to

work as a team to achieve effective school administration and improve students

learning. This implies that school administrators should be able to tolerate the attitude

of teachers towards work during climatic change events, as they could be affected

adversely.

Review of Empirical Studies

The review of empirical studies was based on the following headings:

Related studies on climatic change awareness of secondary school principals.

A study was conducted by Ekpoh and Ekpoh (2011) on assessing the level of

climate change awareness among secondary school teachers in Calabar municipal,

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Nigeria: implication for management effectiveness. The purpose of the study was to

examine the level of climate change awareness among secondary school teachers in

Calabar municipal. Three hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. Descriptive

survey research design was employed for the study. The population comprised of 936

secondary school teachers, and stratified random sampling technique was used to draw

200 school teachers as sample for the study. Questionnaire was the instrument used

for data collection. Data collected were analyzed using t-test. The findings of the

study indicated that the level of climate change awareness was low generally among

teachers, that the awareness varied with sex, and that teachers’ access to sources of

information on climate change was low. The study is similar to the present study as

both aims at determining climate change awareness but differs in scope and study area

as the former was carried out in a different state. The present study is being carried out

specifically on school principals for effective school administration.

Another study was carried out by Thaddeus, Chukwudumebi, Nnaemeka and

Victoria (2011) on climate change awareness and adaptation in the Niger Delta region

of Nigeria. Four research questions and two hypotheses were formulated to guide the

study. The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. The population

comprised of farmers estimated to be 7,814,858 which represented about 60% of the

population of the sample states in the study area. Multistage (random) sampling

technique was used. Three states – Cross Rivers, Delta and Rivers were randomly

selected from the nine Niger Delta states for the study. A total of 400 farmers

constituted the sample size for the study. Questionnaire and interview schedule were

the instrument for collection of data. Percentage, mean score, standard deviation and

factor analysis with varimax rotation were used in data analysis. Findings of the study

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revealed that institutional problems, government failures and resistance to change are

the major constraints to adaptation strategies. Results of the study further revealed that

81.0% of the total number of respondents in the study did not know of the existence of

a bill on climate change in the National Assembly. This study like the present study,

seeks to ascertain climate change awareness, but different in scope as it focused on

agriculture and included adaptation by farmers. However, the present study is

focusing on education.

Related studies on climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary

school

Oghuvbu (2010) researched on attendance and academic performance of

students in secondary school: a correlate approach. The main purpose of the study was

to determine the level of absenteeism on students’ academic performance. Three

research questions and two hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The design

for the study was ex-post-facto in the form of descriptive research format. The

population comprised of all the students in the 398 secondary schools in Delta State.

Multi-stage random sampling technique was used to draw 2860 secondary school

students. The instrument for data collection was a checklist. The three research

questions were analyzed using percentage mean and linear regression equation, while

the hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The major

finding was that there is a relationship between attendance and academic performance;

hence students’ academic performance was influenced by attendance. This study is

related to the present study as both trace factors that could possibly affect students

learning and academic performance. While the former focused on attendance as a

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problem, the present study is focused on climatic change as a problem that could

affect students learning and academic performance.

Also another research was carried out by Ajayi and Yusuf (2009) on

instructional space planning and students’ academic performance in South West

Nigeria secondary schools. The main purpose of the study was to examine the

relationship between instructional space planning and students’ academic

performance. Five null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The study

employed a descriptive survey design. The population comprised of all students,

teachers and principals. Multistage, stratified and simple random sampling techniques

were used to draw a sample size of 1650 students, teachers and principals. The

instrument for data collection was a questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed using

percentages and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The findings of the study were

that the level of instructional space planning were related to students’ academic

performance, students’ academic performance was significantly related to

instructional space planning, classroom planning, library planning and technical

workshop planning.

This study is related to the present research work in the sense that they are both

interested in factors that could influence students’ learning that will lead to students’

academic performance. But the present research work is different from the former in

the area and location of the study. Also the present work is picking on climatic change

as a factor that could impinge on students’ learning and academic performance.

Related studies on climatic change impact on human resource performance

Osim, Uchendu and Mbon (2012) carried out a research on management’s

innovation behaviours and task performance among secondary school teachers in

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Cross Rivers State, Nigeria. The main purpose of the study was to find out the

influence of principals’ innovative behaviour on secondary school teachers’ task

performance. One research question and one hypothesis were formulated to guide the

study. The study employed the ex-post-facto research design. The population

comprised of teachers and students. Stratified random sampling technique was used to

draw 2500 teachers and students for the study. Instrument for data collection was a

questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed using one way analysis of variance

(ANOVA). The findings was that there was a significant influence of principals’

innovative behaviour on teachers’ task performance and School principals as change

agents should encourage teachers to initiate innovations even in their own teaching

professions. This study and the present study are both based on factors that could

affect teachers’ performance. But, the present study is identifying climatic change as a

factor that could affect teachers’ task performance.

Another research was carried out by Muhammad, Humaira, Shabnam, Allah

and Anjum (2012) on factors affecting teacher motivation at secondary school level in

Kohat City, Pakistan. The main objective of the study was to identify the factors

affecting the motivation of teachers at secondary school level. Two research questions

were formulated to guide the study. The study employed the descriptive survey

research design. The population of the study was made up of all teachers of the

government secondary schools at Kohat City. Simple random sampling technique was

used to draw 40 teachers for the study. Instrument for data collection was a

questionnaire; data collected were tabulated and analyzed using mean and standard

deviation. The findings were that rewards and incentives, self-confidence, economic

status of teacher and financial incentive more affect the performance of teachers more,

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while socio- status of the teacher, examination stress and teaching as first Choice of

the teacher less affect the performance of teachers. The empirical study and the

present research work are related in the sense that their quest is to establish factors

affecting employee performance. But the empirical study was researched in a different

geographical location and is centred on motivation. However, no work has been

carried out on the effect climatic change could have on staff performance and this

study intends to fill in that gap.

Related studies on climatic change impact on secondary school educational

facilities

A research was carried out by Ijaiya (2008) on the effects of free and

compulsory universal basic education on educational facilities in Ilorin metropolis.

The main purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of overcrowding on school

facilities. Two research questions guided the study. The design used for the study was

ex-post-facto. The population comprised of 870 principals of junior secondary

schools. Simple random sampling technique was used to draw 430 principals for the

study. A 20 item questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. Data

collected were analyzed using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The findings

were that overcrowding diminishes the life expectancy rate of school facilities, and it

also leads to destruction of school facilities. This study is similar to the present study

as they both emphasis on factors affecting the life span of school facilities, but differ

in area and location of the study. The present study seek to fill the gap created by the

empirical by establishing that climatic change could also reduce the life span of school

facilities.

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A study was carried out by Ebiye and Ogboloma (2005) on students’ deviant

behaviour: a factor affecting school physical facilities in Yenagoa local government

area of Bayelsa State. The purpose was to investigate how students’ deviant acts affect

school physical facilities. One research question and one hypothesis were formulated

to guide the study. The study employed a descriptive survey research design. The

population comprised of all the government secondary school principals in Yenagoa

local government area. Simple random sampling technique was used to draw 30

secondary school principals. A 20 item questionnaire was the instrument used for data

collection. Data collected were analyzed using percentage mean and t-test was used to

test the null hypothesis. The major finding was that some students when disciplined

vent anger on school properties. This study and the present study are alike in the study

area and they both investigates factors affecting school physical facilities, but the

present study focuses on effects posed by climatic change on educational facilities.

Related studies on principals’ receipt of financial aids in the event of climatic

change

A study was carried out by Das (2011) on financial assistance of primary schools

affected by climate change in Barisal region, Bangladesh. The main purpose was to

ascertain schools financial aid for the reconstruction of schools affected by climate

change disasters. The study was guided by three research questions. The study

adopted the ex-post-facto research design. The population comprised of all the

primary schools in Barisal region. There was no sample and sampling technique as all

the schools were covered by the researcher. A 30 item questionnaire was the

instrument used for data collection. Data collected were analyzed using percentage

mean and standard deviation. The findings were that primary school educational

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facilities were adversely affected by climatic change, and that financial aids for the

reconstruction of educational facilities are gotten from the government and some

international donor agencies. This study and the present study are similar as they both

focused on financial aids to schools affected by climatic change, but are different in

the study location and focus. While the former focuses on primary school, the present

is focused on secondary school. However there is no work on assisting secondary

schools in climatic change events and this work intend to fill in that gap.

Summary of Literature Review

The literature review for this study was presented under conceptual framework,

theoretical framework and review of empirical studies. The concepts looked into are

climate, climatic change, awareness, principalship, and concept of administration.

Climate as a concept was defined as the weather condition of an area over a number of

years. Climatic change is the significant and lasting variation in the statistical

properties of the average weather system when considered over long periods of time,

regardless of cause. This concept gave a detailed explanation of the causes of climatic

change and its consequences on human life, other living organisms, infrastructures

and our environment. Awareness is the knowledge an individual or a group of people

have about events or things and happenings on their environment. The principal is the

highest ranking officer in the secondary school. He acts as the leader, control and

plans all activities including academic activities taking place in the secondary school

system. Administration is the coordination of human and material resources towards

the attainment of some predetermined objectives. While educational administration is

the activities of planning, controlling, coordinating and directing of human and

material resources for the attainment of educational goals and objectives.

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The theoretical framework reviewed the anthropogenic global warming theory,

the planetary process theory, the human relations theory, and the behavioural science

theory. The anthropogenic global warming theory explained the role of human

activities to the current trend in climatic change, while the planetary process theory of

climate change posits that variations in average weather is as a result of natural

progressions occurring within and outside earth. The human relations theory explained

that it is only when workers are treated humanly that they can have the motivation to

participate actively in the achievement of organizational goals, while the behavioural

science theory posits that emphasis should neither be laid on the job/task performance

nor workers, rather both be taken care of equally. This study is anchored on these

theories as they form the basis of understanding the effect climatic change could have

on every aspect of human life, our environment, and social activities including

education.

The review of related empirical studies was based on the purpose of study.

Studies related to principal’s climatic change awareness, effects of climatic change on

students’ learning in secondary schools, effects of climatic change on human

resources performance, effects of climatic change on secondary school educational

facilities, and studies related to extent to which schools receive financial aid in the

event of climatic change were reviewed. However, from the related empirical studies

reviewed, it can be deduced that there has not been any known studies carried out on

climatic change as it affect the smooth administration of secondary schools in Bayelsa

State. Therefore, this study seeks to fill this gap by establishing the impact climatic

change has on the effective administration of secondary schools in Bayelsa State. This

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study could not have come in a better time than now as climatic change consequences

are now visible and is felt all over the world.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter describes the procedure that was adopted in carrying out the study.

The procedure is presented under the following sub-headings: design of the study,

area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument

for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method

of data collection, and method of data analysis.

Design of the Study

The study adopted ex-post-facto research design. According to Nworgu (2006),

ex-post-facto research design is a design in which the researcher attempts to link some

already existing effects or observation to some variables as causative agents. This

design is considered appropriate for this study since the researcher is not interested in

the manipulation of variables.

Area of the Study

The study was carried out in Bayelsa State. Bayelsa State is located in the Niger Delta

Region, South/South of Nigeria. It is bordered by Rivers State to the East, Delta State

to the West, both Delta State and Rivers States to the North and the Atlantic Ocean to

the South. Bayelsa State is made up of eight local government areas, they are:

Yenagoa, Kolokuma/Opokuma, Sagbama, Ekeremor, Southern Ijaw, Ogbia, Brass and

Nembe local government areas. Bayelsa State is a lowland maritime area that is

largely occupied by water. All the local government areas have most of their

communities in the creeks (lowland areas) and few communities are accessible with

the aid of motor cars, vans and motor cycles (upland areas). It has almost the largest

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supply of crude oil which is the main stay of the Nigerian economy, hence the heavy

presence of oil exploration companies such as Shell Petroleum Development

Company (SPDC), Nigerian Agip Oil Company (NAOC), Chevron, and Mobil,

among others. Besides these, there are a number of servicing companies such as

Willbros, Saipem, Panalpina, among others, hence the heavy gas flaring in the area.

The state was one of the most affected states in the 2012 flood disaster. The study was

carried out in all the eight local government areas which is made up of 167

government secondary schools.

Population of the Study

The population of the study consist of 501 government secondary school principals

and vice principals (administration and academics). This is made up of 167 principals,

167 vice principals academics and 167 vice principals administration (source: Bayelsa

State Senior Secondary Schools’ Board, September, 2013). In order to attain a

sizeable number of population for the study, the principals and vice principals were

merged to form the final figure (501). (See appendix C).

Sample and Sampling Technique

Due to the narrow size of the population of the study, the researcher considers the

population size manageable. Therefore, there was no sample and sampling technique

for the study. (See appendix C)

Instrument for Data Collection

A 45 item questionnaire generated from the research purposes by the researcher

and titled “Impact of Climatic Change on Secondary School Administration

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Questionnaire - ICCSSAQ”, was used to collect information from the respondents.

The questionnaire is divided into two parts (I & II). Part I which has five items

solicited information on the demographic data of the respondents, while part II has 40

items which collected information on impact of climatic change on secondary school

administration in Bayelsa State based on the specific purposes of the study and is

divided into five clusters (A-E). Each item has a four point response scale of Very

Great Extent (VGE), Great Extent (GE), Low Extent (LE) and Very Low Extent

(VLE) weighted 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. Cluster A addressed principals’ climatic

change awareness, cluster B addressed the effect of climatic change on students’

learning in secondary schools, cluster C addressed climatic change effect on human

resource performance, however, cluster D addressed the effect of climatic change on

educational facilities, and cluster E find out if there has been financial aid to cushion

the effect of climatic change on educational facilities.

Validation of Instrument

The research instrument was subjected to face validation by three experts; two

from Educational Administration and Planning in the Department of Educational

Foundations, and one from Science Education (Measurement and Evaluation) all in

the Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The validates were asked to

read and correct statements with respect to clarity, sentence construction, suitability of

items and other observed errors. However, the validates made suggestions for the

improvement of the instrument. Their corrections and suggestions were used to

produce the final copy of the instrument.

Reliability of the Instrument

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In order to ascertain the reliability of the instrument for the study, 20 copies of

the instrument were trial tested in secondary schools in Delta State which is outside

the study area. It was done to generate data used to determine the reliability of the

instrument. The questionnaires administered were retrieved and analyzed using

Cronbach Alpha procedure to determine the internal consistency of the instrument.

The use of Cronbach Alpha procedure applies to instruments that are polytomously

scored, where every response attracts a score (Nworgu, 2006). From the analysis, the

reliability coefficient obtained for clusters A, B, C, D and E were 0.89, 0.78, 0.80,

0.84 and 0.76 respectively, while the overall reliability coefficient obtained was 0.95.

Method of Data Collection

A total number of 501 questionnaires was administered to the respondents by

the researcher with the help of two research assistants each covering the three

Senatorial Districts in the State. The research assistants were instructed on how to

distribute and collect the copies of the completed questionnaires.

Method of Data Analysis

Data collected from the respondents were analyzed using mean and standard

deviation to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the null

hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

The research questions were interpreted using real limit of numbers and values

as follows: Very Great Extent (VGE) (4) 3.50 – 4.00, Great Extent (GE) (3) 2.50–

3.49, Little Extent (LE) (2) 1.50 – 2.49 and Very Little Extent (VLE) (1) 1.00 – 1.49

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In taking decision any item with a mean value ranging from 3.50 – 4.00 were

interpreted as Very Great Extent, 2.50 – 3.49 as Great Extent, 1.50 – 2.49 as Little

Extent while any item with a mean value below 1.50 (1.00 – 1.49) were interpreted as

Very Little Extent.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

This chapter presents the results of data analyzed based on the five research

questions and three null hypotheses that guide the study. The results were presented in

tables according to the individual questions and hypotheses.

Research Question 1: To what extent are principals aware of climatic change?

The data collected with items 1 – 14 of the instrument which dwelt on the

principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa State on their climatic change

awareness were used to answer the above research questions. Data were also analyzed

using mean and standard deviation. Summary of the results was presented in table 1.

Table 1: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas in Bayelsa

State on Climatic Change Awareness.

S/N Items Principals (n= 501)

Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116) Av Resp. (NT= 501)

1

SD1 Dec1 2

SD2 Dec3 3

SD3 Dec3

1 Gas flaring 2.17 0.89 LE 2.14 0.73 LE 2.16 0.81 LE

2 Bush burning 1.41 0.64 VLE 1.42 0.64 VLE 1.42 0.64 VLE

3 Volcanic eruption 1.58 0.64 LE 1.56 0.63 LE 1.57 0.64 LE

4 Deforestation 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.32 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE

5 Burning of fossil fuel 1.50 0.64 LE 1.49 0.65 VLE 1.50 0.65 LE

6 Urbanization 1.32 0.61 VLE 1.33 0.63 VLE 1.33 0.62 VLE

7 Changes in solar

radiation

1.16 0.37 VLE 1.16 0.37 VLE 1.16 0.37 VLE

8 Population explosion 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE

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9 Extreme heat events 1.41 0.64 VLE 1.41 0.64 VLE 1.41 0.64 VLE

10 Excessive rainfalls 1.66 0.47 LE 1.66 0.47 LE 1.66 0.47 LE

11 Incessant flooding 1.49 0.64 VLE 1.48 0.63 VLE 1.49 0.64 VLE

12 Cyclones 1.66 0.94 LE 1.64 0.92 LE 1.65 0.93 LE

13 Extreme storms 1.83 0.68 LE 1.82 0.70 LE 1.83 0.69 LE

14 Droughts 3.11 0.86 GE 3.07 0.91 GE 3.09 0.89 GE

Cluster Response 1.64 0.64 LE 1.63 0.63 LE 1.64 0.64 LE

Key:

1 – Mean for lowland principals

SD1 – Standard deviation for lowland principals

Dec1 - Decision for lowland principals

2 – Mean for upland principals

SD2 – Standard deviation for upland principals

Dec2 - Decision for upland principals

n – Sample of principals

3 – Average mean for lowland and upland principals

SD3 – Average standard deviation for lowland and upland principals

Dec1 – Average decision for lowland and upland principals

The data presented on Table 1 above showed the mean rating scores of

principals in lowland areas on one hand and principals in upland areas on the other

hand, on their extent of climatic change awareness. Based on the data on the Table I,

principals in lowland areas rated items 1, 3, 5, 10, 12 and 13 as low extent (LE), and

items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 11 as Very Low Extent, while item 14 was rated Great

Extent. On the other hand, principals of upland areas rated items 1, 3, 10, 12 and 13 as

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Low Extent, and items 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 11 as Very Low Extent, while item 14

was rated Great Extent.

On average response of both principals in lowland and upland areas, items 1, 3.

5, 10, 12 and 13 were rated little extent (LE) of awareness, while items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9

and 11 were rated very little extent (VLE) of awareness and item 14 was rated great

extent (GE) of awareness. In summary, the extent of climatic change awareness of

principals in Bayelsa State is at a little extent (LE) as indicated by the average mean

response (1.64) of both principals in lowland and upland areas and an average

standard deviation 0.64 was obtained for the items.

Research Question 2: To what extent does climatic change impact on students’

learning in secondary schools?

The data collected with items 15 – 20 of the instrument which dwelt on the

extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary schools were used

to answer the above research question 2. Data were also analyzed using mean and

standard deviation. Summary of the results was presented in table 2.

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Table 2: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa

State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on Students’ Learning in

Secondary Schools.

S/

N

Items Principals (n= 501)

Av Resp. (NT= 501)

Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116)

1

SD1 Dec1 2

SD2 Dec2 3

SD3 Dec3

15 Excessive rainfalls and

flooding affects the

transportation of students

to school

3.08 0.79 GE 3.00 0.82 GE 3.04 0.81 GE

16 Excessive heat affects

students’ assimilation rate

in academic activities

2.97 0.65 GE 2.93 0.68 GE 2.95 0.67 GE

17 Extreme heat affects

students’ comfortability in

classrooms

3.19 0.83 GE 3.07 0.89 GE 3.13 0.86 GE

18 Extreme heat helps in easy

spread of diseases in

classrooms

2.93 0.93 GE 2.87 0.93 GE 2.90 0.93 GE

19 Displacement of students

during excessive flooding

events affects students’

learning in school.

2.92 0.92 GE 2.85 0.98 GE 2.89 0.95 GE

20 Excess rainfalls and

flooding affects students’

school attendance rate

2.92 0.75 GE 2.81 0.83 GE 2.87 0.79 GE

Cluster Response 3.00 0.81 GE 2.92 0.85 GE 2.96 0.84 GE

From the data presented on table 2 revealed that principals in lowland areas of

Bayelsa State rated items 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 great extent (GE) showing that

climatic change affects students’ learning in secondary schools. On the order hand,

principals in upland areas of Bayelsa State also rated items 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20

great extent (GE), also indicating that climatic change affect students’ learning in

secondary schools. This shows that principals in both areas are in agreement in their

responses.

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On the average response of principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa

State, all of the items were rated great extent (GE) showing that students’ learning in

secondary school is affected. In summary, the extent to which climatic change affect

students’ learning in secondary schools in Bayelsa State is to a great extent (GE) as

indicated by the average mean response (2.96) of both the principals in lowland and

upland areas, with average standard deviation 0.84 obtained for all the items.

Research Question 3: To what extent does climatic change impact on human

resource performance in secondary schools?

The data collected with items 21 – 26 of the instrument which dwelt on the

extent of climatic change impact on human resource performance in secondary

schools were used to answer research question 3. Data were analyzed using mean and

standard deviation. Summary of the results were presented in table 3.

Table 3: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa

State on the Extent Climatic Change Impact on Human Resource Performance

in Secondary Schools.

S/

N

Items Principals (n= 501)

Av Resp. (NT= 501)

Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116) 1

SD1 Dec1 1

SD2 Dec2 1

SD3 Dec3

21 Extreme heat affects staff

health.

3.35 0.72 GE 3.33 0.73 GE 3.34 0.73 GE

22 Staff displacement during

excessive flooding affects

staff performance.

3.10 0.71 GE 3.08 0.65 GE 3.09 0.68 GE

23 Extreme heat affects staff

performance in

classroom.

3.34 0.79 GE 3.37 0.78 GE 3.36 0.79 GE

24 Flooding affects the

transportation of staff to

school.

3.10 0.82 GE 3.10 0.85 GE 3.10 0.84 GE

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25 Excessive rainfalls affect

staff methods of teaching

in secondary school.

2.99 0.95 GE 3.03 0.95 GE 3.01 0.95 GE

26 Excessive rainfall and

flooding affects staff

school attendance rate

3.19 0.86 GE 3.20 0.89 GE 3.20 0.88 GE

Cluster Response 3.17 0.81 GE 3.18 0.81 GE 3.18 0.81 GE

The data present on table 3 show that principals in lowland areas rated items

21, 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26 great extent (GE), also principals in upland areas rated items

21, 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26 great extent (GE). This is an indication that both groups

agree that climatic change affect human resource performance in secondary schools.

On the average response of principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa

State, all the items was rated great extent (GE) showing that climatic change affects

human resource performance in secondary schools. In summary, the extent to which

climatic change affect human resource is to a great extent (GE) as indicated by the

average mean response (3.18) of both principals in lowland and upland areas, with the

average standard deviation of 0.81 as obtained from table V above for all the items.

Research Question 4: To what extent does climatic change impact on secondary

school educational facilities?

The data collected with items 27 – 33 of the instrument which dwelt on the

extent of climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities were used

to answer research question 4. Data were analyzed using mean and standard deviation.

Summary of the results were presented in table 4.

93

Table 4: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland areas of Bayelsa

State on the Extent Climatic Change Impact on Secondary School Educational

Facilities.

S/N Items Principals (n= 501)

Av Resp. (NT= 501)

Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116)

1

SD1 Dec1 2

SD2 Dec2 3

SD3 Dec3

27 Destruction of books in

the library through

incessant rainfall and

flooding

3.30 0.45 GE 3.30 0.46 GE 3.30 0.46 GE

28 Damage of school

furniture and fittings

through flooding

3.36 0.72 GE 3.29 0.73 GE 3.33 0.73 GE

29 Damage to school roofs

by acid rain and

cyclone

3.54 0.49 VGE 3.56 0.49 VGE 3.55 0.49 VGE

30 Destruction of school

laboratory equipment

3.60 0.49 VGE 3.58 0.49 VGE 3.59 0.49 VGE

31 Damage to school

buildings

3.35 0.65 GE 3.36 0.66 GE 3.36 0.66 GE

32 Damage to teaching

aids by flooding and

cyclone

3.35 0.57 GE 3.31 0.58 GE 3.33 0.58 GE

33 Destruction of sporting

equipment due to

extreme heat and

flooding events

3.55 0.49 VGE 3.55 0.49 VGE 3.55 0.49 VGE

Cluster Response 3.43 0.55 GE 3.42 0.56 GE 3.43 0.56 GE

The data on table 4 revealed that principals in lowland areas rated items 27, 28,

31 and 32 great extent (GE), showing that climatic change affect secondary school

educational facilities, they also rated items 29, 30 and 33 very great extent (VGE),

indicating that climatic change affects secondary school educational facilities to a very

great extent. On the other hand, principals in upland areas rated items 27, 28, 31 and

32 great extent (GE), showing that climatic change affect secondary school

educational facilities and also rated items 29, 30 and 33 very great extent (VGE),

94

indicating a very great extent to which climatic change affects secondary school

educational facilities. The response of both groups agreed that climatic change affect

secondary school educational facilities to a great extent.

On the average response of both groups items 27, 28,31 and 32 was rated great

extent (GE), while items 29, 30 and 33 was rated very great extent (VGE). In

summary, the extent to which climatic change affect secondary school educational

facilities is to a great extent (GE) as indicated by the average mean response (3.43) of

both the principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa state and average standard

deviation of 0.56, showing that the responses are not far from each other.

Research Question 5: To what extent do principals receive financial aid to

ameliorate climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities?

The data collected with items 34 – 40 of the instrument which dwelt on the

extent to which principals receive financial aids to ameliorate climatic change impact

on secondary school educational facilities were used to answer research question 5

above. Data were analyzed using mean and standard deviation. Summary of the results

were presented in table 5.

95

Table 5: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa

State on the Extent Principals Receive Financial Aid to Ameliorate Climatic

Change Impact on Secondary School Educational Facilities.

S/N Items Principals (n= 501)

Av Resp. (NT= 501)

Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116)

1

SD1 Dec1 2

SD2 Dec2 3

SD3 Dec3

34 School principals

receive financial aids

from the Government

in respect of climatic

change effects on

school facilities.

1.36 0.54 VLE 1.37 0.55 VLE 1.37 0.55 VLE

35 Communities where

schools are located

assist school principals

financially during

climate change events.

1.63 0.48 LE 1.62 0.48 LE 1.63 0.48 LE

36 Philanthropists assist

secondary school

principals with

financial aids to

cushion climatic

change effects on

school facilities.

1.90 0.59 LE 1.88 0.60 LE 1.89 0.60 LE

37 Secondary school

principals get financial

aids from non-

governmental

organizations for

climatic change effects

on school facilities.

1.43 0.49 VLE 1.43 0.49 VLE 1.43 0.49 VLE

38 Petroleum Trust Fund

(PTF) assists school

principals with

financial aids for

damaged school

facilities as a result of

climatic change.

1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE

39 Secondary school

principals receive

financial aids from

Parents Association

(PT) for climatic

change effects on

1.74 0.43 LE 1.72 0.44 LE 1.73 0.44 LE

96

school facilities

40 Multinational oil

companies assist

secondary schools

financially for damaged

school properties as a

result of climatic

change events.

1.57 0.71 LE 1.56 0.71 LE 1.57 0.71 LE

Cluster Response 1.56 0.53 LE 1.55 0.53 LE 1.56 0.53 LE

The data presented on table 5 above show that principals in lowland areas rated

items 34, 37 and 38 very little extent (VLE), indicating that very little extent of

financial aids were gotten from the government, non-government organizations and

the petroleum trust fund to ameliorate climatic change effects on educational facilities.

They also rated items 35, 36, 39 and 40 little extent (LE), indicating that little extent

of financial aids were gotten from communities where schools are located,

Philanthropists, parents association and multinational oil companies to cushion

climatic change affected educational facilities. On the order hand, principals in the

upland areas rated items 34, 37 and 38 very little extent (VLE) showing that very little

extent of financial aids were gotten from the government, non-governmental

organizations and the petroleum trust fund to cushion climatic change effects on

educational facilities. They also rated items 35, 36, 39 and 40 little extent (LE), also

showing that little extent of financial aids were gotten from communities,

philanthropists, parents associations and multinational oil companies to ameliorate

climatic change effects on educational facilities.

On the average response of principals both in lowland and upland areas, items

34, 37, and 38 were rated very little extent (VLE) of financial aids gotten from

government, non-governmental organizations and petroleum trust fund for the purpose

97

of climatic change affected educational facilities, while items 35, 36, 39 and 40 were

rated little extent (LE). In summary, little extent (LE) of financial aids were received

by principals of both lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State to cushion climatic

change affected secondary school educational facilities as indicated by the average

mean response (1.56) of both principals in lowland and upland areas, with a

corresponding average standard deviation of 0.53.

Hypothesis 1(Ho1)

There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals

in upland and lowland areas on awareness of climatic change.

Table 6: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in Lowland and Upland

Areas of Bayelsa State on Climatic Change Awareness

Principals N SD df LS t-cal. t-tab Dec

Lowland 385 1.64 0.64 449 0.05 1.49 1.97 Not

Significant Upland 116 1.63 0.63

Key: df = Degree of freedom, t-cal = Calculated value, t-tab = Table value, LS = Level of

significance, SD = Standard deviation, = Mean, n = Sample, Dec. = Decision

Table 6 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean response of

principals in lowland areas on one hand and principals in upland areas on the other

hand, on the extent of principals’ climatic change awareness in Bayelsa State.

From table 1above, the response of both principals in lowland and upland areas

in Bayelsa State on items 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 were the same,

except item 5 which indicated otherwise on the extent of principals climatic change

awareness. However, the analysis on table 6 shows that t-calculated (1.49) is less than

the t-table value (1.97) indicating that there is no significant difference of climatic

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change awareness between the two groups. Thus the null hypothesis (H01) of no

significant difference is accepted.

Hypothesis 2 (Ho2)

There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals

in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climatic change impact on students’

learning in secondary schools.

Table 7: t-test Analysis of Mean Response of Principals in Lowland and Upland

Areas of Bayelsa State on the extent of Climatic Change Impact on Students’

Learning in Secondary Schools

Principals N SD df LS t-cal. t-tab Dec.

Lowland 385 3.00 0.81 499 0.05 3.18 1.97 Significant

Upland 116 2.92 0.85

The data presented on table 7 above shows the independent t-test analysis of

the mean difference in the response of principals in lowland and upland areas of

Bayelsa State on the extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in

secondary schools.

From table 2 above, the response of both principals in lowland and upland

areas in Bayelsa State on items 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 were the same, but there is a

difference in their cluster responses which indicated otherwise on the extent of

climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary schools. However, the

analysis on table 7 shows that t-calculated (3.18) is greater than the t-table value

(1.97) indicating that there is significant difference on the extent of climatic change

impact on students’ learning between the two groups. Thus the null hypothesis (H02)

of no significant difference is therefore rejected.

99

Hypothesis 3 (Ho3)

There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals

in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climate change impact on secondary

schools’ educational facilities.

Table 8: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in Lowland and Upland

Areas in Bayelsa State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on Secondary

School Educational Facilities.

Principals N SD df LS t-cal. t-tab Dec

Lowland 385 3.43 0.55 499 0.05 1.69 1.97 Not

Significant Upland 116 3.42 0.56

Table 8 above indicates the independent t-test analysis of the mean response of

principals in lowland areas on one hand and principals in upland areas in Bayelsa

State on the other hand, on the extent of climatic change impact on secondary school

educational facilities.

On table 4 above, the response of both principals in lowland and upland areas

in Bayelsa State on items 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33 were the same, but there is a

little difference in their cluster responses on the extent of climatic change impact on

secondary schools educational facilities. However, the analysis on table 8 above

shows that t-calculated (1.69) is less than the t-table value (1.97) indicating that there

is no significant difference on the extent of climatic change impact on secondary

school educational facilities between the two groups. Therefore, the null hypothesis

(H03) of no significant difference is therefore accepted.

Summary of the Findings

100

Based on the data analysed and the result obtained from the research questions

answered and hypotheses tested, the following are the major findings:

That climatic change awareness among secondary school principals in Bayelsa

State is low. It was discovered that there is no significant difference between

principals in lowland and upland areas on climatic change awareness.

That climatic change affects learning in secondary schools in Bayelsa state in

the areas of students’ transportation to school, displacement of student, spread of

diseases in classrooms and affects students health and assimilation rate in class

activities. However, it was discovered that there is a difference on how it affect

learning in lowland and upland areas.

It was discovered that climatic change affects human resource performance in

secondary schools. This ranges from displacement of teachers and their families,

effects on teaching method (practical on the field/farm), teachers health and

transportation to school.

That climatic change affects secondary school educational facilities such as the

school libraries, laboratories, desks and chairs, the school buildings and the

playgrounds. It was also discovered that there is no difference in the perception of

principals of climatic change impact on educational facilities both in lowland and

upland areas.

It was discovered that there are no special financial aids given to secondary

school principals to cushion climatic change effects on secondary school education

facilities.

101

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, IMPLICATION, RECOMMENDATIONS,

CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

AND SUMMARY

This chapter presents the discussion of findings of the study, implication of the

research findings, recommendations, conclusions, limitations of the study, suggestions

for further studies and summary. Discussions are made taking cognisance of the

research questions and hypotheses formulated for the study.

Discussion of Findings

The findings of the study are based on the research questions and hypotheses

guiding the study.

Extent of climatic change awareness of secondary school principals

The responses gathered from principals on climatic change awareness revealed

that principals of secondary schools in Bayelsa State have little or very little

knowledge of climatic change. This finding is in line with the UNDP report (2010),

which states that the level of awareness about climate change is rather low in Nigeria,

and it is likely to continue if no intervention measures are taken. The survey further

noted that the awareness of climate change was highest at the federal level, but

dropped sharply at the state and local government levels, where real action is needed.

However, the level of awareness of principals in both lowland and upland areas are

not distinct from each other.

102

Extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary schools

In view of research question two of the study, the response gathered from

principals revealed that climatic change affect students’ learning to a great extent. Its

effect on students’ learning ranges from the displacement of students’ during flooding

which also affects the transportation of students to school, excessive rainfalls, and

spread of diseases in the classroom with the help of excessive heat rays which also

affects the rate of assimilation of students’ in classroom activities. This finding

affirms the words of Das (2010), the children will be the hardest hit by the

increasingly frequent and severe weather events, desertification and flooding brought

by climate change.

The research question two revealed that there is a difference in climatic change

effects on students’ learning in the lowland and upland areas. Students’ in lowland

areas are affected more compared to their counter parts in the upland areas by killer

floods and the spread of malaria as they live along the coastal areas in Bayelsa state.

According to Etiosa and Matthew (2007), climate change will lead to increase aridity

and desertification in northern Nigeria; it will lead to increase in flooding in the

southern part especially in the coastal regions. This was the case of the 2012 flooding

in Bayelsa state, as students in the lowland areas had stopped learning for weeks and

already seeking shelter in the upland areas, before the upland areas were affected.

Extent of climatic change impact on human resource performance in secondary

schools

The findings of this study on research question three showed that climatic change has

deleterious impact on human resource performance in secondary schools in Bayelsa

103

state. This ranges from staff transportation to school, teaching methods, the

displacement of staff and their families by flood disasters and health related issues

which could also lead to loss of life. According to Andrew (2007), Climate change can

modify ecosystems in ways that not only increase physical disease but also create

health burdens that affect mental and social well-being via flood and drought impacts

on housing, food security, and livelihoods. Also in agreement with this finding, the

World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 150,000 lives have been lost

annually over the last 30 years that are directly attributable to climate change; this

number is based on a partial list of outcomes for diseases, flooding, and malnutrition

and it represents a conservative estimate (Das, 2010). According to Das, many of

these deaths are in developing countries within the world's tropical regions. Future

impacts of climate change on human health could also be dramatic, especially if some

tropical diseases expand into formerly temperate areas.

Extent of climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities

The responses of principals as regards research question four brought to bear

that climatic change has serious effects on educational facilities and there is no

significant difference on its effect on educational facilities both in lowland and upland

areas. It affects educational facilities such as the school buildings, laboratories,

libraries, playgrounds, desks and chairs among others through excessive rainfalls,

flooding, extreme heat, thunder storms and cyclones. This is in line with the

Environmental Protection Agency (2012) in Ghana, stating that climate change will

affect the education sector directly through the increased frequency and/or severity of

extreme weather events resulting in damage to educational infrastructure. Other

infrastructure considered essential for the functioning of the education sector, such as

104

local transport, energy, and water may also be damaged or temporarily disrupted by

extreme weather events causing disruption in the functioning of education facilities

and the delivery of educational services.

Further buttressing her point, EPA stated that in 2007, the Northern Region in

Ghana reported of a number of collapsed school buildings due to the floods. Two

hundred and ten (210) schools were affected by the flood with one hundred and ninety

nine (199) classrooms reported to have collapsed.

Extent principals receive financial aid to cushion climatic change impact on

educational facilities.

Regarding the receipt of financial aid of secondary school principals to

ameliorate climatic change effect on educational facilities, it was revealed that they

receive little extent of financial aid from communities where schools are located,

philanthropists, parents association and multinational oil companies. It was also

revealed that very little extent of financial aid was gotten from the petroleum trust

fund, non-governmental organizations and the government.

From the finding, given the extent of climatic change effects on educational

facilities, it is of importance that financial aids be given to principals of secondary

schools to either reconstruct/rebuild affected school buildings and to replace affect

equipment. Onyedineke (2011) maintained that effective education depends to a large

extent on how well the educational system is financed.

Discussion of hypothesis one

Hypothesis one was accepted as postulated in the decision table 6 as not

significant. This means that the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the

mean responses of principals in lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State on climatic

105

change awareness is accepted. This being that their responses on the causes and

outcomes/effects of climatic change is on a little extent. Their knowledge of the

causes and effects/outcomes of climatic change will help principals of secondary

schools to fashion means of adaptability to reduce climatic change effects on the

limited available resources at their disposal for the achievement of effective

administration of secondary schools.

Discussion of hypothesis two

Hypothesis two was rejected as postulated on the table 7 as being significant.

This means that the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean responses

of principals in lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State on climatic change impact

on students’ learning in secondary schools is significant and so the assertion is

rejected. This shows that secondary school principals have a different perception on

how climatic change affects students’ learning. They are of the opinion that students

living in lowland areas will be worse affected compared to students in the upland

areas.

Discussion of hypothesis three

Hypothesis three was accepted as postulated on the decision table 8 as not

significant. This means that the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the

mean responses of principals in lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State on the

extent of climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities is

accepted. This mean that secondary school principals are of the perception that

climatic change affect secondary school educational facilities in both lowland and

upland areas of Bayelsa state equally.

106

Conclusion

The following conclusions have been drawn based on the findings;

The level of climatic change awareness among secondary school principals in

Bayelsa State in general is low. This is evidenced from their responses on the causes

of climatic change which includes; bush burning, deforestation, burning of fossil fuel,

urbanization, population explosion among others and its deleterious effects/outcomes

such as extreme heat events, incessant flooding, and excessive rainfalls among others.

Its effect on students’ learning ranges from; the displacement of student during

flooding from their homes and schools, effects on students’ health that may lead to

their death, effect on their rate of assimilation in classroom and the transportation of

students to school.

Climatic change also affects human resource performance in various areas such

as their health, the displacement of staff and their family members during excess

flooding, staff transportation to school, and their teaching methods. Climatic change

has great impact on secondary school educational facilities; it destroys available

learning facilities through cyclones, flooding extreme heat and thunder storm. The

financial aid given to secondary school principals to manage affected educational

facilities is on a little extent. Climatic change has a negative impact on the effective

administration of secondary schools.

Educational implication of the findings

The findings of this study have some educational implications for the

government through the ministry of education, principals of secondary schools and

other stakeholders in the education sector.

107

The results of this study have provided empirical evidence of the impact of

climatic change on secondary school administration in Bayelsa State. It provides a

guide to the government through the ministry of education that climatic change effect

is already being felt in the state, and that it has deleterious consequences on the

effective administration of secondary schools. With this, the government and other

stakeholders in the education sector should know that secondary school principals are

not finding it easy to effectively administer secondary schools as expected of them

due to climatic change effects.

The findings explains the need for secondary school principals to fashion out

adaptive measures or adopt adaptive measures already put in place if there are any to

help them in the administration of secondary school.

The results of this study also explains that finance is an important resource

needed by secondary school principals for the effective administration of secondary

schools in this era as the education sector is being affected by climatic change either

directly or indirectly and so government and other stakeholders are expected to rally

round principals helping them with the needed financial support in the administration

and achievement of educational objectives.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations have been

proffered:

1. It is recommended that necessary information and programmes be put in place

to enlighten principals on the causes of climatic change and its outcomes and

the effect it has on the effective administration of secondary schools.

108

2. There should be guidelines in the construction of classroom blocks and be

equipped with the necessary equipment to allow for ventilation. This will also

help the staff in the discharge of their professional duties.

3. The government through the ministry of education should make available

financial aids to school principals for purposes of climatic change effect on

educational facilities and modalities for private sector participation as it is

necessary for the smooth administration of secondary schools by principals.

4. Community members taking refuge in secondary schools in times of climatic

change disasters should be enlightened on the importance of the school

facilities for learning to produce good citizens for the society.

Limitations of the Study

The limitations of the study are such that it was expensive to conduct the

research due to lack of resources and funds. Another problem was the poor

transportation network to many places in the state as most communities could be

reached only with boats. This led the researcher and the research assistants to utilized

longer period in the retrieval of the completed instrument from the respondents. Also,

some of the questionnaires filled by the respondents were not properly done and their

responses may not provide the true position of things in the area of study. It was also

difficult getting information about secondary schools from the senior secondary

schools board as they try to hoard the list containing the names of secondary schools

in the state.

109

Suggestions for further studies

The following suggestions are made for further investigation;

1. Investigation on climatic change should be extended to cover other educational

institutions such as primary schools and the universities in Bayelsa state.

2. The impact of climatic change on students’ learning and their performance in

external examinations.

Summary of the Study

The study was carried out to investigate the impact of climatic change on secondary

school administration in Bayelsa State. Five research questions and two null

hypotheses guided the study. Ex-post-facto research design was used for the study.

Population of the study was 501 senior secondary school principals which comprises

of 167 principals, 167 vice principals academics, and 167 vice principals

administration. There was no sample and sampling technique as the population size is

manageable by the researcher. A 45 item questionnaire was the instrument used for

data collection. The instrument was subjected to face validation by three experts, two

from Educational Administration and Planning Unit, Department of Educational

Foundations and one from Measurement and Evaluation, Department of Science

Education all in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Their modifications were used to

produce the final copies of the instrument. 20 copies of the validated instrument was

trial tested in 20 government secondary schools in Patani Local Government Area in

Delta State which is outside the study area. Cronbach Alpha technique was used to

analyze the instrument. The reliability coefficient obtained for clusters A, B, C, D, and

E were 0.89, 0.78, 0.80, 0.84 and 0.76 respectively and the overall value of 0.95 was

110

obtained. Real limit of numbers were used to interpret the data. Mean and standard

deviation were used to answer the research questions, while t-test was used to analyze

the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

The study revealed that climatic change awareness among secondary school

principals is low, that climatic change effects such as extreme heat, flooding, and

incessant rainfalls among others affect students’ learning, human resource

performance and secondary school educational facilities.

Based on the findings, the researcher recommended that necessary information

and programmes be put in place to enlighten principals on the causes of climatic

change and its outcomes and the effect it has on the effective administration of

secondary schools, and there should be guidelines in the construction of classroom

blocks and be equipped with the necessary equipment to allow for ventilation, as it

will also help the staff in the discharge of their professional duties. Again, Community

members taking refuge in secondary schools in times of climatic change disasters

should be enlightened on the importance of the school facilities for learning to

produce good citizens for the society.

111

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119

APPENDIX A

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

(EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING)

IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON SECONDARY SCHOOL

ADMINISTRATION QUESTIONNAIRE

Note: Please kindly fill the questionnaire honestly as possible as any information

given here will be treated as confidential and will be strictly used for the purpose of

this study.

Part I: Demographic data of respondents

Please complete the information below as appropriate by ticking [√]

1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. Highest educational qualification: NCE/OND/ND [ ] B.SC/ B.ED/HND [ ]

MSC/MED/PGD [ ] Any other (please specify) ……………………….

3. Location: Upland [ ] Lowland [ ]

4. Name of school: …………………………………………………………..

5. Local government area of school:

……………………………………………………..

Part II

For these sections below, please indicate by ticking [√]

The response categories are:

Very Great Extent = VGE Great Extent = GE Little Extent = LE Very Little Extent

= VLE

Cluster A: Extent of Principals’ climatic change awareness.

S/NO To what extent are you aware that the following

climatic conditions affect your school?

VGE GE LE VLE

1 Gas flaring

2 Bush burning

3 Volcanic eruption

4 Deforestation

5 Burning of fossil fuel

6 Urbanization

7 Changes in solar radiation

120

8 Population explosion

To what extent are you aware the following are the results/effects of climatic

change in your environment

9 Extreme heat events

10 Excessive rainfalls

11 Incessant flooding

12 Cyclones

13 Extreme storms

14 Droughts

Cluster B: Extent to which climatic change affect students’ learning in secondary

school.

S/NO To what extent does the following affect students’

learning in your school?

VGE GE LE VLE

15 Excessive rainfalls and flooding affects the

transportation of students to school

16 Excessive heat affects students’ assimilation rate in

academic activities.

17 Extreme heat affects students’ comfortability in

classrooms

18 Extreme heat helps in easy spread of diseases in

classrooms

19 Displacement of students during excessive flooding

events affects students’ learning in school.

20 Excess rainfalls and flooding affects students’

school attendance rate

Cluster C: Extent to which climatic change affect human resource performance

S/NO To what extent does the following affect human

resource performance in your school?

VGE GE LE VLE

21 Extreme heat affects staff health.

22 Staff displacement during excessive flooding

affects staff performance.

23 Extreme heat affects staff performance in

classroom.

24 Flooding affects the transportation of staff to

school.

25 Excessive rainfalls affect staff methods of

teaching in secondary school.

26 Excessive rainfall and flooding affects staff

school attendance rate

121

Cluster D: Extent to which climatic change affect educational facilities in the

state.

S/NO To what extent does climatic change affect

educational facilities in your school?

VGE GE LE VLE

27 Destruction of books in the library through

incessant rainfall and flooding

28 Damage of school furniture and fittings through

flooding

29 Damage to school roofs by acid rain and cyclone

30 Destruction of school laboratory equipment

31 Damage to school buildings

32 Damage to teaching aids by flooding and cyclone

33 Destruction of sporting equipment due to extreme

heat and flooding events

Cluster E: Extent to which principals receive financial aid to ameliorate climatic

change effect on educational facilities

To what extent do you receive financial aid to

cushion climatic change effects on your school

educational facilities?

VGE GE LE VLE

34 School principals receive financial aids from the

Government in respect of climatic change effects

on school facilities.

35 Communities where schools are located assist

school principals financially during climate change

events.

36 Philanthropists assist secondary school principals

with financial aids to cushion climatic change

effects on school facilities.

37 Secondary school principals get financial aids from

non-governmental organizations for climatic

change effects on school facilities.

38 Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF) assists school

principals with financial aids for damaged school

facilities as a result of climatic change.

39 Secondary school principals receive financial aids

from Parents Teachers (PTA) for climatic change

effects on school facilities

40 Multinational oil companies assist secondary

schools financially for damaged school properties

as a result of climatic change events.

122

APPENDIX B

123

124

455

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

APPENDIX C

Population distribution

LOCAL

GOVERNMENT

AREA

NO. OF

SCHOOL

S

NO. OF

PRINCIPAL

S

NO. OF VICE

PRINCIPALS

ADMIN.

NO. OF

VICE

PRINCIPAL

S

ACADEMIC

S

Brass 12 12 12 12

Ekeremor 19 19 19 19

Kolokuma/Opokuma 18 18 18 18

Nembe 17 17 17 17

Ogbia 21 21 21 21

Sagbama 18 18 18 18

Southern Ijaw 32 32 32 32

Yenagoa 30 30 30 30

Total Population 167 167 167 167

NAMES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE

Government Sec. School, Anyama-Ogbia

Community Sec. School, Onuebum

Community Sec. School, Otuokpoti

Community Sec. School, Okodi

Government Comprehensive Sec. School,

Epebu

Community Sec. School, Ologi

Community Sec. School, Ewoi

Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Ologoghe

Community Sec. School, Otuedu

Community Sec. School, Ayakoro

Community Sec. School, Otuegwei I

Community Sec. School, Otuegwei II

Community Sec. School, Okiki Government Sec. School, Twon-Brass

Government Sec. School, Okpoama Community Sec. School, Sangana

Community Sec. School, Akassa Community Sec. School, Beletiema

Community Sec. School, Odioma Community Sec. School, Egweama

132

Community Sec. School, Minibie Community Sec. School, Liama

Government Sec. School, Opuama Community Sec. School, Ekowe

Community Zsec. School, Diebu Community Sec. School, Igbomotoru

Community Sec. School, Eniwari Community Sec. School, Peremabiri

Community Sec. School, Kemeinama Community Sec. School, Polobubou

Community Sec. School, Okiama Government Science & Tech. College,

Aleibiri

Government Sec. School, Ekeremor Community Sec. School, Aleibiri

Government Comprehensive Sec. School,

Tamogbene

Community Sec. School, Ayamassa

Ekere Sec. School, Amabulou Community Sec. School, Ogbosuware

Community Sec. School, Foutorugbene Community Sec. School, Obrigbene

Government Sec. School, Odi Kaiama Grammar School, Kaiama

Opokuma Grammar School, Opokuma Government Girls Sec. School, Kaiama

Amatugu Comprehensive Sec. School,

Igbedi

Sampou Grammar School, Sampou

Opokuma South Sec. School, Opokuma Community Girls’ Sec. School, Odi

Community Sec. School, Odi Community Sec. School, Okoloba

Community Sec. School, Sabagreia Nember National Grammar School,

Nembe

Community Sec. School, Okoroma Community Girls’ Sec. School, Nembe

Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Ologoama

Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Igbeta-Ewoama

Community Sec. School, Fantuo Community Sec. School, Ewelesuo

Government Girls’ Sec. School, Nembe Community Sec. School, Oluasiri

Community Sec. School, Okoroba Community Boys’ Sec. school, Nembe

Mini-Ikensi Community Sec. School,

Agrisaba

Community Sec. School, Obioku

Community Sec. School, Otumoama Mater Dei High School, Imiringi

Government Sec. School, Ogbia Town Oloibiri Grammar School, Oloibiri

Community Sec. School, Kolo Community Sec. School, Otuasega

Odinade Community Sec. School,

Emakalakala

Community Sec. School, Idema

Owema Community Comprehensive Sec.

School, Otakeme

Community Sec. School, Otuoke/Otuaba

Community Sec. School, Oruama Community Sec. School, Emeyal

Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Elebele

Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Opume

Community Sec. School, Akipele Gbarainowei Grammar School, Okoloibiri

Agudama Comprehensive Sec. School,

Agudama-epie

Community Sec. School, Bumoundi

Ekpetiama Comprehensive High School,

Tombia

Ogbopuru Community Sec. School,

Koroama

Community Sec. School, Polaku Ogbein Comprehensive High School,

Nedugo-Agbia

Biseni Community Sec. School, Biseni Community Sec. School, Zarama

Community Sec. School, Okordia Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

133

Okordia/North

Government Sec. School, Toru-Ebeni Community Sec. School, Okumbiri

Community Sec. School, Kabeama Community Sec. School, Ossiama

Community Sec. School, Akeddei Community Sec. School, Agorogbene

Mein Grammar School, Ogobiri Community Sec. School, Agoro

Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Egbopuloama

Community Sec. School, Isoni

Community Sec. School, Toru-Ndoro Community Sec. School, Peretorugbene

Community Sec. School, Aghoro Idowuni Community Sec. School,

Letugbene

Ido Community Sec. School, Egbemo-

Angalabiri

Central Community Sec. School,

Ogbotobo

Egbemo Comprehensive Sec. School,

Azagbene

Agbidiama Community Sec. School,

Agbidiama

Community Sec. School, Agge River Nun Grammar School,

Agbere/Odoni

Government Comprehensive Sec. School,

Tungbo

Community Sec. School, Trofani

Community Sec. School, Sagbama Community Sec. School, Ebedebiri

Community Sec. School, Ofoni Community Sec. School, Angalabiri

Community Sec. School, Asamabiri Community Sec. School, Bolou-Orua

Community Sec. School, Adagbabiri Community Sec. School, Elemebiri

Community Sec. School, Totu-Angiama Southern Ijaw Sec. School, Oporoma

Government Sec. School, Amassoma Community Sec. School, Otuan

Community Sec. School, Aguobiri Community Sec. School, Korokorosei

Community Sec. School, Olugbobiri Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Angiama

Tarakiri Community Sec. School,

Anyama-Ijaw

Community Sec. School, Ondewari

Olodiama Comprehensive High School,

Ikebiri

Community Sec. School, Igeibiri

Community Sec. School, Olugboboro Obolo Grammar School, Oweikorogha

Ogboin Grammar School, Amatolo Community Sec. School, Onyomo

Community Sec. School, Obololi Community Sec. School, Tebidaba

Akpalakpa Grammar School, Ukubie Community Sec. School, Foropa

Community Sec. School, Ogboinbiri Comprehensive High School, Azuzuama

Community Sec. School, Gbanraun Community Sec. School, Koluama II

Community Sec. School, Ekeni Community Sec. School, Koluama I

Community Sec. School, Lobia Community Comprehensiv Sec. School,

Ezetu

Community Sec. School, Azama Community Sec. School, Ukparatubu

Community Sec. School, Keme-Ebiama Bishop Dimieari Grammar School,

Yenagoa

ST. Jude’s Girls’ Sec. School, Amarata Community Sec. School, Agudama-Epie

Ogbo Memorial Grammar School, Ikibiri Community Sec. School, Famgbe

Community Sec. School, Igbogene Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Agbura

134

Central Epie Sec. School, Opolo Community Comprehensive Sec. School,

Biogbolo/Yenezuegene

Ogu Grammar School, Ogu Epie National High School, Kpansia

Community Sec. School,

Okutukutu/Etegwe

Community Sec. School, Ikolo

Community Sec. School, Azikoro Community Sec. School, Yenaka

Community Sec. School, Akenfa

Source: Bayelsa State Senior Secondary Schools’ Board, 2013.

135

APPENDIX D

Major greenhouse gases

Compound Formula Contribution (%)

Water vapour and clouds H2O 36 – 72%

Carbon dioxide CO2 9 – 26%

Methane CH4 4 – 9%

Ozone O3 3 – 7%

136

APPENDIX E

Fossil fuel combustion

Sources of fossil fuel combustion Contribution (%)

Liquid fuels (e.g., gasoline, fuel oil) 36%

Solid fuels (e.g., coal) 35%

Gaseous fuels (e.g., natural gas) 20%

Cement production 3 %

Flaring gas industrially and at wells < 1%

Non-fuel hydrocarbons < 1%

International bunker fuels of transport 4 %

Source: Grubb, 2003. World Economics.

137

APPENDIX F

Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program

Fuel name CO2 emitted (lbs/106 Btu) CO2 emitted(g/10

6 J)

Natural gas 117 50.30

Liquefied petroleum gas 139 59.76

Propane 139 59.76

Aviation gasoline 153 65.78

Automobile gasoline 156 67.07

Kerosene 159 68.36

Fuel oil 161 69.22

Tires/tire derived fuel 189 81.26

Wood and wood waste 195 83.83

Coal (bituminous) 205 88.13

Coal (sub-bituminous) 213 91.57

Coal (lignite) 215 92.43

Petroleum coke 225 96.73

Coal (anthracite) 227 97.59

Source: Energy Information Administration, 2010.

138

APPENDIX G

Atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 at different time horizon for

various greenhouse gases

Gas name

Chemical

formula

Lifetime

(years)

Global warming potential (GWP) for

given time horizon

20-yr 100-yr 500-yr

Carbon dioxide CO2 About 100 1 1 1

Methane CH4 12 72 25 7.6

Nitrous oxide N2O 114 289 298 153

CFC-12 CCl2F2 100 11 000 10 900 5 200

HCFC-22 CHClF2 12 5 160 1 810 549

Tetrafluoromethane CF4 50 000 5 210 7 390 11 200

Hexafluoroethane C2F6 10 000 8 630 12 200 18 200

Sulfur hexafluoride SF6 3 200 16 300 22 800 32 600

Nitrogen trifluoride NF3 740 12 300 17 200 20 700

Source: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007.

139

APPENDIX H

Causal Factors of Climate Change

140

APPENDIX I

Photo showing a section in Odi Community in Bayelsa State submerged by water (Sahara

reporters, 2012).

Photo showing a section of a Community in Bayelsa State submerged by water (Sahara

reporters, 2012).

141

Photo showing a section of Amassoma Community in Bayelsa State submerged by water

(Sahara Reporters, 2012).

Photo of a primary school in Odi community in Bayelsa State gradually going submerged

water (A snap shot by the researcher during the 2012 flooding).