DEFINITIONS

Beneficiation

Treatment of a crude ore in order to

improve it’s quality.

Example: beneficiating raw coal to a

steam coal for power generation or to

a coking coal for furnaces.

Liberation

Freeing of valuable minerals/metals

in an ore or mineral by

crushing and grinding.

Well Liberated Minerals

Poorly Liberated Minerals

Run-of-Mine Ore

Uncrushed ore in its natural

state just as it is when blasted.

Ore, as accepted for treatment

from the Mine.

Gangue

Waste rock that surrounds an ore deposit.

The waste material in an ore.

The valueless tailings/waste fraction of an ore rejected by a separating process.

Recovery

Indicates the proportion of

valuable material acquired

from the processing of an ore.

Generally stated as a percentage

of the values recovered compared

to the total values present.

Tailings

The neutralized waste discarded after

the economically recoverable metals

have been extracted from the ore.

Units

• 1 tonne/ton = 1000kg = 2204.6 lb• 1short ton = 2000 lb = 0.90718 tonne• 1 tonne = 32151 Troy ounces• 1 Troy ounce = 31.1035 gram• 1 oz/short ton = 34.2859 gram/tonne• 1 gram/short ton = 0.03215 oz/short ton• M or m = million, bn or billion = 1000 m

• All tons in this presentation are metric

ORESand

MINERALS

Rocks and MineralsRocks are aggregates of minerals.

Minerals are either elemental compounds (e.g. feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles and micas are rock-forming silicate minerals…) or free, uncombined native elements (e.g. gold, silver, copper…).

With a few exceptions (e.g. water, mercury, opal…) minerals are solid inorganic elements or elemental compounds with definite atomic structures and chemical compositions (within fixed limits).

The various types of coals are rocks.

Igneous rockIgneous rockfrom molten magma (intrusive)

or lava (surface),crystalline structure,

random or aligned crystals,no fossils

Metamorphic rockMetamorphic rockigneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rock changed by heat and pressure,

rare fossils, usually crystalline,

two types: foliated, wavy or more random structure,

e.g. gneisses

Sedimentary rockSedimentary rockform in layers or strata,

loosely grained, quartz often dominant,calcite in limestones,

contain fossils

Igneous Rocks Igneous Rocks (note: large masses of molten magma are called plutons)(note: large masses of molten magma are called plutons)

granite, pegmatite, granodiorite, syenite,anorthosite, agglomerate,gabbro, pyroxenite, kimberlite, peridotite

gabbro

quartz porphyry,microgranite,lamprophyre,dolerite, norite

dolerite basalt

rhyolite, andesite,pumice, tuff, obsidian, basalt,pitchstone, volcanic bomb,ropy lava

Metamorphic RocksMetamorphic Rocks

Foliated: gneisses, amphibolite, eclogite

Unfoliated: marbles, granulite, skarn

Foliated: schists, phyllite

Unfoliated: hornfels, marbles

Foliated: slates, phyllite

Unfoliated: marbles, skarn, mylonite

gneiss

schist slate

Sedimentary RocksSedimentary Rocks

mainly rock: conglomerate, breccia

mainly calcium carbonate: limestones

mainly rock: greywackemainly quartz: sandstones, arkosemainly calcium carbonate: limestones, travertine, tufaothers: potash, rock salt, dolomite, ironstone

mainly quartz: loess, shale, clay, mudstone mainly calc carbonate: chalk, marl, limestonesothers: peat, anthracite, lignite, amber, jet, chert, flint

quartz conglomerate

sandstone shale

GEOLOGICAL AND HUMAN TIME SEQUENCE OF THE EARTH

ERAS / AGES DIVISIONS (15 PERIODS/SYSTEMS) MILLIONS OF YEARS FOSSIL TYPESBEFORE PRESENT TIME OTHER IDENTIFICATIONS

IRON AGE 1200 - 500 BC iron artefacts

BRONZE AGE 3000 - 2000 BC bronze artefacts, first cities

Present Neolithic 9000 - 4000 BC Modern Man agriculture, towns Homo Sapiens

Mesolithic 10 000 BC bow & arrow

STONE AGE Upper Palaeolithic 30 000 BC stone & bone tools, artQUATERNARY

Palaeolithic Middle Palaeolithic 100 000 yrs Neanderthal Man specialised tools

Lower Palaeolithic 1.0 million Homo Erectus fire, tools

Pleistocene (nearly present) 1.6 includes ice-formed depositsat least 15 ice ages/retreats

PlioceneNeogene

Miocene (less than present) 26TERTIARY

Oligocene

Palaeogene Eocene (dawn of the present)

Paleocene 65

Cretaceous 140 chalk, limestone, dinosaurs"Age of Reptiles"

MESOZOIC Jurassic 210 dinosaurs"middle life"continental drift begins

Triassic 245

Permian 290

Carboniferous 365 coal age"Age of Amphibians"

Devonian 410PALAEOZOIC "Age of fishes""old life"

Silurian 440

Ordovician 500

Cambrian 570 trilobites

Proterozoic 2400 fossils now knownPRE-CAMBRIAN

Archaean 4500 no fossils

* Periods are divided into Upper Periods can be divided intoand Lower and sometimes, Middle Zones according to dominant

fossils, and may span 500 m yrseach or much less

VALUES HOST DEPOSIT EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS

Au

shear-hosted

paleo- conglomerates

Finniston, Sunrise Dam WA, Ashanti Ghana, Witwatersrand

Alluvial (Magaden Russia)

archaean mesothermal lode deposits in shear zones.

gold-bearing conglomerates from weathering of archaean greenstone belts. 7g/t.

Cu carbonatite Palabora proterozoic to recent intrusive magmatic carbonates and associated alkaline igneous rocks

Ag epithermalex hydrothermal fluids of extrusive /shallow intrusive igneous rocks.

Pb, Zn, Ag carbonate - hosted

Galmoy Ireland,Reocin Spain,Pine Point Canada

phanerozoic deposits in thick sequences of dolomite/limestone rocks. Formed in warm sea. 3-10%

Cu, Mo porphyry Escondida Chile low grade (0.5-2%) large deposits (1000 Mt). Molybdenum may occur.

Cu, Au

skarn

porphyry

Nickel Plate Canada,La Luz Nicaragua

Grasberg Indonesia,Bingham USA

phanerozoic deposits formed at high temps by igneous intrusions at convergent plate margins.

see Cu, Mo porphyrys

Cu, Zn volcanogene Neves Corvo Portugal, Black Mountain RSA

stratiform massive sulphide deposits between volcanic units

ORE DEPOSIT TYPES

VALUES HOST DEPOSIT EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS

Cu, Zn, Sn granite-hosted tin South Crofty UK deposits in granitic plutons. similar

to porphyry coppers. low grade.

Au, Cu, Ag sediment-hosted Muruntau Uzbekistan metals concentrate in hydrothermal fluids.

Cu, Ag kupferschiefer Lublin Poland stratiform sulphide deposits; marine or deltaic environments. proterozoic-tertiary sediments.

Au, Ag epithermal goldCarlin USA, McLaughlin USA, Lepanto Philippines

shallow deposits at convergent plates. vein and disseminated sulphide types.

Cu, Ni mafic sulphide- hosted

Mt Keith WA, Voisey Bay Canada

primary sulphides in igneous rocks in archaean greenstones. up to high tonnages.

Diamondskimberlite

alluvial & marine

Premier RSA

Kleinsee RSA

ultramafic rocks in volcanic pipes, sills. proterozoic and later.

weathering of kimberlites formed gem quality placer deposits.

Pt, Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, Os

layered mafic intrusions Bushveld UG2 RSA

orthomagmatic sulphides in large layered igneous complexes. high temp magma formation & crystallization. proterozoic.

Pt, Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, Os, Cu, Ni

layered mafic intrusions

Bushveld Merensky Reef RSA, Stillwater

as above. differences in geochemical evolution of magma concentrated Ni and Cu in layers.

ORE DEPOSIT TYPES (continued)

VALUES HOST DEPOSIT EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS

Pt, Pd, Rh, Au alluvial Goodnews Bay USA

sediment-hosted placer deposits from weathering of mafic igneous complexes, concentration of PGEs and Au by fluvial processes.

Pt, Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, Au, Cu, Ni

layered mafic intrusions

Merensky Reef, Norilsk, Sudbury

same geological setting and genesis as before with Ni, Cu and Au concentrated in certain layers.

Coal open pit Witbank RSA,Griffin WA

shallow stratiform seams. overburden usually mid-to-late phanerozoic sediments.

Chromium chromitite Dwarsrivier RSA

chromitite in two deposit types. stratiform: ultrabasic layered igneous complexes. podiform: different structural form, tectonised ultrabasic sequences of ophiolote complexes.

Tantalum tantalite Greenbushes WAin sheared archaean granite-greenstone terranes. low volume, high value.

Other Minerals

laterite nickel

bauxite (Al)

stratabound iron

stratabound manganese

Murrin Murrin WA

Huntly WA

Thabazimbi RSA,Hammersley WA

Sishen RSA

extensive surface deposits. secondary mineralisation after weathering of crystalline parent rocks. high volume, low value.

ORE DEPOSIT TYPES (continued)

Placer Deposit

An alluvial deposit of ore, usually

a mineral-bearing gravel or sand.

Any concentration of the heavier

and more durable minerals that

have deposited from the actions

of erosional forces.

Kimberlites and Diamonds

KIMBERLITE

Crumbly, grey-green, often soft, igneous, ultrabasic, coarse grained

dark rock often with porphyritic texture and brecciated appearance. In peridotite rock mantle pocketed

with eclogite (50% garnet).

Usually found in archaean cratons of basement rock 2.5 billion years old. Youngest known diamond-bearing

pipe is 45 miilion years old.

Usually in pipes (hypabyssal occurrence in plutons) of up to 1km

diameter (largest 361 acres).

Primary mineral is serpentized olivine and associated minerals are

phlogopite, pyroxenes, carbonate, chromite, pyrope garnet, rutile and

perovskite.

DIAMOND

(Greek for indomitable – adamas)

Origin - kimberlite pipes

Gem - octahedra, cubes, dodecahedra, tetrahedra crystals.

Boart – rounded with radiating structure.

Carbonado – microcrystalline mass.

SG 3.52, hardness 10, carbon

INDICATOR MINERALS FOR DIAMOND-BEARING KIMBERLITES

Indicator minerals diamonds in kimberlites are chrome diopsides

(green), garnets (pink, purple, orange, yellow, green),

microdiamonds.

Pyrope garnets (shown):

some purple (or deep red) garnets have same high chrome low silica

chemical profile as diamonds (Harzburgitic signature). If these G10 garnets are not present there will be

no diamonds.

Eclogite rock can be very diamond-rich and contains orange garnets,

not G10s.

Kimberlite pipes often occur in clusters and different ilmenites in the pipes

assist in defining them.

LamproiteA second primary source of diamonds of potassium-rich hypabyssal lamprophyric rocks formed from magmatic intrusions (Miocene).Olivine lamproite and leucite lamproite are known to be diamond-bearing. Indicators minerals are chromites, andradite and zircon – garnets are rare.The AK1 deposit at Argyle Diamond Mine is a well-known lamproite orebody.The surface weathered ore has a Bond Work index of 10 kWh/t and an Abrasion Index of 0.22. The deeper more competent unweathered ore has a BWI of 18 and an AI of 0.60.

Hypabyssal

Intrusive igneous rocks

In smaller host bodies at intermediate depths, examples: dykes and sills

Medium to fine-grained

“Plutonic” if formed in very large masses at greatest depths, coarse-grained, visible minerals, e.g. batholiths

Carbonatites

Calcium carbonate (calcite)-rich rock

Magmatic !

Can contain magnetite, apatite, micas, sulphide minerals.

Basalts

Formed from “basic” lavasMost common of all volcanic rocksDark compact rocks (mafic), very fine-grained

Acid lavas form light low density rocks (felsic)

Of peculiar composition, found in moist-tropical regions. Crusty, reddish-brown deposits, hardened by precipitation of iron.

Laterite can develop through deep weathering and are rich in hydroxides of aluminium and iron, concentrated by the upward leaching by ground water due to the rapid surface evaporation of moisture.

Murrin Murrin in a laterite-hosted orebody typically 20 m in depth and 10 m overburden and has a nickel-cobalt mineralisation.

Bauxite, Al2O3.2H2O is a lateritic mineral.

Laterites

MINERALS

Mineral

Solid substance having a regular

and definite chemical composition

Mineral Content

Industrial minerals can have a high concentration of values such as 94% iron oxide in iron ore.

Base metals contents are often in the low percentages, e.g. copper 3%.

Precious metals ores usually have a tiny content of values, e.g. gold and platinum contents are typically 0.0005% or 5 gram/ton or 5 parts / million.

RESOURCES

RESOURCES AND RESERVES

IN SITU RESOURCESIN SITU RESOURCESreported as

mineralization in place

INFERREDINFERRED

INDICATEDINDICATED

MEASUREDMEASURED

EXTRACTABLE RESERVESEXTRACTABLE RESERVES reported as mineable production estimates

PROBABLEPROBABLE

PROVENPROVEN

consideration of mining, metallurgical, economic, marketing, legal, environmental, social and governmental factors

the modifying factorsthe modifying factors

increasing increasing level of level of

geological geological knowledge knowledge

and and confidenceconfidence

Reserves

That part of a mineral deposit which can

be economically and legally extracted at

the time of the reserve determination.

There are two categories of reserves:

Probable and Proven

Probable Ore

Tonnage & grade are computed partly from specific measurements (samples/production data) and partly from projections (geological evidence over a reasonable distance).

Refers to sites available for inspection, measurement and sampling but which are inappropriately spaced for outlining the ore completely or fully establishing it’s grade.

Proven Ore

Tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, drill holes, underground workings and grade from the results of adequate sampling.

The sites for inspection, sampling and measurement are so well spaced and the geological character so well defined that size, shape and mineral content are accurately established.