Definition, History, Branches, Areas, Research Methods

Psychology is a word derived from ancient Greek roots:

• Psyche – “soul” or “mind,” • logos – “study”

Psychology is the study of the mind. The science of behavior and mental processes• Behavior—observable actions of a person or animal• Mind—thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions,

memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences

• Science--an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods

MAJOR ISSUES

• Free will vs. determinism – are the causes of behavior knowable, and is behavior predictable?– Free will is the belief that behavior is caused by

an individual’s independent decision-making

– Determinism is the assumption that everything that happens has a cause or determinant in the observable world

• The mind vs. brain problem: - How is experience (mind) related to the organ system called the brain?– Dualism is the belief that the mind is separate

from the brain but somehow controls the brain and also the rest of the body

– Monism is the view that conscious experience is generated by and therefore is inseparable from the brain

• The nature vs. nurture issue– How do differences in behavior relate to

differences in heredity and environment?– Some scientists assume the larger proportion of

differences in potential and behavior are due to the influence of genes

– Others assume that most differences are results of aspects of the environment such as culture, expectations, and resources

– This issue arises in virtually every field of psychology, and knowledge gained through research seldom provides a simple answer

• Psychology is an academic, non-medical discipline that includes many branches and specialties

– The educational requirements can vary, but generally involve study beyond the bachelor’s degree

– A master’s degree, or a Ph.D./Psy.D. (doctor of psychology) are common terminal degrees in the discipline

More than one-third of psychologists work in academic settings. The remainder find positions in a variety of settings (based on the data of Chamberlain, 2000).

Historical Background

• Plato – (427-347)– Plato was interested in

moral philosophy and despised natural philosophy (that is, science) as an inferior and unworthy sort of knowledge.

– Believed we are born with complete knowledge within our soul.

– Learning – a process of inner reflection to discover the knowledge within us.

Democritus of Abdera 460-370 BC

• Democritus explained all changes in the world as changes in motion of the atoms, or the way that they were packed together.

• This brought mathematics into a fundamental physical role since the whole of the structure proposed by Democritus was quantitative and subject to mathematical laws.

• Another fundamental idea in Democritus's theory is that nature behaves like a machine, it is nothing more than a highly complex mechanism.

History of Psychology

History of Psychology: Aristotle, before 30 BC

Greek naturalist and philosopher who theorized about learning, memory, motivation, emotion, perception, and personality.

René Descartes:1596-1650

• Originated the concept of Dualism,

• viewed mind and body as interactive machines.

• Stated that the mind could follow body and vice versa.

• Proposed the idea of both voluntary and involuntary behavior.

• Ruled out areas other than the brain for mental functioning.

John Locke: 1632-1704

• Knowledge should be

acquired by careful observation.

• No innate ideas: all knowledge comes from experience or reflection.

• Mind is a blank slate written on by experience (tabula rasa).

Charles Darwin: 1850s

• Studied the evolution of

finches and expands his study to include humans.

• Opposed religious teachings of the time by suggesting that man was a common ancestor to lower species.

Birth of PsychologyWilhelm Wundt: - Father of Psychology

• 1879: established the 1st

experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

• Intended to make psychology a reputable science.

• Many American psychologists eventually went on to study in Leipzeig.

E. B. Titchener (1867–1927)

•Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University

•Analyzed the intensity, clarity and quality of the parts of consciousness

•Founder of structuralism

E.B. Titchener

STRUCTURALISM

• Studied the basic elements (structure) of thoughts and sensations.

– identify ‘atoms’ of the mind

• focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes

• measured reaction times

William James (1842–1910)

•First American psychologist

•Started psychology at Harvard in 1870s

•Opposed Wundt and Titchener’s approach

•Author of the first psychology textbook

•Founder of Functionalism–functionalism – influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment

William James

FUNCTIONALISM

• Emphasized studying the function of consciousness and how consciousness helped people adapt to their environment

Psychology (pre-1920)

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)Physiologist & Perceptual Psychologist

Founder of Psychology as a ScienceExperiments

Edward Titchner (1867-1927)Student of Wundt

Formed Y at CornellIntrospection

William James (1842-1910)Philosopher & Psychologist

Formed Y at Harvard

PsychologyUnderstanding

Mental Processes

Structuralism vs Functionalism

William James(1842-1910)

Analyze consciousness into basic elementsand study how they are related

Introspection - self-observationof one’s own conscious experiences

Investigate the function, or purposeof consciousness rather than its structure

Leaned toward applied work(natural surroundings)

Structuralism

Functionalism

Wilhelm Wundt

John B. Watson (1878–1958)

John B. Watson

•Founder of Behaviorism

•Studied only observable and objectively described acts

•Emphasized objective and scientific methodology

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

• Behaviorist

• Russian Physiologist

• Studied learning through associations in animals

• Emphasized the study of observable behaviors

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

•Behaviorist

•American psychologist at Harvard

•Focused on learning through rewards and observation

•studied learning and effect of reinforcement

B.F. Skinner

• Behaviorism – John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner

– structuralism was abandoned because it was difficult to study the subjective perception of experience.

– Behaviorism concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not mental processes.

– Behaviorists primarily seek to study the observable behaviors associated with learning.

BehaviorismScientific Psychology should focus on

observable behavior.

John Watson(1878-1958)

Ivan Pavlov

Psych the Science of Behavior

StimulusResponse

Psychology

Mental Processes cannotbe studied directly

Psychology (1920s-1960s)

John B. Watson (1878-1958)Behavior without Reference to Thought

The RAT & S-R Psychology

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)Behaviorism with a Twist

The PIDGEON & The Skinner Box

PsychologyScience of Observable

BehaviorBehaviorism

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

• Austrian physician that focused on illness

• Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective

• Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts

Unconscious expressed in

dreams & “slips of the tongue”

Freud & Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)

Proposes the idea of the UNCONSCIOUS

Thoughts, memories & desiresexist below conscious awareness

and exert an influence on ourbehavior

Psychoanalytic Theory attempts to explainpersonality, mental disorders & motivation in

terms of unconscious determinants of behavior

Wolfgang Kohler

• Created Gestalt Psychology

• The whole is different from the sum of its parts.

• Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Wolfgang Kohler

(1865-1965)

Gestalt Psychology

Max Wertheimer(1880-1943)

“The whole is different thanthe sum of its parts.”

Phi PhenomenonIllusion of movement created bypresenting visual stimuli in rapid

succession.

A reaction against StructuralismAn attempt to focus attention back

onto conscious experience(i.e., the mind)

WHY?

Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow(1902-1987) (1908-1970)

• Helped to create Humanistic Psychology

• Stressed the study of conscious experience and an individual’s free will

• Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential.

Cognitive Psychology

Noam Chomsky“Language”

Advent of computers (late 1950s) providesa new model for thinking about the mind

Cognitive Psychologists returnto the study of learning,

memory, perception, language,development & problem solving

Cognition the mental processesinvolved in acquiring, processing,

storing & using information

Psychology (1960s-1990s)

PsychologyScience of Behavior& Mental Processes

Cognitive Y

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)The Dynamic Unconscious Mind

Psychoanalysis

Computers as Metaphor for MindStudy Mind through Inferences Drawn

From Observable Behavior

Women of PsychologyMary Calkins - student of William James at

Harvard but was not awarded a Ph.D.Founded psych lab at Wellesley College (1891)

Maragaret Washburn - first woman to receive

Ph.D. in Psychology. Wrote The Animal Mind,which helped begin the Behaviorist movement.

Leta Hollingworth - Debunked popular theories

that suggested women were inferior to men.Did pioneering work on adolescent development,

mental retardation & “gifted” children.

Study of Psychology Today• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and

mental processes. • Psychology values:

– empirical evidence– critical thinking– systematic research methods

• Goals of psychology include:– description of behavior using careful observations– explanation identifying the cause(s) of behavior– prediction allows for specification of the conditions

under which a behavior will or will not occur– facilitating changes in behavior (e.g., therapy)

Modern Psychology Views

• Psychoanalytic view emphasizes the unconscious mind

• Behaviorism focuses on objective and measurable behaviors

• Humanistic psychology emphasizes the inner-self and the importance of subjective feelings

• Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning

Modern Psychology Views

• Psychobiology views behavior as reflecting brain processes

• Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection

• Cultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behavior

Positive Psychology

• A recent addition to the field

• Focuses on the characteristics that make people happy and successful

• Asserts that psychology has, in the past, focused too much on the negative

Branches of Psychology

General Psychology - Presents the basic and fundamental principles of human behavior. It explains the How and Why of person’s behavior from a scientific viewpoint. Comparative Psychology - Deals with the behavior and mental processes of the different species Genetic or Developmental Psychology - This is a field of study regarding human development and the inheritance and development of traits and abilities

Branches of Psychology

Dynamic Psychology - Mental phenomena are studied in terms of internal drives and motives as causes of behavior Physiological Psychology - Studies the functions of the nervous system and other bodily structures in the behavior of organism. Abnormal Psychology - This deals with behavioral disorders like physical handicaps, nervous disorders, speech impairments, mental aberrations and others.

Branches of Psychology

Psychometrics - Concerned with the application of mathematical procedures to the problems of psychology like testing, the use of norms, central tendencies and the like. Legal / Forensic Psychology - Deals with the application of psychological knowledge in the field of law relating to the study of human behavior. Social Psychology - The object of investigation of this area is “the interaction of human beings and man’s relation with family and the larger social institutions with reference to leadership and attitude formation.

Biopsychology - The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain influences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it has also been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology. Cognitive Psychology - the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s.

Branches of Psychology

Branches of PsychologyHealth psychology - is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and social factors influence health and illness. The field of health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness. Personality Psychology - This branch of psychology is focused on the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best-known theories in psychology have arisen from this field, including Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

Area of Specialization in Psychology

Educational Psychology - This concerned with the application of psychological principles to the problems of education like teacher preparation, motivation and teaching process, evaluation of teaching.

Industrial or Organizational Psychology - Deals with psychological principles applied to human problems of industry and business, government and military service, occupational selection and job training, morale and placement, forms of test and plant management.

Clinical Psychology - This study uses concepts and methods in the diagnosis and treatment of maladjustment and mental disorders in clinical setting – like behavior abnormalities ranging from reading or spelling to major mental disorders. Experimental psychology is an area of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the mind and behavior. Experimental psychologists work in a wide variety of settings including colleges, universities, research centers, government and private businesses.

Area of Specialization in Psychology

Counseling psychology focuses on providing therapeutic treatments to clients who experience a wide variety of symptoms. It is also one of the largest specialty areas within psychology. The Society of Counseling Psychology describes the field as " a psychological specialty [that] facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental and organizational concerns."

Area of Specialization in Psychology

Psychology Degrees By Area

Careers in Psychology

• Clinical work – e.g., psychotherapist*^

• Academic – e.g., professor/researcher*

• Business – e.g., industrial psychologist*^

• Journalism – e.g., science writer*

• Technology – e.g., software developer

*requires graduate degree

^requires license