DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning, First Issue September 2007

Volume I

September 2007

DistanceEducationAssociation ofSouthernAfricaandSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity -

Centre forDistanceEducation

International Journalof Open and DistanceLearning

Editor - in - ChiefProfessor RobertChimedza, ZimbabweOpen University

Editorial BoardThe DEASA Researchand Publications Committee constitutes theEditorial Board of thejournal

Dr. 0. S. Tau,Chairperson DEASAResearch Committee,University of Botswana

Prof. R. M. Chimedza,Zimbabwe OpenUniversity

Dr. D.H. Mohapi,University of Lesotho

Dr. Mutangira,University of Swaziland

Mr. Antonio Franque,Ministry of Education,Mozambique

Mr. T. Thutoetsile,Southern AfricaDevelopmentCommunity Centre forDistance Education

EditorialAdvisory BoardThe DEASA ExecutiveCommittee constitutesthe advisory board ofthe journal.

Professor D. L.Mosoma, DEASAChairman, DeputyVice Chancellor andVice Principal, LearnerSupport and StudentsAffairs — University ofSouth Africa

Dr. P. Kurasha,DEASA DeputyChairperson and ViceChancellor, ZimbabweOpen University

Dr. D. R. Tau,Executive Director,

Botswana College ofOpen and DistanceLearning

Dr. T. Khat,Dean Faculty ofEducation, NationalUniversity of LesothoMr. V. Muyatwa,Director Departmentof Distance Education,Zambia

Dr. M. Delvaline,Assistant RegistrarCentre for OpenLearning Namibia

Mr. T. Thutoetsile,Director SADC — CDE

Ms L. Kolosoa,Lecturer LesothoCollege of Education

Mr. G. Mazibuko,Principal Emlalatini,Swaziland

Mr. Amadeu,Ministry of Education,Mozambique

Professor L. Molamu,Registrar — University ofSouth Africa

© DEASA-SADC CDEInternational

Journal of Open andDistance Learning

Distance Education Association of Southern Africa andSouthern African Development Community -

Centre for Distance EducationInternational Journal of Open and Distance Learning

Volume 1 — September 2007

I

Mrs. E. Nonyongo,University of SouthAfrica

Mr. V. Muyatwa,Directorate of Open andDistance Education,Zambia.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface Reviewers of EditorialProfessor David Mosoma Current Articles By Professor RobertDEASA Chairperson Page 2 Chimedzaand Editor-in-ChiefThulaganyo Thutoetsile Page 3Director, SADC-CDEPage 1

Managing Learning Support Lecturing VersusInclusion of in a Severely CollaborativeStudents with Visual Underdeveloped Learning Methods:Impairment in Context as an analysisOpen and Distance Experienced by of learningEducation: Distance Learners preferenceschallenges for Godson Gateha among mid-levellearners Page 19 managementAuxilia M. Badza and students at theDavid D. Chakuchichi University ofPage7

NamibiaTrudie Frindt andLouise MostertPage 30

Inter-Institutional Managing a FacilitatingCollaboration Regional Centre Interaction DuringIn Distance in an Open and Face-to-FaceEducation: Is it Distance Learning Tutorials in Openworthwhile? Institution Distance Learning:Dr. Regina K. Masalela Dr. Ndaba J. Ncube Insights from thePage 44 Page 61 Socratic Method

Stanslaus ModestoTichapondwaPage 74

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Quality Assurance Teaching About theand Quality Control Management Southern AfricaStrategies in the and Accounting DevelopmentZimbabwe Open Through Open Community -

University And Distance Centre for DistanceGrace T. Mukeredzi & Learning Materials: EducationTsitG.Ndamba The case of the (SADC-CDE)g

Lesotho College of Thuaganyo ThutoetsHe

Education Page 111

Lineo Clementina KolosoaPage 99

DEASA-SADC Contributors— CDE International Page 118

Journal of Openand DistanceLearningNotes to ContributorsPage 117

PREFACE

The publication of thismaiden journal of theSouthern African Development Community— Centre for DistanceEducation (SADC —

ODE) and the DistanceEducation Association of Southern Africa(DEASA) is a triumphfor Open and DistanceLearning (CDL) inSADC member states.It represents an attainment of one of themilestones that the region set itself in 2005when the SADC — ODEwas established bySADC Ministers of Education and The Commonwealth of Learning(CCL) with a broadmandate of buildingCDL capacity throughthe promotion of research and publicationin the region.

The publication of thisjournal is a tribute tothe collaborative spirit

Professor bavid MosomaDEASA Chairperson

that prevails in SADCamong CDL institutions, Ministries ofEducation, DEASA,The Commonwealthof Learning (CCL) andthe SADO Secretariat.CDL institutions, andMinistries of Educationin SADC sponsoredtheir employees to attend the Researchand Publication workshops conducted bySADC — ODE whichwere held in 2006 inLusaka and Windhoek.We therefore wish toapplaud the politicalleadership and themanagement of ministries of educationand CDL institutionsfor their commitmentto increasing access,equity and quality ofeducation in SADCthrough the use ofCDL. We also wish tothank the DEASA Research and PublicationCommittee members,

in particular Professor Robert Chimedzafor the arduous task ofediting the articles inthis journal. We furtherwish to thank all thepeer reviewers whodedicated their time toensuring that the journal is a professionalpublication with standards comparable tothe best in the world.

Lastly we wish to payspecial tribute to theauthors whose worksare published in thisjournal. SADO and indeed Africa needs selfless scholars who cancontribute knowledgein the globalised world.We look forward to thepublication of volume IIof this journal featuringarticles from practitioners in Southern African in particular andthe rest of the world.

Thulag,Tl4itoetsileDirectfr, SADC-CDE

DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

REVIEWERS OF CURRENT ARTICLES:

The Editorial Board Dr. 0. Tau, Dr. Maedza,wishes to acknowl- Univesity of Botswana Zimbabwe Openedge with gratitude the Universityfollowing for reviewing Dr. D. Tau, Botswanathe articles in this vol- College of Open and Dr. Glorifyume: Distance Learning Mavundukure,

Zimbabwe OpenProfessor Rungano Dr Mohapi, University UniversityZvobgo, Midlands of LesothoState Univesity Dr. Gwarinda,

Dr. S. Chakanyuka, Zimbabwe OpenProfessor Robert Zimbabwe Open UniversityChimedza, Zimbabwe UniversityOpen University Mr. Thutoetsile,

Dr. M. N. Rukuni, Southern AfricanProfessor Bonifas Zimbabwe Open DevelopmentChivore, University of University Community - Centre ofZimbabwe Distance Education

Dr. Njini, ZimbabweDr. Sukati, University Open Universityof Swaziland

2 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

EDITORIALby Professor Robert ChimedzaEditor-in-Chief

The DEASA - SADC- CDE InternationalJournal on Open andDistance Learning isthe official journal ofthe Distance EducationAssociation of Southern Africa and theSouthern African Development Community- Centre for DistanceEducation. In this maiden issue of the annualpublication we featureeight articles and theprofile of the SADCCDE. The journal publishes articles mainlyon distance educationbut also on related issues from basic to university education. Thismakes the readershipwide and very accommodating for the variedmember institutions ofDEASA and the international community. Itis a peer reviewed journal that accepts academic papers basedon research, conceptand position papers,critiques, reports onbest practices of distance education, bookreviews and so on.

In this maiden issue, Iwish to commend and

appreciate the workdone by the two organisations to launchthis journal. It demonstrates a smart strategic partnership thatdirectly benefits distance education atgrassroots level. Theintroduction of thejournal is an important milestone in thedevelopment of Openand Distance Learningpractices in the region.Not only will distanceeducation practitionershave a platform whereto share ideas andlearn from each other,but also this becomesa hub of knowledge onwhich future learningtheories on distanceeducation could bederived.

I also wish to expressmy deep-seated gratitude and congratulations to the writers andreviewers whose articles are in this issue.They are the pioneerpublishers of this journal and together webegin to write the storyand history of this journal. It is not everydaythat new journals are

launched and thereforeit is something specialto publish in a maiden issue of a journalmore-so after a rigorous anonymous reviewprocess that eliminatedmany others.

A colleague of mineonce asked me a barrage of questions ondistance education.He wanted to knowwhat distance education was all about, howdifferent it was fromcorrespondence education, the differencesbetween distance education, open learning,distance open learning,distance education andopen learning and soon. Articles that featurein this journal shouldprovide answers tosuch questions notonly in terms of defining and setting parameters for these areasbut also in providingtheories, ontologies,praxis, best practices,research work, reportsand situation analyses that answer theseand other unansweredquestions in distanceopen learning.

DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 3

In the current issueBadza and Chakuchichi discuss a studythey carried out to establish the nature andadequacy of inclusionof students with visualimpairment in the Zimbabwe Open University(ZOU). Using the casestudy design, theirresults show that theZOU unsystematicallymade ad hoc arrangements to accommodate the instructionalneeds of students withvisual impairment.They recommend thatinstitutions of distanceeducation should essentially have policieson learner support forservice delivery to students with disabilities.

Gatsha discusses astudy he undertook tofind out how distanceeducation learners inthe school equivalentcourses in a severelyunderdeveloped context experienced thelearning support service of the BotswanaCollege of Open andDistance Learning (GOCODOL) Kang Regional Centre. The findingsof his study showedthat the regional centre was able to provide adequate supporttimeously to learnersin the community studycentres while those in

remote areas receiveddelayed support especially in assignmentfeedback. He recommends that learningsupport for remote students be strengthenedand strategies be putin place to motivatepart-time tutors to bemore enterprising intheir delivery of learnersupport.

Frindt and Mostert intheir article explore theconcept collaborativelearning and the assumption that studentsin Namibia have a tendency towards surfacelearning as opposed todeeper understandingof issues embedded incollaborative learning.To examine this assumption, they used anadapted questionnaireon the Approaches toStudy Skills Inventoryfor Students to examine the motivationaland deep learningimpact of a lecturingteaching method versus collaborative learner activities in a certificate programme at theUniversity of Namibia(UNAM). The results oftheir study suggest thatthe students showedstrong beliefs andpreference for deeplearning approachesin addition to surfacelearning approaches.They concluded that

learning outcomesfor UNAM mid-levelmanagement studentscould be enhanced byemploying deep learning approaches toteaching and learning.

Masalela gives a concept paper on inter-institutional collaboration. She discusses inter-institutional collaborative activities, typesof inter-institutional collaboration, the essential considerations forinter-institutional collaboration and potentialbenefits and complexities as well as their implications. She arguesthat inter-institutionalcollaboration providesan environment to enliven and enrich thelearning process notonly in distance education settings but alsoin conventional practices. She observesthat these collaborativepartnerships are important where resourcesare shrinking, given thedemand for wider useof sophisticated technology, limited faculty(teacher), and limitedtime and instructionalresources. She concludes that developingenvironments particularly in the sub-Saharan Africa region couldbenefit a lot from thesekinds of partnershipsShe urges institutions

4 DEA5A-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

to relinquish the tradition of competition andjoin hands to build abetter global society.

Ncube draws from hisexperience as a Regional Director in anCDL institution, as wellas literature on experiences in other CDLinstitutions to discusshow to manage a regional centre in an CDLsetting. The issues thathe addressed in his paper include locating aregional centre, studentregistration, financialmanagement, humanresource issues, andprovision of library services, among others.He also raises challenges that are facedin managing a regionalcenter. The challengesdiscussed include lackof resources, stereotypes towards openand distance learning,the dilemma of decentralization versus centralization in decision-making, as well as thedistance of the learnersfrom the centre. Thearticle concluded witha discussion on strategies that could be usedto improve the efficiency in the managementof a regional center.The strategies recommended include thesupply of resources,training of personnel,further decentraliza

tion, and heavy investment in technology.

Tichapondwa discusses an experimental action research that hecarried out with eighttutors of a communication course to examinethe significance of theSocratic method during learner-tutor interaction, and to establishhow best questionscan be used to achievelearning goals. Resultsshowed that tutorswhose awareness hadbeen raised to use thequestioning method,used interrogativesmore effectively thantheir counterparts, thecontrol group. This ledto the conclusion thatconscious enhancement of knowledgeabout the Socraticmethod leads to effective negotiation oflearning. He then recommended that tutorsin CDL be guided inthe use of questioningstrategies during tutorials for better interactionand effective learningby learners.

Mukeredzi and Ndabain their article presenta study they carriedout on strategies employed by the Zimbabwe Cpen Universityto assure and controlquality. The major findings they discuss are

that, highly qualified,experienced and committed personnel wereappointed as tutors andtutorials were of a highstandard, assignmentswere regarded bylearners as demandingand adequate, marking was viewed asthoroughly and professionally done, whileexamination questionitems were assessedas of good quality. Themarking of examinations was centralizedto facilitate moderation and external assessment. They alsodiscussed areas thatneeded addressingsuch as the need to increase human and material resources, stafftraining and effectivecommunication.

Kolosoa in her articlediscusses a study thatshe carried out to investigate the qualityand readability of theManagement and Accounting modules atthe Lesotho College ofEducation (LCE) froma learner’s perspectivein terms of the easiness, clarity of concepts, illustrations andpictures, and the timespent studying the materials. The findings revealed that the majorityof teacher-learners atLCE found Management and Accounting


iearning materials difficult and it took themlonger to completewhen compared withthose of other courses. The study recommended that the present Management andAccounting learningmaterials be reviewed

and that more time forfact-to-face tutorials beincluded.

It is the intention of thisjournal to feature oneor two profiles of theDEASA member institutions in each publication. In this issue

Thutoetsile gave theprofile of the SouthernAfrican DevelopmentCommunity Centre forDistance Education.

Professor RobertChimedzaEditor-in-Chief


MANAGING INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITHVISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN OPEN AND DISTANCEEDUCATION: Challenges for Learners.Auxillia M. Badza & David D. ChakuchichiZimbabwe Open University

Abstract

The study sought to establish the nature andadequacy of inclusionof students with visualimpairment in the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU). The impetusof the study came fromMoore’s Transactionaltheory of open and distance learning (ODL)which states thatpreparation of instructional materials, usingthe universal designprinciples, enhancesaccess and full inclusion of students withdisability. The studyutilised case study, aqualitative researchdesign to establish theadequacy of ZOU’sservice provision tostudents with visual impairment (VI). In-depthinterviews were carriedout on students with VIand part time tutors.Data was subjectedto verbal analysis tocome up with systemicchallenges to serviceprovision to studentswith VI in ODL. programmes. The resultsindicated that ZOUunsystematically madead hoc arrangements

to accommodate theinstructional, needs ofstudents with VI. Thestudy recommends thatZOU should essentiallyevolve a policy to guideservice delivery to students with disabilities.

Introduction

One of the constitutive aspects of Openand Distance Learning (CDL) is essentiallyaccess to instructionand learning materialby all students including those with disabilities. Issues of accessand equity in openand distance education are critical in justifying the opennessof distance educationand the inclusion ofstudents with disabilities (Sherry, 1996). Ittherefore suffices tosay that the hallmarkof distance educationlies in the separation,in both time and space,between the learnerand the instructor andthe ‘volitional controlof learning’ by the student (Jonassen cited inSherry 1996). In orderto facilitate learning by

distance education students, the material to belearnt should of necessity be interactive anduser friendly. Learnersupport in this respectbecomes invaluableas it ensures the interactivity of instructionalmaterials with thecognitive dispositionsof the students. Instructional models andmaterials in CDL areexpected to make thestudents interact withthe learning material inorder to construct newknowledge. Horton,cited in Sherry (1996),posits that the interactive theoretical basis ofCDL comprise of twobasic aspects whichdirectly impact situated cognition. Thesetwo are the student’scontext (environment,current situation, othersensory input) and themind (associations,memory, reasoning,abstractions). Following on the theoreticaldevelopment of situated cognition in thedesign of ODL, instructional materials shouldenhance access forall. However according

DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

to Burgstahler (2002),the issues of accessfocus on the separation of student and instructor and rarely include consideration ofneeds of students withdisabilities. In orderto establish the challenges for learner support for students withvisual impairment (VI),it is imperative to interrogate the concept ofinclusion, its pedagogical implications for thelearner in the contextof a universal design inCDL.

Background

Current trends in special education are moving away from prescriptive labels and categories, however, there stillremains a plethora ofspecialised terms usedto define aspects of VIby different professionals. Visual Impairmentis defined as loss of vision for an individual tocomplete tasks withoutspecialised adaptation,(Mason, McCall, Arte,McLindell and Stone,1997). In otherwords,the loss of vision impedes learning unlessmodifications are madeto teaching and learning methods, the environment and learningmaterials. The degreeof impairment variesfrom low vision to total loss of sight (blind).

The low vision category includes those withremaining or residualvision. According toWebster and Roe,(1998) people who fallinto the category of‘blind’ depend on tactile, auditory and othersensory input otherthan sight, as meansof learning and requirespecial ised equipment.

In addition to pedagogical concerns, issues related to schoolenvironment are ofimportance to the inclusion of individualswith VI. There are stillongoing arguments onwhether to adapt theenvironment to suitthe individual with VIor to make the personwith disability fit his!her environment. Thereason behind adapting the environmentfor the individual is toensure that the education system preparesthe individual with VIfor an independent rolein the wider society. Inorder to achieve thisfunctional level, limitedadaptation to the learning environment shouldbe made to enable theindividual with VI tofunction independentlyand safely in the widerenvironment. Despitethe merits of this argument, a careful audit ofthe learning environ-

ment needs to be considered to eliminate orminimise dangers to individuals with VI. Suchadaptations should ultimately enhance theinclusion disposition ofthe individual with VI.

A clear understanding of the concept ofinclusion is essentialto enhance the successful and meaningful process of inclusion of student with VIin CDL. It is importantto note that there is acontinuous evolvementon the definitions as reflections on practice isadvancing taking cognisance of the range ofcontexts and culturesin which inclusion istaking place. Inclusiontherefore reflects thereality in each nationalsystem and thus canbe determined by thehistory, culture andpolitics of the system, (Dyson & Millard,2000). Dyson and Millard’s position makes itdifficult to have a consensus or unified definition of the concept ofinclusion.

Burgstahlers (2002)asserts that the designs of many distanceeducation programmesinadvertently erectsbarriers for studentswith disabilities. Whilevisual impairment im

8 DEASA-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

pacts negatively onthe access and inclusion of students withVI in CDL, planning foraccess during coursedevelopment stageinstead of creating adhoc accommodationstrategies on enrolment of students withimpairments is proactive. Steps should betaken to ensure thata wide range of abilities and disabilities areconsidered followingthe universal designprinciples. One of theuniversal design principles is recognition ofthe ideal that accessto education is oneof the basic humanrights (Harrison 2001).Therefore accommodation of learners withspecial educationalneeds is essentiallyensuring that access tohigh quality instructionis provided to all. Universal design principles ensure cognitive,affective and systemiclearner support inCDL which reinforcesstudent’s confidence,self-esteem and progress, (Tait, 2003). Thepreparation of instructional materials, usinguniversal design principles in the contextof Moore’s theory onCDL which states thatthe space betweenthe learner and theinstructors should be

mediated by transactional materials, wouldenhance access andinclusion of studentswith disabilities.

Institutional policiesthat are crafted onprinciples of universaldesign and educationfor all (EFA) wouldinherently serve theinterests of disadvantaged groups such asthe people with VI. Theimplied national policyof inclusion embracedin EFA has seen students with VI enrolledin the Zimbabwe OpenUniversity (ZOU). Theresearchers are lecturers at the ZOU andthey encountered somestudents with visualimpairment who registered dissatisfactionwith the learner support they were gettingprompting the following pertinent question;‘How adequately isZOU managing inclusion of students with VIin open and distancelearning?’ Thereforethe research attemptsto ensure that the following specific questions are addressed,

• What learner support is ZOU providing to studentswith VI and howadequate is it?

• What are theexperiences andperceptions of

students with VIincluded in ZOUacademic program mes?

What are the challenges of learnersupport for inclusion of studentswith VI at ZOU?

Purpose

The study sought toestablish the natureand conditions of inclusion of students with visual impairment in theZimbabwe Open University. The impetusof the study came fromMoore’s theory that inCDL “the space between the learner andthe structure of teaching must be mediatedby dialogue offering thelearner the opportunityto be an active participant” (Tait 2003:4).

Methodology

The study used thecase study approach,a qualitative researchdesign, to establishthe adequacy of ZOU’sprovision of CDL tostudents with VI. Thecase study was foundto be more appropriate in order to have anin-depth study of thechallenges of managing students with VI inCDL. The case studyapproach allowed theresearchers to study


how the students viewtheir situational ac

researchers to cometo an understanding ofthe experiences fromthe perspective of thelearners.

The respondents identified for in depth interviews were purposefully selected in suchaway that they wouldreflect a diversity ofbackgrounds and avariety of personal dimensions. The respondents were all ZOUstudents who were visually impaired, that is,they were either withlow vision or legallyblind and a group of8 part time tutors whohad taught studentswith VI. For the purposes of this study ageand gender were notconsidered essential.

The sample of thestudy was a total ofeight (8) students madeup of five (5) males andthree (3) females in thePost Graduate Diplomain Education, Bachelorof Arts in English andCommunication Studies, Masters of Business Administrationand Bachelor of Science in Special Education programmesand a group of 8 tutors

selected for in depthinterviews. Six of the

print information whilethe remainder werepartially sighted, that isthey could process printinformation especiallybenefiting from enlarged print. The interviews which were donein five days took oneto two hours per participant. All interviewswere unstructured butguided by an interviewschedule. The direction of the interviewdepended on each individual student’s experiences. Thereforeas data were collectedthe research focus wasrefined as new questions emerged fromthe interview. Specificquestions emerged inthe context of the student’s views.

Triangulation of datawas employed bycontrasting studentsinformation with thatof key informants including part time tutors, regional directors,programme co-ordinators and librarians aswell as that collectedfrom focused groupsin order to enhancevalidity of data. All interviewees were audiotaped to supplementthe written interview

notes. The audio tapedinformation was usedto clarify and enhancethe written notes duringdata analysis. In addition, document contentanalysis of the ZOUstudent handbook andtutors handbook wascarried out to establishthe impact of policy onservice delivery to people with VI.

Analysis

In qualitative researchdesign, data collectionand analysis are closely related such thatdata analysis was inthis case, inductive andongoing throughout thestudy (Bogdan & Biklen1984; Taylor and Bog-dan, 1984 and Guba &Lincoln, 1985). Audiotaped interviews wereexamined, transcribedand compared with thefield notes to identifyinsights, themes andconcepts. Although theanalysis was an ongoing process duringthe study, there wasa final stage intensiveanalysis that involvedsorting data into categories and sub-categories to refine andidentify frequently occurring themes. Verification of interpretativeaccuracy of analysis ofdata was done throughpresentation of preliminary findings to peerswho have worked and

cess to learning ma- eight students wereterials. The design technically blind that isfurther enabled the they could not process

10 DEA5A-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

interacted with some ofthe subjects. This process gave new insightsand strengthened theposition of some of thefindings.

Findings andDiscussion

The findings of thestudy were very elaborate as most of the participants in this category articulated their experiences and expectations very effectively.The documents’ content analysis revealedthat ZOU did not havea coherent institutionalpolicy for service delivery and or learnersupport to people withVI and other disadvantages. The results asshown in some of theparticipant’s excerptsindicated some salientexclusionary practicesthat do not enhanceinclusion and or universal design in ODL.The findings were laiddown under the following three themes,knowledge and perception of CDL, student experiences andpedagogical concerns,and attitudinal challenges.

Knowledge andperceptions ofODL

Most students seemedto have a good knowl

edge of CDL as apractice of learningfor all or learning fromhome with flexible arrangements and timemanagement. Otherstudents appreciate itas it affords studentsan opportunity to learnwhile continuing withtheir vocation. The participants’ perception ofCDL was that it wasa good practice thatgave people with VI anopportunity to learn.Others said that CDLwas,

A bit limiting, helpdoes not come thereand then.And others said that;

not muchdifficulties but afew problems withareas chosen e.g.calculations whereone may need help.

These perceptions ofCDL indicate that mostof the students with VIfound it quite acceptable and helpful to themdespite some problemsrelating to the need forspecific help at particular times. Howeversome students with VIseem to suggest that itis not their right to beenrolled but a charitythat ZOU is extendingto them as indicated bythe statements below.

.1 have sincecommended ZQUfor allowing students

with VI to do theirstudies with ZOU.

However others had adifferent view as indicated in the followingstatement;

Not everyone isblessed like myself..may be I could havebeen told I can’t beenrolled.

Such perceptions asindicated in the statements above are inconsistent with the spirit ofinclusion that is basedon rights and provisionof equal opportunitiesin an education for all(EFA) perspective.Inclusive education,in the context of theSalamanca Statementand Framework of Action (1994), shouldtherefore meet theeducational needs ofall learners within common yet fluid contextsand activities. Inclusionshould not be seen asjust an ideal state butrather an unending setof dynamic processesto adequately accommodate every learner’sneeds (Booth, 1996:Sapon —Shevin, 1992in Engelbrecht, Green,Naicker and Engelbrecht, 2004).

Studentsexperiencesand pedagogicalconcerns


Participants had a variety of experiencesranging from CDL being an empoweringand challenging opportunity to exclusionarypractices that neededcorrective measures inpedagogical aspects.

Some students believed that they hadpositive experiencesas they ‘enjoyed newknowledge’ and competed with sightedstudents. One studentsaid that;

The co-ordinatorfelt that I wouldnot be able toimpress the enrolleralthough therewere some whohad done BAECS(Bachelor of Artsdegree in Englishand CommunicationStudies). As postgrad..., theyunderrated mypotential andthought the VIstudents couldonly manage firstdegrees.

Another student whenasked whether hislearning needs weremet by ZOU, he responded:

Not exactly! I hadto run around tosurvive. I had nobraille material soI had to look forsomeone to read,

find a group. Itwas difficult to getinformation.

The experiences ofthese two participants,while showing a positive attitude, indicatedthe possibility of exclusionary pedagogical practices in theCDL as practiced byZOU. These practiceswere evident in thenature of learning materials provided. Themain learning materials were a module foreach course. The modules that were in printpresented the followingchallenges;

Not always easyto get someone toread. Your studytime has to bedetermthed bysomeone who readsfor you hence myperformance mighthave been affected.

It was difficultbecause I could notaccess materials inprint. It meant I wasalways late. Workingwith an assistantis always verydifficult especiallyat night. Keepingher awake wasa challengeDiagrams weredifficult for theassistant to interpretfor me Courseslike computers andstatistics were a

challenge thoughI passed... it wasdifficult. Presentationis not appropriatefor VI. There is needfor simplification ofsome concepts.

Experience oflimited braillematerial made meaccustomed to beingread to.Audio cassetteswould be a palatablemove. / had to attendtutorials because /had problems withprint modules.I wouldn’t mindbraille for readingbut its bulkytapes are userfriendly.

Tutors observationswere that materials such as modulesshould be transcribedinto braille or recordedon audiotapes. Alsotutors pointed out thatmaterials in compatiblemedia enhanced participation of studentswith VI.

Judging from the expressions in the excerpts above, the participants preferred audio taped modules asbraille materials werescarce and bulky andprint modules alwaysrequired an assistantwho would determinethe pace and time ofstudy. Furthermore,

12 DEASA-SADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

indications are that noadaptations or modifications were made tothe curriculum to suitthe needs of visuallyimpaired in coursessuch as statistics andcomputers that areknown to pose greatchallenges to such individuals. Thus, Lomofosky & Mvambi (2004)assert an inclusivecurriculum has to beadapted to meet theneeds of learner ratherthan have learners fitthe curriculum. Thestudy observed thatZOU’s service deliveryto students with disability was inadequatebecause the instructional materials in theform of print moduleswere not user friendlyto most learners withvisual impairment. Thisassertion was echoedby tutors who emphasized that service tostudents with VI wasinadequate and thatthere was no specialtreatment for them.Also the documentanalysis revealed thesame, that apart froma few clauses specifying some examination arrangements forstudents with disability, there was nothingspecific and deliberateabout ZOU’s serviceto students with VI andother disadvantages.

Participants had mixedexperiences duringtutorials presented bysubject experts. Others had positive experiences as they had theirpresence felt while others found tutors oblivious of their presenceand thus were not accommodated. Someof the participants expressed the followingnegative aspects;

Tutors didn’taccommodatethe VI studentsbecause theycontinued to writeon chalkboards anduse the overheads(projector) withoutmaking reference tothe presence of VIstudents.

Tutors did not realiseneeds...also needauditory and groupmethods

Tutors... not awareof my presenceand were notaccommodating.

Tutors observed thatstudents with VI requirecontact teaching, thatis, a one to one instructional basis. However,the tutors confirmedthat the students withVI were treated asother students duringtutorials sessions. Theparticipants’ concernwas that the tutors didnot have adequate

knowledge on how tocommunicate, serviceand accommodatestudents with visualimpairment. Lomofsky & Mvambi (2004)pinpoint that teachersare central to successful inclusion. Teachersneed to be sensitiveto individual needsand characteristics ofall learners in order toeffectively support inclusion. In this regardinstruction inherentlyrequires differentialteaching based on thecharacteristics andneeds of the learningpopulation.

The main point of contention was access tolearning material in amedia that was compatible with the learningneeds of learners withVI. Asked to commentabout how the participants utilised libraryfacilities the studentsexperiences were asnarrated below;

Going to thelibrary.... Therewere no materials

it was difficultusing the assistantwho is not wellversed in gettinginformation.she also is notknowledgeableabout my areaof study.

There was nodistinction between


me and otherstudents.

I could not getanything to borrowfrom the library dueto media. Books(print) are not anappropriate media

The library doesnot have suitablematerial for thosewith low visionand blind. There isneed for a policy tospecify our needs.

The experiences ofparticipants in accessing library informationindicate some oversight on the real needsof students with VI asno braille nor largeprint materials wereavailable. In additionthe library staff werenot inducted nor sensitised in serving learners with VI. This situation is not consistentwith Harrison (2006:2)who says “Accommodation of learners withspecial needs is part ofthe process of ensuringhigh quality educationalexperiences are available to every individual.”The participants suggested that studentswith visual impairmentrequire audiocassettesand braille material toaccess instructionalmaterials.

Yet another area ofconcern for the par-

ticipants was the assistance given to studentswith VI during the examination process.Some participantsreported limited support in the provision ofBraille machines andfor others there wereno examinations inenlarged print. Otherparticipants expressedconcern that therewas no distinction between them and otherlearners implying thatno special arrangements were made forthem, as some required enlarged printof font size 16. Someparticipants expectedspecial arrangementswhere there would begiven a room to use abraille machine without making noise forother students. Quite anumber of participantssuggested that they required 25% extra timein completing examinations as expressed inthese statements;

I request for moretime especially withcalculations 15minutes per hour...such extra time.

lnvigilators may noteven be aware ofuse of technologyor Braille when youneed help. Studentswith VI.. we areusually forgotten.

The study observed

that students with visual impairment require special examinations arrangementsto accommodate theirneeds. ZOU unsystematically made ad-hocarrangements to accommodate the needsof students with visualimpairment during examinations. Howeverthe ZOU’s studenthandbook had a section describing servicethat should be affordedstudents with variousdisabilities during examinations. Despite theinformation containedin the student handbook about specialexamination arrangements for students withdisability no definitivepolicy was in place fora comprehensive regulation on mandatoryservices for studentswith disabilities.

Communication problems were probedto establish how effective the universitywas interacting withstudents with VI. Theparticipants with lowvision indicated thatcommunication by theuniversity through letters and newspaperswas adequate whilethose who are blind reported that it was a bigchallenge as notices innewspapers and noticeboards were not ac


cessible to them. Blindstudents preferredbrailled communication and or telephonemessages. One participant reported thefollowing as depictingcommunication withthe university:

It was like chasinga wild cat... .grosslyinadequate!

Interaction betweenstudent and the respective tutors showedsome students appreciating the use oftelephones while others reported that tutors were not ready forthem such that theywrote on the chalkboard without pronouncing what theywere writing. Also theparticipants showeddifferences in the experiences of interaction with sighted students within their tutorial groups. While others believed that theywere accepted othershad this to say;

Students withexperience inspecial educationare awaredon’t have problemsof stigma butothers at first don’tunderstand. Someeven ask why youare among them.Usually they getannoyed with thenoise of the Braillemachine.

The assumption isthat they acceptedme but sometimespatronised meto the extent ofoffering to writenotes for me. Atfirst they wouldkind of look downupon you but oncethey realised yourpotential they evencan pick us (bycar) the problemis of awareness

From these narratives,it is clear that participants express somedegree of exclusionarypractices such as patronisation and keeping of a distance bysighted students. It isalso important to notethat the participantsacknowledge thatother sighted studentslack awareness.

Participants weregiven the opportunityto site any other challenges they encountered in the course oftheir studies with ZOU.A few of them indicated having challengessubjects involving statistics as some of theformulae were difficultto manage. The challenge was not withthe level of difficultybut with manageabilityof the formula signsand signals. In otherwords, given the appropriate computer

packages and media,there would be noproblem for studentswith VI to do any calculations.

Another challenge wasexcessive expensessince the student withVI had to pay for theaudio recording ofthe module or paythe reader/assistant.It was therefore obvious that the studentwith VI bore extra expenses than other students. For these students it would appearas if they are beingpenalised for havingthe disability.

The participants wereallowed to say whatthey believed werechallenges for ZOUin serving learnerswith VI. The followingtwo challenges werereported, that ZOUshould provide appropriate learning material and that the material should be simplifiedin some concepts asindicated in the following statement;

When programmeswere designed inZQU, they did nothave VI students inmind to the extentthat examinationswere not evenin Braille nostructure for braille.


RecommendationsThe experiences ofparticipants show adisparity between theirexpectations and theservice they received.The service was inadequate and to a largeextent inappropriate.The participants did notfeel a sense of belongingness to ZOU programmes rather theyview themselves as anappendage to the restof the student population. Some students didnot feel that it was theirright to enrol in ZOUprogrammes. Thesestudents remainedgrateful for ZOU’s ‘benevolence’ in admitting them. Students inthis frame of thinkingcannot be expected todemand adequate andequitable service commensurate with theirneeds and characteristics. It is important thatthe concept of inclusion is discussed andimplemented even intertiary education. Onthe whole, studentsexperiences broughtout some exclusionarypractices in the wayZOU assisted learnerswith VI.

AttitudinalChallenges

Observations by tutorsindicated that there existed problems relatingto negative attitudes

by both the tutors aswell as learners withVI. Tutors not trainedin special educationfound it difficult to copewith the instructionalneeds of learners withVI. This position wasevidenced by the following comment fromone of the tutors,

My tutorials weremoving smoothlyuntil she (femalestudent with VI)came.

The statement couldimply that negativeattitudes from tutorsemanate from lack ofknowledge and awareness of the needs ofstudents with VI. In addition tutors observedthat administrativestaff would close theiroffices at the sight of astudent with VI to avoidthe lengthy verbal interactions associatedwith such students.Such a situation is notat all conducive to theneeds of learners withVI hence it requires urgent redress in order togive such learners thesupport they deserve.Tutors suggest thatboth the administrativestaff with negative behaviours as well as thestudents with VI shouldbe availed counsellingto enhance accommodation and genuine acceptance.

According to the information given by regional administratorsin the interviews, ZOUdid not have an institutional policy, to assistpeople with visual impairment and or otherdisadvantages. It istherefore recommended that ZOU shouldformulate a policywhich will include parameters for ensuringadequate learner support for students withVI and for those withother challenges.

As established in thestudy, some tutors exhibited a lack of knowledge in facilitatingthe instructional andwelfare needs of students with VI. There istherefore need to equipstaff who interface withthese students withskills to adequatelyprovide equitable service and support for themeaningful inclusion ofthe learners.

Also, as the studentswith VI suggested, itis recommended thatZOU should have a department to service withdisabilities in an CDLcontext. The department would ensure theprovision of adequatelearner support in termsof material and otherpedagogical concerns.


Conclusion

Issues of access andequity are fundamentalto ODL in its service ofstudents with disability.As indicated by Sherry(1996), instructionaldesigners and curriculum developers seemto give precedence totechnological advancement in instructionalmaterials developmentat the expense of focusing on the underlyingissues of learner char-

acteristics and needs.The effect of accommodating learner characteristics and needsin instructional materials production impactspositively situated cognition within the constructivist paradigm inwhich the learner interacts with materials andconstructs new knowledge thereof. The newdepartment of learnersupport for people withdisadvantages could

be staffed with qualified staff and equippedwith relevant resourcesto assist with transcription from braille toprint and use of voicesynthesisers for useby learners with VI inorder to embrace andenhance inclusion inthe institution throughappropriate and adequate service deliverymodalities.

DEA5A-sADc ODE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 17

References

Bogdan, R.C. &Bikien, S.G. (1984)Qualitative Researchfor Education. An introduction to Theoryand Methods, Boston,Allyn and Bacon.

Burgstahler, S. (2002)Real Connections:Making DistanceLearning Accessible toEveryone. Disabilities,Opportunities, Interworking, and Technology (DO-IT)

Dysan, A. & Millard,A. (200) Schools andspecial Needs: Issuesof Innovation and Inclusion. London, PaulChapman

Engelbrecht, P. Green,L. Naicker, S. andEngelbrecht, L. (2004)Inclusive Education inSouth Africa.Pretoria.Van Schaik Publishers

Guba, E. G. & Lincoln,Y. S. (1985) FourthGeneration Evaluation.Newbury Park, Sage

Harrison, L. (2006) Accessible Web- BasedDistance Education:Principles and BestPractices. AdaptiveTechnology ResourceCentre. University of

Toronto, Toronto.Lomofsky, L. Roberts, R. & Mvambi, N.(2004) The inclusiveClassroom in Engelbrecht, Green, Naickerand Engelbrecht) Inclusive Education inSouth Africa. Pretoria,Van Schaik Publishers

Mason, H., McCall, S.,Arte, C., McLindell,M. & Stone , J. (1997)Visual Impairment:Access to Educationfor Children and YoungPeople. London, David Fulton Publishers

Sherry, L. (1996)Issues in DistanceLearning. InternationalJournal of EducationalTelecommunications, 1(40, 337-365.

Swartz, L. M. (2004)Advanced AccessibilityFeatures for InclusiveDistance Education.International Review ofResearch in Open andDistance Learning.ISSN: 1492-383 1.

Sookrajh, R., Gopal,N. & Maharaj, B.(2005) Interogatinginclusionary and exclusionary practices:Learners of war andflight. Perspectives inEducation,23 (1) 1-14

Tait, A. (2003) Reflections on StudentsSupport in Open andDistance Learning.International Review ofResearch in Open andDistance Learning.ISSN:1 492-3831

Taylor, S.J. & Bogdan,R. (1984) Introductionto Qualitative Research Methods. TheSearch for Meanings.New York, Wiley.

UNESCO (2002) Openand distance learning: trends, policy andstrategy Considerations.

Webster, A. & Roe, J.(1998) Children withVisual Impairments.Social interaction, Language and learning.London, Routledge.

Zimbabwe OpenUniversity (2002)Handbook on Admission, Registration andAssessment. Harare,Zimbabwe Open University.


LEARNING SUPPORT IN A SEVERELYUNDERDEVELOPED CONTEXT AS EXPERIENCEDBY DISTANCE LEARNERSGodson GatshaBotswana Cofege of Open and Distance Learning

Abstract

The study was undertaken to find out howdistance learners whopursued school equivalent courses in a severely underdevelopedcontext and were examination candidatesin 2005, experiencedthe learning supportservices provided byBotswana College ofOpen and DistanceLearning (BOCODOL)Kang Regional Office.Data was collected using direct administration of a questionnaireto 109 participants andthrough semi-structured interviews withfive participants. Narratives with personalvoice and individualthick quotes wereused for analysis. Thefindings of the studyindicated that effective learning supportwas rendered by theregional office in allthe seven-communitystudy centres. However remote learnersexperienced delayedassignment feedback.Learning support strategies for remote learners should be strength-

ened and part-timetutors should be motivated to be more enterprising in their delivery of learning supportin community studycentres in order to enhance throughput.

Introduction

Learning support isconsidered importantin enhancing throughput in open and distance learning, and yet,it seems to be complexand least understoodin many open and distance learning practices. For instance mostOpen and DistanceLearning institutions inSouthern African havein place learning support facilities but thesediffer from institution toinstitution probably because of how learningsupport is conceptualised. In this article, literature on conceptionsof learning supportand experiences ofdistance learners hasbeen reviewed in order to have an in-depthunderstanding of howdistance learners in aseverely underdeveloped context perceive

and experience learning support providedby one Southern African distance learningprovider, the BotswanaCollege of Open andDistance Learning(BOCODOL).

The study aimed at understanding how distance learners pursuing school equivalentcourses in a severelyunderdeveloped context experienced learning support providedby BOCODOL throughthe Kang Regional Office. It was guided bythe question: How havedistance learners froma severely underdeveloped context studying school equivalentcourses experiencedlearning support? Thefocus of the study wason distance learners’conceptualization oflearning support andthree key areas oflearning support theregion delivers to itslearners namely, studymaterials, face-to-facetutorials and assignment feedback. Thestudy also focused onreasons for dropping


out since it was assumed at the begin-fling of the study thatlearners might be dropping out as result of theinadequate learningsupport that the regionprovided.

Kang region is generally underdevelopedand economically disadvantaged. Servicessuch as electricity,roads, telecommunication systems, radioand television servicesare not yet developedand the settlements orvillages have no public libraries, no publictransport and postalservices are far away,slow or unavailable insome settlements. Thelearners pursued theirstudies in a contextwhere unemploymentis very high, rainfall islow and unreliable, andso are undergroundwater sources and thishas affected their farming activities. Traditionally inhabitants of thisregion are nomadicand these tendenciesare still there in someof them. They relied onhunting as their maineconomy but new wildlife management lawsdo not allow for this.Hence the participantsstudied in a severelyunderdeveloped andeconomically disadvantaged context.

Review ofliterature

The literature on learning support has a fewsuccess stories and isfull of discoursesthat tell stories of isolation, alienation, frustration, delayed feedbackand fear of technology(LaPadula, 2003; Dzakiria, 2005). The roleof culture in learningalso appears in theliterature as a challenge (Venter, 2003).Despite these challenges, the literaturethat defines and explains the role of learning support is available(Dzakiria, 2005; Tait,1995; Gibson, 1998;Tait, 2000; McLoughlin, 2002; Moore, 2003;Yorke, 2004; Scheerand Lockee, 2003;Thorpe, 2002; Chute etal, 1999).

One success story onlearning support is theonline survey researchcarried out by LaPaduIa. The study involvedsixty-three women andtwenty-nine men andwas meant to determine how satisfied thestudents were with theonline student servicesand also to find outwhat types of servicesthey wanted in the future. The results werethat a majority of theonline students weresatisfied with the on-

line student servicesthey were received(LaPadula, 2003). Another study by Wheeler(2002) carried out witha sample of thirty respondents exploredthe nature of psychological distance in distance learning. It identified some importantstudents issues thatrevealed that distancelearners who studiedwith the aim of merelyreproducing knowledge through surfaceapproaches requireda greater need for direction, whereas thosewho practice a deepermeaning centred approach required lessdirection support fromtheir tutors. The resultsalso showed that remote students expected a great deal moresocial an practical support from their instructors than their localpeers probably due tothe psychological distance they perceived,however they expectedless in terms of academic support whichindicated that they perceived less need dueto their independentlearner status.

Research findings byVenter (2003) shedlight on the role of culture and coping withisolation in Europeand Asia. Venter stud-

20 DEA5A-SADC CDE international Journal of Open and Distance Learning

ies appear to indicatethat the extent to whichlearning is student-centred or teacher-centredis subject to culturalvariation. He arguesthat particular culturesexhibit learning preferences more suited todistance learning thanother cultures. In theAsia Pacific samplehis findings were that,structure, timetablingand reassurance forindividuals to assesstheir own progressseemed to be significant whilst in the European sample, theemphasis appearedto be on knowing thatthey are cared for, thatpeople are there tosupport their particularneeds and knowingthat others are in thesame boat and can becontacted for informalsupport. Both groupsof learners wanted academic guidance, feedback and reassurancethat they were on theright track. Few woulddispute that this is acrucial part of any successful learning experience. It would be beneficial for educators totake into considerationthe cultural values andpast experience of thelearners in the designand implementation oflearning support (Venter 2003).

The Malaysian experience in open anddistance learning byDzakiria (2005) is oneempirical study thatreflects a discourseof isolation, frustration and alienation asdemonstrated by thestudents’ voices. Thestudy focused on therole of learning supportin distance learningat the Universiti UtaraMalaysia. The strengthof this study lies in itsqualitative approachthat effectively usedthe interview as a primary instrument supplemented by students’journals and photographs. The Malaysiancontext was made upof a complex mix ofcultures, languagesand rural factors andas such has similaritieswith the context of thisstudy. The findings ofthat study suggest thatthe infrequent face-to-face meetings betweendistance teachers anddistance learners, andlearners’ dependency on their teachers,caused frustrations andsometimes impededthe learning process.Some distance learners were found to beunable to cope withdistance learning expectations and foundnew ways of learningand the sets of expectations that go with it

too great and in suchcircumstances, somedistance learners expected distance teachers to play an importantrole in helping themcome to terms withthe new ways of learning. The voices in thestudy are desperate forattention and need ahuman face to provideimmediate response totheir problems and toguide their learning.

The main challengefor Open and DistanceLearning providers isto ensure that a robustlearner support systemexists to help themmake a paradigm shiftfrom traditional learning to distance learningso as to avoid learners expecting teacher-centred delivery modein distance education.Another striking finding revealed in Dzakiria (2005) is how acultural orientationmay inhibit learning.Malaysian learners arereported to be more reserved and sometimespassive participantsin classroom discussions and as such theysometimes felt at a losswhen clear instructionswere not given for workor assignments andexperiments, hencewere tempted to blametheir distance teachersfor a lack of knowledge

DEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 21

or commitment as revealed in some of thestudents’ discourse.The findings and conclusions by Dzakiria(2005) lead one to askquestions: Is there aconvergence of expectations and interpretation of learning support between distancelearners and distanceeducators? How canlearning support strivetowards a better distance learning experience? These questionsare closely related tohow learning support isconceptualised.

Sherry (1996) madea review of aspects oflearning support andobserved that the distance education system involved a high degree of interactivity between teacher and student, even in rural andisolated communitiesseparated by perhapsthousands of miles.On the other handvarious authors (Tait,1995; Gibson, 1998;Tait, 2000; McLoughlin, 2002; Moore, 2003)advance a commonexplanation of learning support that it is, asupport system aimedat enhancing and improving learning andcovers a wide rangeof skills that transpirefrom the initial enrolment, the teaching and

learning programme ofthe course and continues until the results arepublished. While noexhaustive, universalmodel exists for whichstudent support services should be availableto distance learners,several authors (e.g.,Yorke, 2004; Scheerand Lockee, 2003;Moore, 2003; Thorpe,2002; McLoughlin,2002; Tait, 1995; Chuteet. al, 1999) concur onthe most importantcomponents of learnersupport services thatcan be offered to distance learners. Theseinclude, for example,orientation of studentsto distance learning,course registration, language support, accessto library resources,academic advising, tutoring individually andin groups, feedback onassessment and progress, counseling andcareers guidance.

Given the above common explanation andcomponents of learning support, this studychose to use three functions of learning support proposed by Tait(2004) as its conceptualframework. In using thethree functions to givemeaning to the findingsof this study, referenceis made to Dzakiria’s(2005) view of the role

of learning support thatof producing distancelearners who are ableto progress throughtheir programmes oflearning successfullyand are able to be independent learnerswho have good learning skills and strategiesand are able to interacteffectively with tutors,learning materials andother distance learnersat any time. The threefunctions of learningsupport Tait proposedfocus on the cognitive,affective and systemicaspects of learning. Inthis case, cognitive refers to supporting anddeveloping learningthrough the mediationof the standard and uniform elements of coursematerials and learningresources for individuallearners, whilst affective refers to providingan environment thatsupports learners, creates commitment, andenhances self-esteem.Systemic on the otherhand refers to establishing administrativeprocesses and information management systems that are effective,transparent and overallfriendly (Tait, 2004).

Research design andmethodology

There are different research orientations that


focus on how knowledge is developed. Thetwo common forms ofeducational researchorientations are thepositivist paradigm andthe interpretivist paradigm. The positivistresearch emphasizesobjectivity and the interpretivist research focuses on subjectivity ormultiple realities.

Given my researchquestion that was concerned with the participants’ experiencesof learning support,this study could not besituated in the positivist paradigm but withinthe interpretive paradigm. The interpretiveresearch is concernedwith in-depth understanding as experienced by research participants in their naturalsetting.

A case study methodology has been adoptedin this study. I chose acase study because ofmy interest in obtaining an in-depth understanding of learningsupport as experiencedby distance learnersin a severely underdeveloped context in

order to inform practice. A case study isan accepted researchstrategy particularlyas I was motivated bywanting to give a voice

to my research participants. It is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporaryphenomenon within areal life context usingmultiple sources.

Data was collectedthrough a qualitativesurvey tool (questionnaire) and a semi-structured interview. Due totime constraints onlyfive participants wereselected purposivelyfor interviews. Theseparticipants were selected on the basis oftheir location in orderto strike a balance asthe contexts of the region vary with one being semi-arid and theother being a desert.They were also selected on the fact that theyhad been active learners for more than twoyears in distance learning. Two came from remote settlements in thedesert where a satellitelearning centre hasbeen operating for fiveyears and three camefrom a village in a semiarid area where a community study centrehas been operating formore than six years.

Both the questionnaireand the semi-structured interview toolssolicited participants torespond to items thatrequired their concep

tualization of learningsupport, experience inusing the study material, face to face tutorials, assignment feedback, regional officesupport and why somelearners were still dropping out despite theprovision of learningsupport. For each ofthe above, participantswere asked to sharetheir experiences, perceptions and to suggest improvements.

The questionnaire wasadministered in October/November 2005to all the 109 studentswho were examination candidates inthe school equivalentcourses in Kang Region of BOCODOL.The limitations ofthis study includethe use of only twotools of which onewas administered toonly five participants.However, the detailedresponses given byparticipants do offer anin-depth understandingof their learning experiences in their context,hence the study doesnot seek any generalizations but comparability to similar contextsmay be made.

All the 109 participants, 71 females and38 males, volunteeredfreely to complete the


questionnaires. Thehad all been enrolledfor the school equivalent courses for atleast a year and hadjust completed writing their English finalexamination. Theirages ranged from 17to 40 years. Seventy-six of the participantshad a distance learning experience of oneyear with BOCODOLand 33 had threeyears experience ofdistance learning withBOCODOL. Twenty-eight of the participantswere Junior Certificate(JC) candidates whilst81 were BotswanaGeneral Certificate ofSecondary Education(BGCSE) candidates.

Findings

The findings of thestudy indicated thatwhat was perceivedand experienced byboth JC and BGCSEdistance learners onthe learning supportprovided by the regional office were similar.There were equally nodifferences in terms ofexperiences betweenmales and females butresponses differed onthe basis of locationand distance from thecommunity study centres. The findings arepresented below according to the themesthat guided this study.

Conceptualization oflearning support

Participants’ description of learning support included encouragement that learnersget from their tutorsor distance educationadvisors and information needed in order tosucceed. They indicated that they receivedlearning support inthe form of motivation,tutorials, solutions tosocial problems, meetings and encouragement. For example onesaid,

“Learning supportmeans being giventhe much neededinformation tosucceed inlearning. I am happywith the supportbecause normallyafter our meeting Iget motivated andalso happy which isgood for a learneras someone cannotexcel in their studiesif not happy andmotivated.”

Study materials

Study materials wereconsidered by mostparticipants (99%) tobe user friendly. Theydescribed the materialsas: good, okay, easy,simple, understandable, fine, very good,reliable, impressing,and perfect. However

participants indicatedthat they needed moreassignments for eachunit and suggestedthat at least two assignments rather thanone should be includedfor learners to do. Theyalso observed thatthere were a numberof errors in some studymaterials and pointedout that correctionsshould be made onstudy materials witherrors speedily andthe corrected versiongiven to learners wellon time before final examination commences.BGCSE Maths unit 3was given as an example of study materialwith errors.

Face-to-face tutorials

Participants describedthe tutorials as; active,good, okay, well conducted, very informative, excellent, and veryhelpful. Some of thenotable quotes are thefollowing:

“Tutorials are goodbecause tutorsencourage us andthey even give usextra work”

“They weregenerally good eventhough the tutorssometimes absentedthemselves from thelessons”

“The tutorials are

24 DEAsA.sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

very helpful indeed,what matters istime. I think onehour 30 minutesper lesson is fairenough”

“Tutors are activeand conducttutorials in a goodway”

However, there wereother participantswhose experienceswere not as good andmade the following responses:

“Some of them(tutors) are too lazyand do not turn upfor lessons everytime”

“No good, tutorsare not responsibleenough, othersteach low gradestuff for JuniorSchool”

The above commentswere from participants who came fromthe same communitystudy center and couldbe specific to thatcentre. Other aspectsnoted by participantswere that during tutorials, tutors askedquestions, taught difficult topics, spenttime helping learnersin some difficult areas.However they also indicated that, time fortutorials was rathershort, some tutors

spent tutorial time discussing and markingassignments, in someinstances if there areno questions theywere asked to readBOCODOL materials,some tutors came 15minutes late for tutorials, some learnerscame for tutorials justto play because theycome unprepared,some learners laughedat others and said annoying words/remarksduring tutorials. Someof the quotes by participants were:

“Some come lateespecially English”

“Only my HSB tutorhas a very poordelivery and did notturn up for somelessons.”

Assignmentfeedback

The majority of participants (90%) claimedto have submittedalmost all the assignments in the coursesthey were enrolledin. They were happyabout the marked assignments particularlytutor comments andthe turn around timeparticularly those fromthe Community StudyCentres (CSCs). Thefollowing commentsby two respondentssum up most participants experiences;

“My tutor writes allthe comments soI learn from it. Thecomments are finebecause she writeswhat I should do orshould not do, shegives me advice”.

“Finished all theassignments ontime i.e. beforecoming to sit forexamination. Mytutors were fair andcommented onwhere to improve.”

However there were avery few remarks ondelayed assignmentfeedback in CSCs.Delayed assignmentfeedback was registered by respondentsmainly from satellitelearning centres thatare in remote settle-ments.

Regional Officesupport

The responses indicated that a majority(99%) of participantswere satisfied with thesupport they got fromthe Regional Office.They had this to say;

“The way everythingis handled and howit motivated meespecially on tryingto gain my goal.”

“Truly, theyencourage us andgive us workshops


that help us andthey continuouslycheck centres.”

“I am satisfiedbecause theyprovide studymaterials that aregood and there aretutors for help. Theyprovide enoughmaterials for one tostudy on her own.”

“Information isprovided andthey gave respectand cooperation,satisfied because ofthe confident staffthat encourages.”

However a few responses from participants without studycentres indicated thatthey were not satisfiedwith the Regional Office support becausethey were never visted. This is what oneparticipant said, “Theynever visit, they don’tknow where we study.They should visit learners to see problem fornot handing assignment.” Another issuethat emerged in mostresponses was that theRegional Office shouldprovide food during examinations as learnerscome from far awayand stay for more thanten days or so at theexamination centre.

26

Learners droppingout of the courses

The responses fromthe participants indicated varied reasonsfor dropping out of thecourses. The followingwere the reasons fordropping out pointedout by participants;

“Because of lack ofteacher’“They are notserious or interestedin their studies”.“Because they arenot forced and theyare aIone’‘They are poorat learning andothers have socialproblems”‘They say they wantto be taught justlike at a secondaryschool”“Lack of funds to paytheir examinationfee”“Lack of commitmentto their work”.“Boredom, theyengage in othersocial activities”.“They are lazy,they should be toldthat this school islearner-centredand not teacher-centred.”

In order to minimizelearners dropping out,participants suggestedthat the Regional Office staff should beproactive in identifyingrisky learners and mo

tivating them. This iswhat some participantssaid:

“Motivate them, talkto them, and givethem support theylack’“Teach themhow to have self-motivation”.“Give them foodwhen writingexaminations’“Provide hostels atthe study centres’“Advise them onthe importance ofeducation because itis their future’“Call them forworkshops wherethey can beencouraged’

Discussion

The conceptualizationof learning support indistance educationas expressed by participants is within theframework proposedby Taft, (2004). Participants’s experienceand view of learningsupport is that it aimsat enhancingproving theirin order toand this is inwhat most

and rnlearningsucceedline withauthors

have said about therole of learning supportin distance education(Dzakiria, 2005; Tait,1995; Gibson, 1998;Tait, 2000; McLoughin, 2002; Moore, 2003;

Yorke, 2004; ScheerDEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

and Lockee,Thorpe, 2002).

The issue of errors inthe study materialsas identified by participants is a causeof concern. Distanceeducation materialcan be very frustratingif it has errors. Failure to correct errorstimeously or to allowlearners to proceed towrite the final examswithout errors havingbeen corrected mightbe very damaging tothe distance educationprovider besides beingunfair to learners.

The experiencesshared by participantswho attended theweekly face-to-face tutorials conducted at theseven strategic Community Study Centresand that shared byremote learners whoattend face-to-faceweekend tutorials occasionally, demonstrates best practiceand is in line with universal learner supportservices that exist(Yorke, 2004, Scheerand Lockee, 2003,Moore, 2003, Thorpe,2002, McLoughlin,2002). The need formore face-to-face tutorials expressed byremote learners istypical and resemblesthat of other remote

than non-remote learners, because of thepsychological distancethey experienced. Participants’ experiencesof the tutorial sessionsdemonstrate that thetutorials are the mostsought after support.Participants recognized commendableefforts by the majorityof tutors. Positive tutorial delivery enhanceslearner confidence,retention, persistenceand high completionrates. The few bad apples of tutors identifiedby participants need tobe talked to, re-skilledand if no changes occurtheir services shouldbe terminated as theircontinued presencecould contribute to attrition and dropping outof learners.

The responses on assignment submissionindicate claims by mostparticipants that theyhad submitted their assignments but the individual progress chartsfor 2005 candidates indicate otherwise. Therecould be a possibilitythat some assignmentscores were not captured or the manual retrieval process was not

user friendly as suchsome scores were notretrieved. Another possibility could be thatsome learners couldhave claimed to havesubmitted when theyhad not. Nevertheless, more vigilance inretrieving scores is expected of any distanceeducation provider ifguidance and counseling are to be doneeffectively. Howeverit would appear thatmost learners werehappy with the assignment feedback. Thecomments provided bytheir tutors were encouraging, gave guidance and reassurancethat they were on theright track. This experience was similar to oneexperienced by learners in Venter’s (2003)studies of coping withisolation in distancelearning in Europe andAsia.

Regional Office remotelearner support services appear to be inadequate as indicatedby responses from theparticipants. It wouldseem that not all remote learners werereached physically orconstantly contactedthrough tutorial letters.The need for maintaining a high degree ofinteractivity betweenthe distance education

2003; learners as in Wheeler(2002) studies, whereremote learners expected a great dealmore from their tutors


provider and the remote learner has beenemphasized by Sherry,(1996). However theattempts of reachinglearners through weekend tutorials in ruraland isolated communities are commendable.

The issue of dropping out calls for theRegional Office toidentify vulnerable individuals as early asat time of enrolmentand through guidanceand counseling establish rapport that willenable each learner toseek help whenevernecessary. Any learner who drops out of acourse or programmehas cost implication.The dropping out issue also challengesthe Regional Office’spre-enrolment counselling effectiveness,hence a reflectionduring operationalplanning for the nextacademic periodneeds to be done andstrategies for effectivepre-enrolment counselling adopted to avoida situation like thatexperienced by Malaysian learners whosevoices were desperatefor attention, for thehuman face to provideguidance for their learning (Dzakiria, 2005).

Given the participants’sentiments on their experiences;

• The readability andcontent quality ofB000DOL studymaterial should bemaintained andenhanced wherenecessary by ensuring that errorsare eliminated.

• The Regional Office should constantly supporttutors by visits,letters and meetings focusing onlearning supportissues.

• Learning supportstrategies for remote learners insatellite centresand informal studycentres should bestrengthened bythe regional office.

• Part-time tutorsshould be motivated by regionalstaff so that theyare more enterprising in their deliveryof learning supportin community studycentres,

• Increased involvement of politicalstakeholders toengage relevantauthorities to establish the neces

sary infrastructurethat can promoteeffective distanceeducation in thearea

Further researchinto the experiences of dropoutsand their reasonsfor dropping outshould be carriedout.

Conclusions

Learner Support Services at BOCODOLKang Region satisfymost learners. The majority of learners haveaccess to face-to-facetutorials and tutors.Assignment feedbackas part of learning support is a critical toolin distance educationand learners gain alot from positive comments made by the tutors. Turn around timeof assignments is being adhered to at BOCODOL Kang region’sCommunity Study Centres, however in satellite centres delayedfeedback has beenexperienced by learners. However, generalsupport of learners iscommendable. Workshops and visits byregional staff seem tosustain the confidenceof learners.


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LECTURING VERSUS COLLABORATIVE LEARNINGMETHODS: An Analysis of Learning PreferencesAmong Mid-Level Management Students atthe University of NamibiaDr Trudie Frindt & Dr Louise Mostert — University of Namibia

Abstract

The concept of collaborative learning (CL),the grouping and pairing of students for thepurpose of achievingan academic goal hasbecome a well-established educationalmethod and researchers such as Johnson& Johnson (1990) andAstin (1993) stronglyfavour it as one of themost effective methods to be employed byeducators. Proponentsof collaborative learning claim that the active exchange of ideaswithin small groupsnot only elicits participation from possibleshy students but alsoenhances a deeperunderstanding as opposed to memorisingof transmitted knowledge. There has beenan assumption that,due to rote learningand authorative teaching style in schools,students in Namibiahave a tendency towards surface learningin schools and highereducation. To examine this assumption, anadapted questionnaire

on the Approaches toStudy Skills Inventoryfor Students was usedto examine the motivational and deep learning impact of a lecturing teaching methodversus collaborativelearner activities in acertificate programmeat the University of Namibia (UNAM). Therewere limitations inthe procedures of thestudy and difficulties ininterpreting the results.However, the resultssuggest that the students showed strongbeliefs and preferencefor deep learning approaches in additionto surface learning approaches. It was concluded that learningoutcomes for UNAMmid-level managementstudents could be enhanced by employing deep learning approaches to teachingand learning.

Key words

Collaborative learning,rote learning, surfacelearning approach,deep learning approach, interactivity.

Background

This study had its origin in 2005, when theUniversity of Namibiatook in students for acertificate course inmid-level managementwho did not have thenecessary admissionrequirements to enterinto higher education.A group of students,most of whom weresupervisors, were enrolled for a six-monthcertificate course inmid-level management.Students attended a35-hours week-block offace-to-face instructionper module. This studyfocused on the teaching methods employedduring the first andsecond module of thecertificate programme.The lecturer of the firstmodule applied collaborative learning methods, while the secondmodule was mainlypresented via the lecturing method supported by power pointpresentations.

During the first intakethe researchers noticed that the perception was that students’


behaviour changedwhen taught by different lecturers. For example, students werevery excited and enthusiastic when they weretaught by lecturer A,who preferred to teachthem through collaborative learning methodsin comparison with lecturer B, who preferreda teacher centredapproach. However,when the researcherscompared the test results of the two modules, it was clear thatthe students performedbetter in lecturer B’sclasses, which seemedparadoxical since theresearchers expectedthat students wouldperform better underconditions where theyhad enjoyed the classes and participatedmore actively.

The present study wasprompted by assumptions that mid-levelmanagement certificate students’ priorexperiences in education predispose themtowards surface learning approaches, whichmight result in UNAMcertificate studentshaving preferences forteaching that are consistent with a surfacelearning approach.This assumption wasexamined in this study.A questionnaire was

used to elicit responsesfrom students. In addition to this, test resultswere used to comparethe result of the firsttwo modules of the certificate course. It wasexpected that studentsprefer a teaching stylethat is consistent with asurface approach. Theresearch was based ona conviction that teaching and learning shouldbegin with the individual student, including anunderstanding of theirbeliefs and preferences about teaching andlearning. It also drewon the notion that students’ understandingof how they perceivelearning would havea significant influenceon their approaches tolearning.

In order to provide abackground to the particular research questions and the methodology used, the first section of the conceptualframework contains abrief review of researchand theory about surface and deep learningapproaches.

Conceptualframework

Surface and deepapproaches tolearning

Research into studentlearning has roots in

several areas of psychology, includingcognitive psychology,behaviourism, and humanism. Traditionalbehavioural learningtheories are teachercentred and focus oneliciting a desired response from the student. These theoriesalso stress the needto specify goals andset behavioural learning outcomes (Biggs,1996; Tennant, 1997;Biggs, 1999; Rams-den, 1987; Ramsden,1992; Entwistle, 1998;Gordon & Debus,2002). Research suggests that learning outcomes for students arelinked to a specific typeof learning approach(Marion & Säljö,1997; Biggs, 1999). Aprominent example ofthese uses a distinction between surfaceand deep learning approaches. The origin ofthis distinction can befound in the early workof Marion and Säljäin Sweden (Marion& Sâljö, 1976; Säljö,1979). They gave students a text to read,and told them theywould be asked questions afterwards. Students responded in twodifferent ways. The firstgroup learned in anticipation of the questions, concentrating onthe facts and details


that might be asked.They ‘skated along thesurface of the text’, asMarion and Säljö putit, using a surface approach to learning. Thesecond group, on theother hand, set out tounderstand the meaning of what the authorwas trying to say. Theywent below the surfaceof the text to interpretthat meaning, using adeep approach. Theysaw the big picture andhow the facts and details made the author’scase (Biggs 1999:12).

The conceptual model distinguishing thesurface versus deeplearning approacheshas been developedand clarified in recent years (Ramsden,1992; Entwisstle, 1997;Biggs, 1999; McLean,2001; Gordon & Debus, 2002; Warburton, 2003). From thisliterature, a surfaceapproach arises froman intention to get thetask out of the way withminimum trouble, whileappearing to meet requirements. Low cognitive level activitiesare used, when higher—level activities arerequired to do the taskproperly. As appliedto academic learning, examples includerote learning selectedcontent instead of un

derstanding it, listingpoints instead of addressing an argument,quoting secondaryreferences as if theywere primary ones.These elements arereasonably consistentwith what has beendescribed as the traditional view of effectivelearning, namely thatit involves “the passivetransfer of objectiveknowledge from teacher to student with theteacher firmly in controlof the students’ learning and assessmenttesting the student’sretention of knowledge” (Boyle, Duffy &Dunleavy, 2003:268).Gibbs (1994) statesthat to encourage asurface approach tolearning, all we need todo is provide:

• a heavy workload;

• high class contacthours;

• excessive amountsof course material;

• lack of opportunityfor in-depth study;

• lack of choice oversubject and studymethods;

• a threatening andanxiety-provokingassessment system.

Collaborative learning, on the other handfosters a higher levelof performance by

students (Bligh, 1972;Johnson & Johnson,1990). Students’ critical thinking skills increase and their retention of information andinterest in the subjectmatter improves (Kulik& Kulik, 1979). Whenstudents work in pairsone is listening whilethe other is discussing the question under investigation. Bothare developing valuable problem solvingskills by formulatingtheir ideas, discussingthem, receiving immediate feedback andresponding to questions and comments bytheir partner, which willresult in a deeper approach to learning.

The deep approacharises from a felt needto engage the task appropriately and meaningfully, so that thestudent tries to use themost appropriate cognitive activities for handling it. Biggs (1 999:16)is of the opinion thatwhen students feelthis “need-to-know,they try to focus on underlying meaning: onmain ideas, themes,principles or successful applications”. Thisrequires a sound foundation of relevant priorknowledge so studentswho wish to know morewill naturally try to learn

32 DEASA-SADC CDE international Journal of Open and Distance Learning

the details, as well asmaking sure they understand what theyhave learnt. The deepapproach is basedon the use of analyticskills such as cross-referencing, imaginative reconstruction andindependent thinking(Warburton, 2003).When using the deepapproach in handlingtasks students developpositive feelings andlearning therefore becomes a pleasure. Thisdescription suggeststhat to achieve deeplearning the student isactive in the process,that the learning islargely self-regulatedand that it is consistentwith constructivist principles (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). Only whenstudents formulate theirown constructs and solutions are they trulythinking critically. Collaborative techniquescreate a constructivistapproach when students become activelyinvolved in definingquestions in their ownlanguage and workingout answers togetherinstead of reproducingmaterial presented bythe teacher or the textbook.

One reason there hasbeen attention to thesurface versus deeplearning distinction

is that theory and research suggests thatlearning outcomes forstudents are linked tohigher quality learning outcomes, suchas better conceptualknowledge, development of problem-solving skills, and greatermastery of content.Biggs (1994) statesthat to encourage deeplearning, studentsneed to recognise theneed to know and thatteaching requires active involvement of thestudent in the learningprocess. Most studentsin Higher Education arehowever rarely askedto focus on the process of learning (Gibbs1994). Students focuson the outcomes oftheir learning, which isreinforced by the predominance of end ofmodule assessment,and the increasing importance of transparency in quality, standards, and reporting ofoutcome measures inHigher Education.

Students’experienceof teachingconducive tosurface learning.

Since learning takesplace through existingknowledge and experiences, students’ priorlearning experiencesare presumed to be

important factors in thebeliefs and expectations they bring to theclass (Ramsden, 1992;Biggs, 1999; Entwistle,McCune & Hounsell,2002;). Therefore, it isimportant to considerthe prior experiencesof UNAM mid-levelmanagement students.The Namibian Government has categoricallystated that the countryshould move towards aknowledge-based society and has thus alsoexpressed the need forthe Educational System to put measuresin place to ensure thedevelopment of criticalthinking, problem-solving and life-long learning (Government of theRepublic of Namibia:Office of the President,2004). This clearlyreflects the need fordeep learning. However, recent analyseshave characterised Namibia’s education andtraining system as avery weak tool for supporting the realisationof these goals (Ministryof Education, 2006).Commentators of theNamibian educationprocesses have alsonoted that throughoutthe school system thereis an emphasis on rotelearning, memorising,and examinations thatrequire the retention ofanswers to fixed ques


tions. (Harlech-Jones,2007; Clegg, 2007).This captures someof the main prior educational experience ofstudents who attendUNAM. These types ofeducation processeshave been identifiedas those most likely tocontribute to surfacelearning approaches(Ramsden, 1992). Another factor that reflectson the UNAM mid-levelmanagement students’possible orientationto surface learningis Ramsden’s (1997)argument that if previous knowledge is limited, then students aremore likely to adopt asurface approach. Thiscomment could applyto the UNAM mid-levelmanagement studentsbecause the instruction is in their secondlanguage. They findit difficult to verbalisetheir understandingof the prescribed textand therefore they resort to memorising thework. Furthermore,if students have hadprevious success witha surface approach,and this appears to bethe case for this groupof students (becausethey were successfulin a school system thatemphasised the surface approach), theyare more likely to follow it.

Finally, deep and surface approaches tolearning describe theway students relateto a teaching/learningenvironment. They arenot fixed characteristics of students. Somepeople speak of students’ approaches tolearning as if they werelearning styles that apply whatever the task orthe teaching (Schmeck1988). At the otherextreme, Marton andSãljö (1976) speak ofapproaches as entirelydetermined by context,as if students walk intoa learning situationwithout any preferencefor their way of goingabout learning. Students have preferencesfor certain approaches,but their preferencesare often not met.

Purpose of thestudy

The present researchhad two main goals.The first was to examine the students’ perception about learning,and the second was toexamine the students’teaching preferences.Both of these goalswere pursued usingsubscales from the Approaches and StudySkills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) questionnaire (Entwistle,1997; Tait & Entwistle,1996). The subscales

of the ASSIST questionnaire have separate items pertainingto a surface learningapproach and a deeplearning approach. Forthe purposes of thisstudy, a triangulation ofquantitative and qualitative methods wasemployed. Results ofthe design are outlinedas indicated below:

Data collection:

• Participant as observer:

• The role we adopted in this studywas that of participant-as-observer,since the Department of ContinuingEducation wasresponsible for theco-ordination ofthe course. Thissituation providedseveral advantages in terms ofthe researchers’understanding andinterpretation of theresearch results.

• Personal interviews with thelecturers who wereresponsible for thefirst two modules ofthe course.

• Questionnaireswere given to students at the end ofthe second module. The purpose ofthe questionnairewas to examine


the students’ perception of learningand the students’teaching preferences.

Data Processing:

The research designfollowed a qualitativeapproach where descriptive statistics wereapplied

The sample

The sample considered in this study consisted of 20 studentswho enrolled for thecertificate in Mid-levelmanagement at theUniversity of Namibia.The group was dividedequally among menand women, with anage distribution of 20years of age for theyoungest and the oldest person at 45 yearsof age. The languageof instruction was English and this was a second language for allstudents.

The instrument

The study was doneby means of personalinterviews with the twolecturers responsibleforthefirsttwo modulesof the course as well asthrough questionnairesthat were administeredat the end of the second module. The questionnaire consisted of

5 sections. Section Aset out to establish theprofile of the studentsand biographic detailsincluding age and gender. Section B lookedat students’ academicprofile including highest admission pointsand highest gradesobtained in English foradmittance to the certificate course. SectionC asked students toindicate their job profile. A four—point scalefrom “very close to mybeliefs” to “very different to my beliefs” wasused for section D onBeliefs about how students perceived learning. For section E, onTeaching Preferencesa four-point scale from“I definitely like” to “Idefinitely dislike” wasused. The originalscale included a midpoint rating when thestudent was “unsure”.In order to encouragethe present students toindicate a preference,the category of unsurewas not used.

As mentioned earlier,two subscales fromthe ASSIST questionnaire formed part of thequestionnaire to examine UNAM’s mid-levelmanagement students’beliefs and preferences. The first subscalewas section E “What islearning?” and the sec

ond subscale was section D “Preferences fordifferent types of teaching”. The items in thesetwo subscales werediscussed with severalacademic staff members with extensiveexperience of UNAMstudents in order to assess the meaning andrelevance of the items.As a result of the discussions a numberof changes and additions were made to thequestionnaire. An itemwas added to section Ethat read, “being ableto explain informationto someone else in ameaningful way”. Sincethe focus of this studywas on collaborativeversus lecturing method, it was felt that section D “Preferences fordifferent types of teaching” should include abroader spectrum ofitems to choose from.(All items marked withan asterisk (*) wereadded to the questionnaire: see Table 1 andTable 2).

Procedure

The questionnaireswere introduced to students in class. The purpose of the questionnaires was explained interms of the researchers’ wish to learn moreabout the beliefs andpreferences of students as a step to un


derstanding studentsand improving theirearning. No mentionwas made of the questionnaires coveringsurface or deep learning. Students wereinformed that therewere no right or wronganswers and that theirresponses were notpart of any course assessment. They weretold that while theywere encouraged tocomplete the questionnaires, it was a voluntary activity. All 20 ofthe students completed the questionnaires.Students were alsogiven an explanation ofeach of the items andhow to use the ratingscales. This includeda discussion of keywords, such as assignments, readings, ideas,course material andfacts. Furthermore,both lecturers wereinformed about the research while detaileddiscussions took placeregarding their teaching styles.

The lecturer responsible for collaborative

learning informed thestudents what he expected from them andwhat their academictask and assignmentswere for the courseof the week. Next, thecollaborative learningstructure was explainedand students were toldto form five groupswith four students pergroup. An instructionsheet that pointed outthe key elements of thecollaborative processwas distributed. Aspart of the instructions,students were encouraged to discuss “why”they thought as theydid regarding solutionsto the problems. Theywere also instructed tolisten carefully to comments of each memberof the group and bewilling to reconsidertheir own judgmentsand opinions. As experience reveals, groupdecision-making caneasily be dominated bythe loudest voice or bythe student who talksthe longest. Therefore,it was insisted thatevery group membermust be given an op

portunity to contributehis or her ideas. Afterthat the group wouldarrive at a solution thatwould then be sharedwith the entire class fortheir input.

The second lecturermade use of the lecturing method by using power point presentations as well asoccasional flipchart illustrations. At the endof each day he wouldgive a summary of theimportant aspects thatwere covered duringthe lecture. He wouldalso extend an invitation to students to contact him at any timeshould they have problems with their assignments.

Data analysis

The “Beliefs aboutlearning” section inthe questionnaire contained three items consistent with a surfacelearning approach andfour items consistentwith a deep learningapproach. These twosets of items are setout in Table 1.

Table 1. Percentage responses to each item in the Beliefs about learning.(Students were asked to rate how close each of the items is to their beliefs)

Surface learning beliefs Not so Rather Very DifferentLearning means close close close to belief

1. making sure you remember 1 = 5% 6 = 30% 7 = 35% 6 = 30%things well.


2. building up knowledge by obtain- 1 = 5% 17 = 85% 2 = 10%ing facts and information.

3. being able to use the information 6 = 30% 14 = 70%you have obtained

Deep learning beliefsLearning means

4. developing as a person 1 = 50/s 2 = 1 0% 8 = 40% 9 = 45%

5. understanding new ideas and 2 = 1 0% 6 =30% 10 = 50%information for yourself

6. seeing things in a different and 2 = 10% 6 = 30% 12 = 60%more meaningful way.

7 * being able to explain informa- 1 = 5% 9 = 45% 10 = 50%tion to someone else in a meaningful way.

Section E, the “Teaching Preferences” section contained seven items indicating a preference for teaching that encourages surface learning and ten itemsindicating a preference for teaching that encourages deep learning. Thesetwo sets are given in Table 2. In the actual questionnaires completed by students, no mention was made of surface or deep learning.

Table 2: Percentage responses to each item in the Teaching Preferencessection. (Students were asked to rate how much they liked or disliked each type ofteaching)

Surface learning preferences Definitely Like to Dislike Definitelyliked some to some dislike

. extent extent

1. Lecturers who tell us exactly 8 = 40% 9 = 45% 3 = 15%what to write down in our notes.

2. * Lecturers who provide me with 17 = 85% 3 = 15%a proper guideline on how toprepare for tests or exams.

3. Courses in which it is made very 9 = 450/s 10 50% 1 = 5%clear just what I have to read andstudy.

4. Lecturers who provide me with 12 = 60% 8 = 40%examples of previous examquestions.

5. Readings, which give me definite 20 =

facts and information that can 100%easily be learned.

DEAsA-sADc ODE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 37

Surface learning preferences Definitely Like to Dislike Definitelyliked some to some dislikeextent

extent

6 * Tests and examination papers 9 = 45% 11 = 55%which do not need any analyticalskills.

7. * Lecturers who make use of 9 = 45% 9 = 45% 2 = 10%power point presentations tosupport their lecturing.

Deep learning preferences

8. * Lecturers who ask questions in 18 = 90% 2 = 10%class.

9 * Lecturers who make you think 14 = 70% 4 = 20% 1 = 5% 1 = 5%even if you do not score thehighest in their subject.

* Lecturers who make you work 18 = 90°/o 2 = 10%in small groups, and then asksomeone in the group to reportback to the whole class.

* Lecturers who encourage you 17 = 85% 2 = 1 O°/ 1 = 5%to participate in debates in theclass.

12. *Lecturers who encourage group 16 = 80% 3 = 15% 1=5%work.

13. Lecturers who encourage us to 17 = 85% 2 = 10% 1 = 5%think for ourselves and show ushow they think.

14. *Lecturers who explain to us 16 = 80% 4 = 20%why they want us to learn a specific topic or item.

15. Assignments or exams, which 2 = 10% 6 = 30% 12 = 60%allow me to show that I havethought about the course material myself.

16. Courses in which we are expect- 10 = 50% 2 = 20% 8 = 40%ed to find new reading and ideasfor ourselves.

17. Reading, which challenge me 10 = 50% 5 = 25% 4 = 20% 1 = 5%and provide explanations that gobeyond the class.

38 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal ot Open and Distance Learning

Results

The questionnaire resuits are given in termsof the percentages ofstudent’s responses toeach item. The resultsfor “Beiiefs about Learning” are given in Tabie1 and the resuits for“Teaching Preferences”are given in Tabie 2Because of the smallsample size, the resuitsare treated descriptivelyand are used to indicatepossibie trends ratherthan statistically significant findings.

From Table 1 it can beseen that the studentsgenerally supportedeach of the items asbeing consistent withlearning. This couldsuggest that they sawlearning consisting ofa number of separateelements. When focusing on the highestrating, that the itemis “very close” to theirbeliefs, it can be seenthat most support wasfor the item on learningbeing about obtainingfacts and information.This is in the surface-learning group. At thesame time, the itemthat received the lowest support for being“very close” to their beliefs, ‘making sure youremember things well”,was also in the grouppertaining to surfacelearning. It can be seen

that almost all studentsrated the three itemsabout surface learningas either “very close”or “quite close” to theirbeliefs.

From Table 2 it can beseen that the responses suggest some variation among the items inthe strength of studentpreferences. If the highest rating of “definitelylike” is the focus, it canbe seen students had aparticularly strong preference for readings thatprovided clear facts andinformation that can beeasily learned. Theyalso seemed to havea strong preference forlecturers who encourage them to think forthemselves, as well asteaching styles wherethere is a tendencytowards collaborativelearning that encourages them to find newideas for themselves.These latter two itemswere in the group supporting deep learningwhile the former one(the strongest preference) was in the groupsupporting surfacelearning.

When attention is directed in Table 2 toitems where there wasan apparently lower rating of “definitely like”, itcan be seen that only2 (10%) students defi

nitely like exams orassignments that includes analytical skills.In fact, there were 12(60%) of the studentswho rated this item asbeing disliked to somedegree. 8 (40%) of thestudents also indicatedthat they dislike courses in which they areexpected to find newideas. It is evident fromthe results that a smallnumber of studentsshowed a dislike foreach of the items foundunder deep learningapproaches.

Finally, there was nostrong overall evidencethat students preferredteaching that encouraged surface learning more than theypreferred teachingthat encourages deeplearning. The averagepercentage rating of“definitely like” for thefour items in the surface learning groupwas 67,5%, with theaverage percentagerating of “definitely like”for the ten items in thedeep learning categorygroup being 69,0%.The fact that the highest preference was forone item in the surfacecategory and lowestpreference was for anitem in the deep category is probably important here.


This set of results suggests that a large proportion of this sampleof UNAM mid-levelmanagement studentsheld beliefs and preferences that includedsupport for deep learning. When the resultswere summarised anddiscussed in class,there was strong acknowledgement frommany students of theimportance of deeplearning. The questionnaire results and subsequent class discussion provided supportfor teaching and learning strategies that promote deep learning.

Discussion andconclusion

The present researchwas undertaken withthe assumption explained above thatstudents who enrolledfor the mid-level management certificatecourse at UNAM wouldhave preconceptionsof learning that emphasised surface elements, and they wouldhave preferences forteaching strategies thatused surface learning.The pressures anddifficulties of learningin a second languagewere also expected tobe a factor orientingstudents mainly to asurface learning approach. It could there-

fore be argued thatcollaborative learning,where students are expected to converse withpeers, is a more desirable teaching methodfor these students whotypically come from different academic andsocio-economic backgrounds.

The questionnaire results for both beliefsand preferences revealed that while therewas evidence of a tendency towards surfacelearning among thestudents, the evidencewas just as soundfor an orientation todeep learning. Overall,therefore, the questionnaire results showed acomplex view of learning and a set of preferences that included astrong component ofdeep learning for most,but not all, students.The results suggestthat these students, ofwhom most are employed as supervisors,viewed learning as containing both knowledgeacquisition (surface)and as a meaningfulchange at a personallevel (deep). To drawfurther conclusionsfrom the questionnairefindings, it is helpful toconsider some of theresults in detail.

The results on Be-

liefs about learningshowed that there wasreasonable supportfor each of the sevenitems and thereforethat students’ overallbeliefs about learningincluded both surfaceand deep elements.In a well-researchedliterature review onstudent learning, Russell (2004) comparedhis research results onbeliefs about learningwith those from international literature. Russell found that much ofthe research on student views about learning used interviews,where students had toarticulate and explaintheir view of learning.Much of Russell’s research suggests thatwhen interviewed, fewstudents articulate apersonal view of learning that could be described as deep. Theresearch of Marton etal. (1 993:299) is an example. Their researchwas on Open University students in Britaindoing a course on Social Science Foundations, which requiredstudents to questionaspects of themselvesand society. Thisshould prompt higher-level conceptions oflearning; nevertheless,the researchers reported that deep learningviews were not typical


of the students. In factthey concluded, “it isan important result toshow that such a conception can actuallybe found”. The resultsof McLean (2001) onSouth African medicalstudents also showedthat deep learningviews were limited. Inthis case they occurredmainly for students whowere performing aboveaverage (Russell,2004). The studentsin the present studyappeared to comprehend and complete thequestionnaire with littledifficulty. The class discussion showed thatthe concepts of surface and deep learningwere meaningful to thestudents. This supportsarguments that thereare common elementsto conceptions of learning across cultures.

There is conflicting evidence about the useof surface and deepapproaches by tertiarystudents. Some of thisevidence suggestsgreater use of deepthan surface approaches (e.g., Zeegers,2001; Diseth & Martinsen, 2002; Gordon& Debus, 2002). However, often this greateruse is linked to particular conditions. For

example, the studentsmight have been exposed to constructivistkinds of teaching (Gordon & Debus, 2002),or be students who areolder and more mature (Zeegers, 2001).Science students aremore likely to use asurface approach thanArts students (Biggs,1987). There are otherfindings suggestingthat a deep approachdevelops over thecourse of the degree(Ramsden, 1992; Gordon & Debus, 2002).

The present data canonly be treated astentative and exploratory. This was a smallsample of students andthe validity of the questionnaire has not beenestablished for UNAMstudents. Therefore, itis difficult to have fullconfidence in interpretations of the studentresponses. Furtherresearch is needed tovalidate this and otherinstruments on studentbeliefs about learningand their teaching preferences.

The first goal of thepresent research wasto examine student beliefs about learning. Amajor implication fromthis study would be to

determine the actualapproach to learningthat students use. Thebeliefs and preferences responses ofthe present studentsshowed clear evidencefor use of the deepapproach by UNAMmid-level managementstudents. It needs to berecognized, however,that whether studentsuse this approach andobtain these kinds ofoutcomes, it is linkednot only to student’preconceptions andexpectations, it is alsovery closely linked tothe teaching and learning environment provided by the courseand the lecturer. Asnoted earlier, somekinds of teaching andlearning environmentsencourage a surfaceapproach and otherenvironments encourage a deep approach.Through participantobservation, it becameclear that the UNAMmid-level managementstudent populationappears to hold preconceptions of learning that are consistentwith a deep approach.Whether studentsactually use this approach will dependlargely on the coursematerial as well as thelecturer’s input.


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INTER-INSTITUTIONAL COLLABORATION INDISTANCE EDUCATION: IS IT WORTHWHILE?Dr. Regina K. MasalelaUniversity of Botswana

Abstract

A variety of forces suchas economic, social,technological, economical and educationalhave impelled distanceeducation universities and institutions toengage in a degree ofinterdependence thatearlier might have beenconsidered neither desirable nor possible.These have been welldocumented and variously interpreted. Thedemands from governments, students andinstitutional organization administrations toimprove access to educational opportunitiesand provide more comprehensive services tostudents have prompted distance educationinstitutions to ventureinto collaboration. Thispaper explores variousexamples of types ofinter-institutional collaboration found withinthe distance educationcontext. The paper describes the four different dimensions of collaborative activities; italso discusses the essential considerationsfor collaboration. The

benefits and complexities of inter-institutionalcollaboration are discussed and implications drawn from thediscussion.

Introduction

In this rapidly changingeducational environment, colleges and universities try to expandtheir markets, find newstudents or consumersfor their products anddevelop new productsgeared to the needsof those new consumers. Partnerships areemerging as an efficientand effective means toachieve those objectives (Chute & Gulliver,1996). However, research in the area ofcollaboration suggeststhat there is a varietyof risks associated withthese types of activities(Karis, 1989; Moran,1990; Smith, 2000).The concept of collaboration in distanceeducation brings with itimplications for changein institutions. Theseinclude revisions instructure, policy, accreditation standards,communications and

skills (Thuch & Murphy, 1994). Bringingdifferent organizationalcultures, styles anda plethora of scholars together requiresgood mechanisms forcommunication, negotiation of relationshipsand decision makingto serve the projectpurpose well (Chute &Gulliver, 1996).

In recent years largeand medium-sizedcompanies, institutionsand organizations havebeen at the forefront offorming partnerships,co-operations and collaborative ventures.Berquist & Meuel(1995) observe that:

Confronted withgrowing pressure todo more with less,responding to thequickening pace ofchange, and takingadvantage of newopportunities inforeign markets,business peoplehave lookedat their oftentired, lumberinghierarchies withfresh, criticaleyes..And they


have adopted...orinvented.., a plethoraof new partnershipbased. . . structures:cross-licensingagreements,strategic alliances,hollow partnerships,virtual partnerships,vertical integratedpartnerships, andconsortia (p. 5-6).

This partnership phenomenon encompasses a myriad of forms.However, they seem tofollow similar patternsin how they come together, define their relationships, and manage their transitions.

Definingcollaboration

The term collaborationis used in many waysand has a variety ofmeanings to differentpeople. For the purpose of this paper, theauthor adopted Neil’s(1981) definition. Neilas cited by Moran andMugridge (1 993,1) defines collaboration as“an active working partnership by some kindof institutional commitment.” The definitionis fairly broad and isindicative of cooperation in a wide range ofactivities. Collaborationis often undertakenvoluntarily, though inrecent times a numberof new collaborative

ventures have beeninitiated in response toincentives from governments. Collaborativeefforts are short-termby design, involvingspecifically identifiedtasks to be completedin a set timeframe andwithin tight budgetarylimits (Smith, 2000).Some are long-termagreements involvingthe creation of neworganizational entities,major changes in existing operational agreements, independent financial status, and theexpectations that majorgains will be achievedunder the entity’smanagement. Theselong-term agreementsinvolve mutually beneficial and well-definedrelationships, jointlydeveloped structures,commitment to mutually agreed goals andthe notion of sharedresponsibility.

It is important to notethat the types and functions of the collaboration links are contextbound. This impliesthat collaborative relationships differ foreach unique situationdepending on the context, policies and organizational structuresof each organizationinvolved, It is increasingly recognized thatin this rapidly changing

information society, nosingle institution can byitself, in isolation, caterfor the changing educational, training and professional needs of itstarget student population. Collaboration andnetworking to provideeducation is becomingimperative if distanceeducators want to cutcosts in education,enhance the outreachof the institution, andmake available a variety of courses withoutconstraints of time andspace.

Inter-institutional arrangements are various and widespreadacross all sectors of society. These joint ventures include marketingagreements, researchand developmentpartnerships and supply-chain agreementsthat are increasing inboth the private andpublic sectors, spurredon by globalization ofmarketplaces. Thishas fostered alliances,joint ventures and partnerships’ between local organizations andthose in other countries around the world.Public and communitysector collaboration isalso increasing withmajor organizationsresponsible for theprovision of education,health and community


development services(Huxham, 1996).

Inter-institutionalcollaborativeactivities

Sen (http://www.india.edu/ignouconf/papers/paeOOl .htm) summarizes four dimensions thatdefine collaborative activities. He writes that,one of the dimensionsis to outline the areasin distance educationthat can benefit fromcollaboration. Thus,inter-institutional cooperative activity mayembrace the followingareas:

• Design and development of newmaterials and programs and sharingof the existing ones

• Creation of diversified delivery mechanisms (studentservices) so as towiden access to individual learner aswell as to reach outto more learners

• Establishment ofcredit transfer arrangements andmutual recognitionof credit

• Evaluation of students’ learning

• Staff training anddevelopment

• Research

• Utilization of physical resources as

laboratory and telecommunicationsnetworks

• Creation of newmanagement structures, both withinand among institutions.

• Aseconddimension can be defined in terms ofthe number of institutions involvedand the mutuality of interactionamong them (Ibid).At the low risk endof collaborativeactivities are unilateral arrangements,such as consultancy projects whereinthere is, by andlarge, a straightforward transferof knowledge,skills or materialsfrom individuals inone institution tothose in another.Projects in stafftraining and development would, forexample, fall in thiscategory. There ishardly any interweaving of institutional cultures inthis arrangement.

Bilateral arrangementsare among the morecomplex and involve amutual give and takebetween the partner institutions. An exampleof such arrangement

is when two institutionsagree to teach/offer thecourses of the other intheir own institutions orwhen two institutionspool in their academicresources for programdesign and development. Multilateral collaborative projects arehigh-risk ventures,though those have highpotential of benefitingthe various institutionsinvolved. The successof bilateral and multilateral collaborativeprojects will dependon the extent to whichthe various issues arising out of interweavingof institutional cultureshave been resolved.

The third dimensionof collaborative activity seeks to place it onthe global—local continuum. The purposeis to globally resourceknowledge and expertise and to apply itlocally for rapid socioeconomic developmentof the country. In thissituation, collaborativenetworking is viewedas a continuum whereat one end an institution creates global andinternational networksand on the other setsup local and area specific networks.

The fourth dimensionof collaboration is inthe context of the na


ture of the participatinginstitutions. Thus collaborative activity mayinvolve

• Distance educationinstitutions and theconventional universities systems;

• Distance educationinstitutions and thenon-governmentalorganizations (whocan actually andeffectively take theprograms to themasses) and educational institutions

• Distance educationinstitutions and theindustries. Whilethe industry is amajor beneficiaryof the educationsector (in that itssurvival dependson the continuoussupply of educatedpersonnel fromthe educationalinstitutions), it doesnot contribute tothe generation ofan educated force(Ibid).

Organizations worldwide are collaboratingin order to addresstheir specific corporate,economic and educational objectives and totackle situations whereworking independentlyis not sufficient to meetdesired outcomes.These characteristicsdistinguish them from

other types of relationships that, while oftentermed “collaboration”are actually, no morethan formal (or in somecase informal) attempts at cooperationbetween organizations,or the coordination ofresources where duplication of servicesalready exists (Smith,2000).

Types of Inter-institutionalCollaboration

Cooperative activitiesacross national boundaries take a number ofdifferent forms. Manyof these, such as theschool-based emailprojects do not involve actual courses,and various other research level interactions amongst peergroups. At a glance,these collaborationsmay be by groups ofprimary or secondaryschools; school/university partnerships; collaborations in distanceeducation programdevelopment; partnerships between universities and industry andothers. Mason (1994)roughly categorizedthese course-basedinter-institutional activities into the followingtypes:

Franchise types: inwhich one partnerdesigns, develops,

examines andmakes awards,while the other provides students andsupport mechanisms.

• Marketplace types:in which one institution purchasescourse materialsfrom the other,adapts and delivers them andexamines learners and awardscredits.

• Collaborativetypes: in whichseveral institutionsjointly design anddevelop coursesthat they use intheir respectiveinstitutions independently of eachother.

• Technology-basedtype: in which students from othercountries accessthe host institutions via electroniccommunication(possibly enhancedby print materials,occasional video-conferences oreven face-to-facemeetings).

Though there aresome clear distinctionsbetween these types,in practice there aremany overlaps. Collaboration does notguarantee equality be-


tween the partners andtheir cultures, and caninvolve the dominanceof one or two partners.The benefits and difficulties of these kindsof collaborations willbe discussed later onin this paper.

Franchise Type

This is an off-campusmodel that representsan institution that teaches only at a distanceand does not maintaina traditional campussite. These institutionshave their own policiesand they award theirown degrees (Reddy,1988). The establishment of each institutionis fundamentally basedon the peculiar conditions of its own country. In other words,each institution has itsown national characteristics (Reddy, 1988).Among institutions ofthis group, the UnitedKingdom Open University (UKOU) in EasternEurope is the leader. Itoffers a number of itsOpen Business School(OBS) courses to students in various Eastern European countries. Distance teachingof the sort pioneeredby the Open Universitywas considered to bean appropriate meansfor reaching largenumbers of studentsin Eastern Europe and

Russia (Fames andWoodley, 1993). As themain purpose of theprogram is that EasternEuropeans have access to western management procedures,the situation is inevitably one of a dominantculture transferring itsview of the world to aculture that seeks toemulate, at least itseconomic advantages.Many other countriesaround the world (e.g.Canada, China, CostaRica, Germany, India,Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Pakistan, Spain,Sri Lanka, Thailand,The Netherlands, andVenezuela) have followed the UKOU approach by adapting it totheir own situations.

Marketplace Type

The Open Learning Institute of HongKong has developedthe ‘marketplace type’buying course materials from all over theworld to meet someof its curricular needs.Due to great valueplaced on educationalqualifications in HongKong, for employment,promotion and possibleemigration, Hong Kongboasts a great numberof overseas educational programs (Ngokand Lam, 1993). Theproducer of the materials is no more that

of a supplier, while theOpen Learning Institute(OLI) takes completeresponsibility for curriculum, delivery andassessment. However,Dhanarajan and Timmers (1992) have analyzed a whole rangeof difficulties faced byinstitutions purchasingmaterials on the openmarket. They arguethat:

• Courses need adetailed listing ofaims, major topicsand headings, additional readings orother media.

• Poorly structuredcourses are muchmore costly toadapt.

• Digitized versionsof the originalmaterial are muchmore desirable forpurchasing in the“market type.”

Open Learning Institute also experiencesthe difficulty of English since it is the second language in HongKong. Therefore special attention must bepaid to the readabilityof adapted coursewareand to the reading skillsof their expected students (Ibid). Dixon andBlin (1992) support theabove observation bysharing their own experiences and argue


that, in preparing thesoftware for non-native English speakers,they needed to translate English into assimple prose as possible. They used veryshort sentences andavoided complicatedconstructions as wellas using small wordsrather than big words.They also tried to stripthe material from allslang and explainedabbreviations, providedonline glossary to givesimple explanations ofkey terms. Their experience confirmed thatthe process was quitecomplex in that theyhad to be careful notto lose the sense of thematerial (lbid).

One thing Dixon andBling learned fromtheir experiences wasthat humor is difficultto handle in cross-cultural courses althoughthey allege that it provides interest and motivation for learners.On the contrary, theywarn that non-nativespeakers could easilymisunderstand humor.Adapting courses thatcontain significant non-print material dependslargely on the availability of equipmentsuch as computers andvideo recorders amongthe student population.While distance educa

tars are quite keen todevelop multi-mediacourse materials, theyare often not saleableabroad. Although the“marketplace type”situation has many difficulties, especially cultural ones, the benefitsfor both producers andpurchasers are real;financial savings oncourse development isgreat, and the senseof sharing resourcesrather than continuallyrecreating the samematerial is substantial.

The CollaborativeType

A consortium of agricultural universities!faculties consisting ofthe Universiti Putra,Malaysia; KaesartsaUniversity, Thailand;the University of thePhillipines at Loa Banos, with Universityof British Columbia(UBC) and the University of Queensland,Australia, as associatepartners, was established, to promote jointcourse developmentand collaboration andexchange of studentsand faculties (Bates,1997). The UBC andUniversiti Putra Malaysia (U PM) have enteredinto an agreement forthe development anddelivery of a distanceeducation program,whereby UPM provides

programs on tropicalagriculture and UBCprograms on temperateagriculture. Students atUPM take UBC programs either face-to-face or in distance, andUPM programs at a distance. In some cases,an individual course isjointly developed; inothers, one institutiontakes responsibility fora course delivered intothe other. Through thisarrangement set up,UBC assists UPM tostrengthen its distanceeducation unit’s capacity in the use of technology for course delivery(Ibid).

In October 1992, a series of interactive television broadcasts forlanguage learning inEurope was launched.These broadcasts werepart of the Multimedia Teleschool Project(MTS), funded by theEuropean CommunityDELTA Research program. The MTS projectaddresses the currentmarket for realistic distance learning system,focused on an optimamix of telecommunications-based learningand tutoring (Mason,1994). The project hassixteen partners fromfive European countries and has the support of major Europeanenterprises. The prime


contractor is Berlitz International, the largestprivate language training institution worldwide. It developed arange of foreign language distance learning courses. A computerconferencing systemlinks the participants intheir European branches with each other andwith the experts in thetelevision studio. Allparticipants receivetheir study letters andassignments from Berlitz Distance LearningCenter in Eschborn,Germany via the computer conferencing.The system enables theparticipants to communicate with their fellowstudents through outEurope, allowing themto work in groups tocomplete study-basedtasks (Mason, 1994).This project is collaborative on a large scale,as the group includesthe course providers,software developers,television program designers and broadcasters, as well as the companies seeking trainingfor their employees.

The TechnologyType

Many examples of collaboration exist wheretechnology is the primary objective for the collaborating institutions.One example is the

International UniversityConsortium (IUC) thatbegan in 1980 as aconsortium of collegesand universities to produce media-assistedcourses at the upperdivision level (McGill &Johnstone, 1994). IUChas about 40 membersin the United States,Canada, Europe, andthe Pacific Rim andcoordinate among itsmembers the production of video, print, andaudio courses (Ibid).

EssentialConsiderations forCollaboration

Critical conditions foreffective collaboration are contextual,although some generalizations are possible.There are essentialconsiderations for collaboration advocatedfor by literature. Theliterature raises someof the issues relating tocollaboration in a context of organizationsbeing primarily profit-motivated and wishingto gain more power oran improved competitive advantage in themarket place by entering such agreements.This context is howevernot transferable to cases of educational collaboration where (untilrecently) the imperative to collaborate has

been primarily aimedat improving the quality for student learning,providing improved access to broader rangesof resources or undertaking research anddevelopment activities(Smith, 2000).

Generalizations maybe drawn from different studies aboutconditions necessaryfor effective inter-institutional collaboration(Moran, 1990; Maehl,2000; Donaldson &Kosoll, 1999; Gatliff &Wendel, 1998). Essential considerations forcollaboration are independent of each other.They overlap; thereforethe author will discussthem interchangeably.The most pervasiveand critical element istrust among partners.Trust implies buildingand sustaining strongrelationships amongstthe staff of the collaborating organizations and establishingpartnerships by gettingto know each other,spending time togetherand working on eventsor the project together.Moran & Mugridge(1993) stated that:

Sustained relationships basedon personal trustand shared valuescannot be overestimated as factors


in successful collaboration. The presence of one or morechampions in eachinstitution, willing tolisten to and trusttheir counterparts, isa near-universal feature of collaborativeventures in distanceeducation (p. 154-155).

This trust has to operate at several levels-among faculty developing and teachingthe courses, amongadministrators servicing the students andcourses, and senior officers representing theuniversity in broaderpolitical and educational forums. It also hasto operate effectivelybetween these levelsand within each university as well as betweenpartners. Himmelman(1996) observes that:

such values andpractices includethose providing formutual recognitionand for theestablishment ofrespect, trust andpower which isdefined and sharedby all those joinedin common efforts.Such values andpractices are oftenthe basis for ashared vision amongthose revitalizingcommunities;

maintained byrecognizing thatpeople seekingassistance shouldfully share powerand make vitalcontributions tocommunity problemssolving and;characterized byshared responsibilityfor common goals,a willingness to beheld accountable,and commitments todemocratic practices

(p. 20).

This interpersonal ingredient is central toall stages of successful partnership. People and organizationsforming a partnershipconfront a difficultproblem: they needto work with someonethey trust. Trust is socritical because partnerships are more intimate than virtually anyform of organization.Partners must rely oneach other completely(Berquist, Betwee &Muel, 1995). Achievement and maintenanceof confidence amongall these groups, and inthe collaborative process itself, are critical.

It is very importantfor those involved tonote that a collaborative effort is a culturaltransformation andhence, conflict will

emerge. Conflict therefore should be seenas a normal outcomeof cooperation, whichnot only is a means totest but also helps theparties to forge evenstronger bonds. Karis(1989) argues that:

• . . collaboratorsshould be assuredthat conflictover ideas, oversubstantive matters,can be a positivedevelopment inthe collaborativeprocess. Theymust recall thatthe sometimesmessy workingout of various andopposing viewpointsis part and parcelof the collaborativeprocess (p. 121).

He further suggeststhat “by relying exclusively on cooperation!consensus, collaborative groups restricttheir invention processwhen what might bebetter employed isfuller debate” (p. 121).The task of maintainingopen, forthright communication is a criticalone because, as morethan one program director noted, partnership between highereducation and the corporate world involvesnothing less than theinteraction betweentwo very different,


sometimes conflictingcultures. These cultural differences manifestthemselves in differentways within differentprogram structures,institutions, and organization, but somecommon elementsare apparent (Chute& Gulliver, 1996). Onecultural differencethat is evident in mostpartnerships concernstime, the expectationof how long it takes toplan and implement anew venture. Highereducation, with a complex academic decision-making structureand history of little orno pressure to compete until recent years,often moves with whatindustry considers glacial slowness. Industryand organized labor,on the other hand, appear to educators toexpect not only instantprogram development,but instant programresult as well (Chute &Gulliver, 1996). Therefore, it is crucial for collaborating institutionsto be able to accommodate different institutional culture (Moran& Mugridge, 1993).

The relative flexibilityof many distance education units to respondto employer needsand meet organizationdeadline quickly and to

deliver programs andservices to a numberof locations simultaneously, gives them areal advantage overconventional education in the competitionfor external partners.“Partnerships provideflexibility. Their structures and agreementscan readily be changedto meet shifting needsand conditions” (Berquist, Betwee & Muel,1995; p. 18).

Distance educationprograms that buildtheir course development capacities in amanner that makes adaptation of existing elements to new education and training needspossible in a short timeframe are the mostattractive to employers and organizations.Conversely, highereducation entities thathave difficulty moving quickly, such assome large universitysystems, may find thatthe window of opportunity for participationin distance educationventures with industrycloses before they areready to act.

The cultural differences between highereducation and the corporate/labor community can also be seenin the expectations

around the funding andwhat it buys. Corporate training personnel,conditioned by long experience of purchasingprograms and servicesfrom “vendors” bringto higher education abroad and sometimesdemanding interpretation of what they canexpect in return forpaying the full cost ofa program. If expectations of training content are laid out clearlyin advance, agreementon the “customized”curriculum can generally be reached. Thelevel and extent of student support servicescan sometimes be lessclearly understood,but expectations canbe brought into alignment with careful assessment of employeeneeds and orientationof students and corporate managementto the nature and demands of distancelearning.More difficult to anticipate and clarify are issues such as confidentiality of student recordsversus the expectationof the employer orunion of access to records of their students’academic status. Eventhe schedule on whichtuition is paid can bean issue, notes PennState’s McGrath as cited by Chute & Gulliver

52 DEASASADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

(1996). He notes thatuniversities are accustomed to requiring tuition payments beforea student can register,while companies areaccustomed to payingfor services after thefact.

Benefits andcomplexities ofinter-institutionalcollaboration

Benefits of inter-institutional collaborationin distance educationincludes but are notlimited to cost sharing, team teaching,overcoming bureaucratic obstacles duplication of efforts andmore efficient use ofresources, increasedaccess to information,sharing information,accepting each others’credits and sharing thecost of technology andresponse to turbulentconditions when organizations acting independently in diverse directions, create unanticipated consequences for themselves andothers (Gray, 1996).Fundamental changesand patterns of knowledge creation and dissemination, curriculum development anddelivery methods arechallenging distanceeducation institutionsto support and enrichthe scholarly pursuits

by forming collaboration efforts. Radicalchanges in informationand communication arehaving profound effectson the way ordinarypeople learn about andinteract with the world.Advances in free exchange of ideas serveas a positive force fordemocratic change.Knowledge increasesso fast and becomesoutdated so quicklythat the instructor canno longer be the expert on everything. Increasingly, faculty andinstitutions are viewingcollaboration as a realistic means of continuing to provide serviceto growing numbers ofstudents, who makethe greater and morevaried demands of theinstitutions they attend(Moran & Mugridge,1993).

The need for inter-institutional collaborationin distance educationis further strengthenedby international effortsto promote a literatesociety. It is thereforeimperative to recognizeand underscore theimportance of settingobjectives higher thanindividual gain in orderto provide for societalgains (Cole, Fortes &Klinger, 1996). Evidently, the integrativenature of technology

and its use in distanceeducation is pullingpeople around theglobe into unexpectedforms of collaboration.

Collaborative venturesare proving to be costeffective in their useof human and materialresources, both withininstitutions and acrossregional, national, orinternational systems.As a result, institutionsare forming cooperation to offer programs,sharing informationand to accept eachother’s credit. A goodexample is the case ofAustralia Inter- University Women’s StudiesMajor, a joint venturebetween Deakin, Murdoch and QueenslandUniversity. The University of Botswana (UB),through the DistanceEducation Departmenthas collaboration withthe University of SouthAfrica. The UB buysmodules from UNISAfor the Bachelor ofBusiness program offered through distancemode.

The benefits of collaboration in distanceeducation can be considerable to learners,faculty and to institutions. Partnerships,merges, consortiums,of one kind or another,may have to be consid

DEASA-SADC COE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 53

ered for many reasons,but more notably, foreducational, economic, social, and politicaladvantages. Haugheyand Fenwick (1996)claim that “of the various possible modelsof collaboration, consortia appear to be thepreferred form of inter-institutional partnerschosen to implementdistance education”(p. 58). Deriving forcesassociated to consortia preference includemutual support whenadvocating for funds,information sharingamong teachers, jointpurchasing power,content developmentand professional development.

Bureaucratic obstaclesfor learners movingfrom one educationalinstitution to anothercan be smoothed outby agreements to shareinformation, jointly offerprograms, and acceptone another’s credit.Duplication of effortsand more efficient useof resources especiallyin public systems canbe achieved by decisions to cooperatein offering programs.Where it would be impossible for a singleinstitution, large-scaleefforts extending overbroader geographical areas, sometimes

for highly mobilepopulations, could beachieved by groups ofinstitutions working together (Maehl, 2000;Donaldson & Kozoll,1999; Moran, 1990).Gatlif and Wendel(1998) echo the samesentiments that:

Institutionaladministration andregulatory boardshave espousedthe benefits ofinter-institutionalcollaborationin response tothe concerns ofreducing duplication,maximizing the useof limited human andfinancial resources,and increasingenrollments inunder-enrolledcourses (p.27).

Technology as an integral part of distanceeducation and somedistance education instructional materialscould be so expensivefor different institutions especially in thedeveloping countries,particularly Africa thatinter-institutional collaboration serves asan alternative to makethem affordable. Availability and compatibilityof delivery systems between institutions couldbe very expensive thus;cost sharing is identified as an inauguration

of Nairobi-Kenya as theAfrican Virtual Universtiy Headquarters, thedirector of World BankHuman Development,Ramphele Maphele,noted that Africancountries lack a strongand reliable telecommunication network.She stated that oneof the weaknesses ofthe African continentis that she does nothave continent-widenetwork, adding thatthe African Virtual University (AUV) technology is supposed tooffer African countriesopportunities to shareknowledge (PanafricanNews Agency, 18 July2000).

Cooperative coursedevelopment can helpbuild a critical massof scholars otherwisegeographically scattered in relatively smallinstitutions. Teammembers benefit fromthe experience ofworking with peers, asinstruction is improvedcapitalizing on the respective strengths ofeach member and bydeveloping new knowledge and skills (Gatliff& Wendel, 1998). Bycombining efforts, faculty from different institutions can expandcourse offerings andprovide those coursesto a greater number of


students, thus becoming less dependentupon the limitations ofon-campus registrations. The studentsalso enjoy the benefitsas seen in expandingcourse offerings andthe expertise of teamteachers.

In Botswana, inter-institutional collaborationis evident at a smallscale between different educational institutions. The DistanceEducation Program(DEP) was designedin collaboration withMinistry of Health andInstitutes of Health Sciences (HIS) to improveprimary health servicesthrough upgrading Enrolled Nurses to Registered Nurses (Bility &Odharo, 1995). Otherinstitutions and agencies involved in thisproject were Ministryof Education (MoE);University of Botswana(Center for ContinuingEducation) and Department of Nursing;and Kellog Foundation, United States ofAmerica. The Ministryof Health (M0H) wasthe principal agencyresponsible for overallfinancing, administration and managementof all program activities.The University of Botswana was to accreditthe distance education

programs. The Centerfor Continuing Education of the Universityof Botswana providedtechnical and professional assistance fortraining and productionof educational materials. The Ministry ofEducation (MoE) provided technical supportfor program development, and evaluation.The Distance Education Resource Center(DERC), located at theInstitute of Health Sciences was equippedwith video, models,maps, overhead projectors, audiovisualmaterials and manymore. Another example is the collaborationbetween the Ministryof Education and theUniversity of Botswanathrough Distance Education Unit to upgradeprimary school teachers with certificate toa diploma level. Someexamples include thecollaboration of Nursing Department of theUniversity of Botswana; the National HealthInstitute (NHI) formaleducation collaborateswith the University ofBotswana to offer extension education. Sixcolleges are affiliatedto the University forthe authenticity of theircertificates. The newlyopened BotswanaCollege of Open and

Distance Learning(BOCODOL) collaborates with the Ministryof Education to offerhigh school education through distancemode. Botswana Openand Distance LearningAssociation (BODOLA)was formed to promotecollaboration amonginstitutions in the country. The National Association of Distance Education of South Africa(NADUSA) is also promoting collaborative efforts among institutionsin South Africa.

Potentialproblems ofcollaboration

In their effort to embark on collaborativeprojects, adult educators and administratorsshould consider collaboration as a turbulentexperience that couldbe chaotic if partners donot respect individuals,groups or institutionalintegrity. Collaborative efforts face manyrisks. These include financial risks, credibilityrisks and political risks.There are also relationship risks that come ina form of threats to fairdealing that includesissues of equity, trust,lack of communicationand reciprocity. On theother hand, Hillman &Colker (1987) as citedby Gatliff & Wendel


(1998) stated that,member institutionsshould review campus policy and regulations as they relate tosuch basic issues asfull-time equivalent requirements, semesterand class schedules,budget and tuition.

Literature constantlyreinforces the viewthat, collaboration inthe true sense is difficult—it is difficult to select appropriate stakeholders who share thesame vision; to balancethe power relationshipbetween stake holderswhich often becomesthe focus of attention;negotiate the organizational and operationalstructures and procedures to be adopted bythe new entity; and establish lines of communication and build trustbetween staff from different organizations(Smith, 2000). Moran& Mugridge (1993)concur with Smith that,inter-institutional collaboration is extremelydifficult and usuallyvery complicated toundertake.

While collaboration inteam teaching providesbenefits to institution,faculty may view participation differently.The increase of personal teaching load of

faculty members preparing distance education courses may demotivate them. If teamteaching is added, theamount of time spentworking with one ormore instructors addsignificantly to preparation time. Learningto work with technology and selecting anappropriate deliverysystem to produce aseamless interfaceincreases the timecommitment (Austin &Baldwin, 1992). Wherethere is no establishedpolicy taskforce to define the applicability ofdistance teaching towards promotion andtenure, then the ideaof team teaching wouldbe far-fetched. In anutshell, team teaching in inter-institutionalcollaboration in distance education couldbe a dream that maynever come true if thefaculty members arenot supported to determine their willingnessto be involved (Olcott,1992).

Although inter-institutional teaming hasappealing factors thatafford faculty with diverse backgroundsand environments tocome together and becreative, it is a dynamicprocess that involvesa lot of negotiation,

building effective communication networks,identifying and building community andestablishing leadership(National Network forCollaboration 1995 ascited by Gatliff & Wendel, 1998) all of whichenhance professionalgrowth. Planning playsa significant role and itis critical when contemplating collaboration.

Avarietyof issues comeinto play that need serious attention beforecollaboration can takeplace to deal with differences. Donaldson& Kozoll (1999) statedthat, by virtues of collaborators coming fromseveral organizations,differences abound incollaboration. Theseare manifested in thevariety of values, philosophies, workingnorms, and interestswhich representativesand their organizationsbring to collaborativeefforts. Some inhibitorsto inter-institutionalcollaboration that Moran (1990) noted included the tradition ofinstitutional autonomyparticularly in certification and standardsthat result in a lack oftrust for teaching andstandards elsewhere.The initial incompatibility of organizationalstructures and admin


istrative processes isanother. Other complexities include geopolitical isolation of universities, and failuresof implementation dueto insufficient funds,lack of clear vision,real commitment andineffective handling oftechnical and humanproblems. Copyrightand royalty restrictionscan also hamper effective collaboration (TheCommonwealth Secretariat, 1985 as cited byMoran, 1990).

Implications

The advancement ofnew communicationtechnologies calls fornew reforms in highereducation. New skillsand resources to deliver education areneeded. Institutionsof higher educationcan no longer affordto stand alone. Inter-institutional collaboration relationships arecrucial for colleges anduniversities to be ableto extend their markets,find new students anddevelop new productsgeared to the needsof these consumers.Inter-institutional collaborations have a lotof benefits and theyadd value for the students, faculty and forthe institutions whichform them. However,institutions involved in

these collaborationsshould be aware oftheir complexities aswell. Creating or enabling such inter-institutional relationshipsis very challenging.Collaboration entailsadapting principles tospecific contexts andsituations. Having tothink differently andwork with individualsoutside of our organizations pose a numberof risks that we seldomexperience in our ownorganizations. Thesemay include changesto new policy, structure, communicationand skills.

Traditional modes ofinstitutional operation,especially competition and institutionalautonomy must beabandoned to allowcollaboration to occur (Thach & Murphy,1994). Those who areengaged in distanceeducation need to appreciate each other’sknowledge and skillsand exercise someflexibility without assuming that eitherside is superior in anyways. Inter-institutionalcollaboration requiresthose concerned toreflect on their actionsand learn from theirexperiences. The caseof inter-institutionalcollaboration between

Glasgow CaledonianUniversity (GCAL)and Queen MargaretUniversity College inthe United Kingdomserves as an exampleof this reflection. Reilly& Gulliver, 1992 (as cited by Thach & Murphy,1994) suggest that,policies dealing withcredit transfer, residency requirements,credit equivalency, andother issues often mustbe written.

A combination of persistence among theplayers and strongpositive leadership isrequired to sustain thecollaborative project.Bringing different organizational cultures,styles and diversescholars together requires good mechanisms for communication, negotiation ofrelationships and decision making to servethe project purposewell. It is evident fromsome case studies thatby creating a one-stopcenter for students andinstructors, or differentcountries that centralized distance education structures eventually can move into theworld virtual structures,where even a physicallocation is no longernecessary, for instanceAfrican Virtual University. Inter-institutional


collaboration requiresworking together in thespirit of collegiality, byrespecting diversity ofopinions and capitalizing on each other’sstrengths and diversecultural geographicbackgrounds.

Conclusion

This paper discussedinter-institutional collaborative activities,types of inter-institutional collaboration,the essential considerations for inter-institutional collaborationand potential benefitsand complexities aswell as their implications. Inter-institutionalcollaboration providesan environment to enliven and enrich thelearning process notonly in distance education settings but also inconventional practices.These collaborativepartnerships are important where: resourcesare shrinking, giventhe demand for wideruse of sophisticatedtechnology, limited faculty (teacher), time and

instructional resources.Developing environments particularly inthe Sub-Saharan Africa region could benefita lot from these kindsof partnerships Institutions have to relinquishthe tradition of competition and join hands tobuild a better global society. In his speech atthe Learning Together:Collaboration in OpenLearning Conference,the President andChief Operating Officerof The Commonwealthof Learning, ProfessorGajaraj Dhanarajan(1998) said:

It is unlikely that ina learner-centered,flexible, technology-driven system ofeducation wherethe student canbe located on theglobe, institutionscan operate on theirown and be immuneto pressures andinfluences from theirgovernments and,more importantly,clients. (htty://www.col. org/speeches/curtin98.html).

It is a challenge to all ofthose who work in thefield of distance education to broaden theirperspectives and strivefor the implementationof best practices. Collaboration is not just aneconomic strategy (thisis not really about money). The most important and enduring reasons for a collaborativeapproach are the manypositive benefits, whichwill be experienced bythose involved: thefaculty, students andstaff of the university.Inter-institutional collaboration and facultyteaming hold positiveconsequences for bothteaching and learning.The search for solutions to the challengesfacing collaborationrequires input frommany fields of knowledge and professionalgroups. A structure isrequired where cooperation among collaborating partners wouldproduce tangible benefits to both faculty andstudents.


istrative processes isanother. Other complexities include geopolitical isolation of universities, and failuresof implementation dueto insufficient funds,lack of clear vision,real commitment andineffective handling oftechnical and humanproblems. Copyrightand royalty restrictionscan also hamper effective collaboration (TheCommonwealth Secretariat, 1985 as cited byMoran, 1990).

Implications

The advancement ofnew communicationtechnologies calls fornew reforms in highereducation. New skillsand resources to deliver education areneeded. Institutionsof higher educationcan no longer affordto stand alone. Inter-institutional collaboration relationships arecrucial for colleges anduniversities to be ableto extend their markets,find new students anddevelop new productsgeared to the needsof these consumers.Inter-institutional collaborations have a lotof benefits and theyadd value for the students, faculty and forthe institutions whichform them. However,institutions involved in

these collaborationsshould be aware oftheir complexities aswell. Creating or enabling such inter-institutional relationshipsis very challenging.Collaboration entailsadapting principles tospecific contexts andsituations. Having tothink differently andwork with individualsoutside of our organizations pose a numberof risks that we seldomexperience in our ownorganizations. Thesemay include changesto new policy, structure, communicationand skills.

Traditional modes ofinstitutional operation,especially competition and institutionalautonomy must beabandoned to allowcollaboration to occur (Thach & Murphy,1994). Those who areengaged in distanceeducation need to appreciate each other’sknowledge and skillsand exercise someflexibility without assuming that eitherside is superior in anyways. Inter-institutionalcollaboration requiresthose concerned toreflect on their actionsand learn from theirexperiences. The caseof inter-institutionalcollaboration between

Glasgow CaledonianUniversity (GCAL)and Queen MargaretUniversity College inthe United Kingdomserves as an exampleof this reflection. Reilly& Gulliver, 1992 (as cited by Thach & Murphy,1994) suggest that,policies dealing withcredit transfer, residency requirements,credit equivalency, andother issues often mustbe written.

A combination of persistence among theplayers and strongpositive leadership isrequired to sustain thecollaborative project.Bringing different organizational cultures,styles and diversescholars together requires good mechanisms for communication, negotiation ofrelationships and decision making to servethe project purposewell. It is evident fromsome case studies thatby creating a one-stopcenter for students andinstructors, or differentcountries that centralized distance education structures eventually can move into theworld virtual structures,where even a physicallocation is no longernecessary, for instanceAfrican Virtual University. Inter-institutional


collaboration requiresworking together in thespirit of collegiality, byrespecting diversity ofopinions and capitalizing on each other’sstrengths and diversecultural geographicbackgrounds.

Conclusion

This paper discussedinter-institutional collaborative activities,types of inter-institutional collaboration,the essential considerations for inter-institutional collaborationand potential benefitsand complexities aswell as their implications. Inter-institutionalcollaboration providesan environment to enliven and enrich thelearning process notonly in distance education settings but also inconventional practices.These collaborativepartnerships are important where: resourcesare shrinking, giventhe demand for wideruse of sophisticatedtechnology, limited faculty (teacher), time and

instructional resources.Developing environments particularly inthe Sub-Saharan Africa region could benefita lot from these kindsof partnerships Institutions have to relinquishthe tradition of competition and join hands tobuild a better global society. In his speech atthe Learning Together:Collaboration in OpenLearning Conference,the President andChief Operating Officerof The Commonwealthof Learning, ProfessorGajaraj Dhanarajan(1998) said:

It is unlikely that ina learner-centered,flexible, technology-driven system ofeducation wherethe student canbe located on theglobe, institutionscan operate on theirown and be immuneto pressures andinfluences from theirgovernments and,more importantly,clients. (htty://www.col. org/speeches/curtin98.html).

It is a challenge to all ofthose who work in thefield of distance education to broaden theirperspectives and strivefor the implementationof best practices. Collaboration is not just aneconomic strategy (thisis not really about money). The most important and enduring reasons for a collaborativeapproach are the manypositive benefits, whichwill be experienced bythose involved: thefaculty, students andstaff of the university.Inter-institutional collaboration and facultyteaming hold positiveconsequences for bothteaching and learning.The search for solutions to the challengesfacing collaborationrequires input frommany fields of knowledge and professionalgroups. A structure isrequired where cooperation among collaborating partners wouldproduce tangible benefits to both faculty andstudents.


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MANAGING A REGIONAL CENTRE IN ANOPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING INSTITUTIONDr. NdabaJ. NcubeZimbabwe Open University

Abstract

Open and distancelearning (CDL) is arelatively new mode ofavailing educational opportunities to a widerpopulation, and it hasushered in the need tomanage institutions ina decentralised format.This development callsfor focus on the centresthat give direct serviceto the learners, hencethis article is an exploration of the role of aregional centre in managing key services in anCDL institution. In keeping with the ideals andprinciples of accessibility, cost-effectivenessand convenience tolearners it is imperativethat CDL institutions setup and manage properly decentralized centres, which become thecall-face for learnerssince the institutionsserve learners who arespread through out thecountry and even beyond national boundaries. The article drawsfrom the experience ofthe author as a Regional Director in an CDL institution, as well as literature on experiences in

other CDL institutions,and education management. The issues thatare addressed includelocating a regional centre; student registration;financial management,human resource issues, and provision oflibrary services, amongothers. Challengesfaced in managing aregional centre are alsoexplored. The challenges include lack ofresources, stereotypestowards open and distance learning, the dilemma of decentralization and centralizationin decision-making, aswell as the distanceof the learners fromthe centre. The articlewinds off with a discussion of strategies thatcan be adopted to improve the effectivenessof the management of aregional centre. Amongthe strategies to dealwith the challenges aresupply of resources,training of personnel,further decentralization, and heavy investment in technology. Itis hoped that sharingthese experiences withother CDL practitioners,

in particular, and othersinvolved in the deliveryof education will enhance efficiency andeffectiveness in educational provision and provoke further dialogueon implementation ofCDL programmes.

Introduction

The emergence ofopen and distancelearning institutionshas been a result ofgovernments’ desireto increase access touniversity and tertiaryeducation by the communities (Mmari 1999;ZOU Act 1999). Thisdeliberate act to exciteentry into universityprogrammes by peoplewho would normally bepreoccupied with workcommitments, or haveno access to universityeducation results invery large enrolmentsin ODL universities.For instance in 1977,124 000 distance education learners wereenrolled at UNISA;81 000 at TechnikonSouth Africa; and in2006 over 21 000 wereenrolled at the Zimbabwe Open University


(Dodds; Nyongolo &Glennie 1999; Kurasha2006). In essence thenthe CDL universitiesbecome mega universities, which are characterized by centralizedsenior managementstructures reminiscentof conventional universities. However CDLuniversities have theirlearners dispersed. Toenhance student support, and in keepingwith the principles andideals of making CDLeducation accessible,costeffective andconvenient to learners, CDL universitiesusually set up regionalcenters as the call-face for the students.The management ofthese centres determines significantly thesuccess or failure ofCDL programmes. Thenumber of regionalcentres depends onthe student populationand availability of resources. For instancethe Open University ofTanzania had twenty-one regions in 1999,and ZCU has ten regions in 2006 (Mmari1999; ZCU 2001). TheOpen University, UK,has for instance a network of 260 regionalstudy centres staffedwith tutors, counselors, administrators andcontaining a wide variety of educational fa

cilities (Bangkok: 1990:7-20). Harry, John andKeegan (1993: 67)say, “...these are universities of a nation ora state, not of a citylike Oxford or Bologna. Frequently theyare universities on tensor hundreds of sitesspread throughout thenation.” The regionalcentres are the delivery points of servicesthat learners require.

The regional centrecarries out specificfunctions that ought tosatisfy customer needsand ensure studies arecarried out efficiently.The quality of serviceand education availedto learners in an CDLinstitution, depend onhow well a regionalcentre is managed,since in terms of operationalisation of programmes the regionalcentre represents theinstitution.

Various issues areinvolved in the management of a regionalcentre, starting with itslocation. It has to bewithin easy access tothe learners. The regionrequires specific humanand financial resourcesto drive the processes,and these must bemanaged in a way thatensures quality servicedelivery. Other services

that the regional centreoffers include studentregistration; library services; communication;tutorial services; assignment administrationand examinations management. The regionalcentre also serves asa marketing unit for theuniversity.

The objectives of thisarticle are:

• To explore the roleof a regional centrein the provision ofservices in an CDLinstitution

• To explore how activities in a regionalcentre can be managed to ensure thatservice delivery tolearners is of highquality

• To highlight challenges in managing a regionalcentre in an CDLinstitution

• To recommendsome strategiesthat can be adopted to improvethe efficiency andeffectiveness of aregional centre inan CDL institution.

The role of aregional centre

Locating aregional centre

The primary consideration in locating a


regional centre is thatthe majority of learnershave relatively easy access to it. Access is notonly measured in termsof distance, but alsoin terms of road networks, transport connectivity, accessibilityof buildings, availability of ancillary servicessuch as photocopying and telephone facilities in the vicinityand, Harry, John andKeegan (1999) arguethat a regional studycentre must provideeasy access to full timeworkers, the disabled,imprisoned, and hospitalized, together withthose tied to the home.For the regional centreto effectively servicethis diverse population,its location must beproperly planned. Theplanner needs to takefull audit of the profileof the potential and current learners and do aninformed mapping. Thechoice of the locationof a regional centre is aconscious, rigorous anddata-driven process,which also involves theability to accurately extrapolate future growthin student numbers andservices to be offered,for the centre must remain accessible now,and in future. Citinga regional centre canborrow concepts fromschool mapping (IIEP

1989). An improperlylocated regional centre is likely to lead tofrustration of learnersand workers, and thismay result in failure torealize the goals of theinstitution.

Studentregistration

Regional centres register learners, as it is notpossible for learners toconverge at headquarters for registration. Fornew learners this process begins with theprocessing of applications. Learners obtainapplication forms fromthe regional centrewhere initial selectionis done, and ratified atthe headquarters. Oncelearners have been accepted they registerat the regional centrewhere they are handedtheir tutorial packages,and given orientationinto the institution.Learners can only beregistered upon payment of the requisitefees. Thus the regionalcentre also managesinstitutional finances.The registration process yields learner statistics that are relayedto headquarters andaggregated with otherregional centres tocome up with a national enrolment. If admissions, fees-collectionand registration are

faulty in the regionalcentres, the institutionas a whole will have inaccurate data. This inturn will lead to faultyplanning of resources,which compromisesthe quality of serviceto the learners. Datain an institution helpsin the use of statistical process control inthe management ofresources, human andphysical (Greenwood &Grant 1994: 107). Thesame view is sharedby Beagley (1999: 7)who says inconsistentenrolments can present difficulties in themanagement of learning activities.

The registration process is the first contactbetween the institutionand the learner and theexperience the learneris subjected to may determine whether or notthe learner will maintain a sustained relationship with the institution. A positive experience will most probably lead to a continuedrelationship whereasa negative experiencewill most likely leadthe learner to drop out.Thus to ensure studentretention the regionalcentre must adopt astrategy to understand,anticipate, manageand personalize theneeds of the learners

DEASA-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 63

(Miller 2005: 1). A regional centre that failsto retain the learnersit registers defeats thegoals of enhancing access to education, andwastes resources.

Human resources

The most importantresource in a regionalcentre are humanresources. Personnel, which fall underthe management ofa Director, comprisecleaners, clerks, libraryassistants, administration officers, full- timeacademics as well aspart—time academics, Of these, in mostcases, the single-largest group are part-timetutors. Gatiss (1996)argues that quality isabout people and notthings. So to ensurethat learners are exposed to the highestlevel of quality service,efforts must be madeto engage in human resource planning “...toensure the right numbers of the right kindsof people are availableat the right time andin the right places totranslate organizational plans into reality,”Smith (1997: 6). Thusthe regional centre isinvolved in the recruitment, induction andwelfare of staff at various levels, and alsoensures continuous

professional development of all academicstaff through research,conferences, staff development and furtherance of academic andprofessional qualifications to meet new challenges. Induction for alllevels of staff is critical,a view supported byDoidge; Hardwick andWilkinson (1998:10)when they say induction, “. . .is no more orless than a function ofgood management andshould be seen as anintegral and importantduty of all those whohave staff reportingto them.” To enhancethe quality of servicedelivery the staff mustbe continually trainedas posited by Creech(1 994:90-91) thattraining of people extensively and at everylevel plays a vital rolein transforming an organization.

Financialmanagement

The regional centrehas a responsibility ofmanaging budgets andresources allocatedto it by the institution.The guiding principleis that all expenditureshould be in supportof learning. The waymoney is spent oughtto convince the learnerand the public that expenditure is guided by

a desire to add value tothe learners. McCallion(1998:91) argues thatfor an educational institution to function effectively systems andprocedures for managing finances must beput in place. It is imperative, therefore, thatfinancial transactionsand deployment of resources in the regionalcentre are based onprescribed, acceptable and transparentpractices. The regionalcentre is a cost centreof the institution, andits function is to monitor and control costs(McCallion, 1998:93).There is need therefore to have financialexpertise in the regional centre.

The regional centrerelies on a number ofservice providers forits livelihood such assuppliers, owners ofrented buildings, andpart-time academics.It is imperative thatthese parties are paidtimeously if they areto continue renderinggood service, and theonus to ensure thisrests with the regionalcentre. Apart frompaying suppliers theregional centre is alsoresponsible for receiving amounts payableto the institution in thelocality. These may


include student fees,fines, donations andpayment for services.The guiding principle isthat all money shouldbe accounted for andremitted accordingly.

Library services

A very important resource in any learningsituation is the library.With the assistance ofheadquarters, the regional centre sets up,maintains and manages a library. The firststep is to secure appropriate space. In spiteof the proliferation ofelectronic data sources many learners stillcannot access them,so the physical librarystill plays a very important role in the supportof open and distancelearners. Mills and Tait(1999: 74) cite studiescarried out in Australia, North America andthe United Kingdomwhich showed a heavyweighting towards openand distance learners using libraries bymaking personal visitsto the library. The regional centre receivesstock from headquarters and processes it,then loans out to learners. Good care shouldbe taken of the stock sothat it has a longer lifespan and utility. Theremust be equitable andefficient distribution of

reading materials, aswell as maintenance ofaccurate records of theresources.

Communication

The regional centrealso acts as a communication centrebetween the institution and the learners.Through the regionalcentre issues are communicated to learnersfrom headquarters,and to headquartersfrom learners. Thishelps to avoid information-crowding at theheadquarters as someof the issues can bedealt with at the regional centre level. Alludingto the role the regionalcentre plays in communication at the OpenUniversity of Tanzania,Mmari (1999:117) observes that:

Every quarter, thedirectors of regionalcenters meet atthe Head Office tocompare notes andthrash out studentproblems of apolicy or practicalnature. Problemsconfronting themand students includethe delivery of studymaterials, returnof marked scripts,receipts of fees paidinto bank accounts,and postponementof studies. Everyeffort has been

made to tacklethese problems andimprove services.

Mmari (1 999:118)further says throughregional and studycentres decisionsof council, senateand faculty boardsreach even thelowest levels ofthe institution.This provides anopportunity fortimeous solution ofproblems. Hencethe regional centreplays a key role infacilitating effectivecommunicationwithin the institution.Such communicationis important asalluded to by Sallis(1996: 46) who sayscommunication isimportant in qualitymanagement ineducation.

Tutorial services

The regional centre isalso responsible fordistributing instructional materials andorganizing tutorialservices for learners.This involves securingvenues, timetablingtutorials and supervising tutorials to ensurequality service delivery.According to Mills andTait (1999:73) tutorialsare one area of convergence between openand distance education

DEA5A-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 65

and conventional education and:

One of thelongest-standingelite traditions inUK education atuniversity levelhas been thesmall-group andindividual tutorialwork developedover many centuriesat the universitiesof Oxford andCambridge. The‘Oxbridge’ systemof lectures andpractical workprovided by theuniversity combinedwith tutorial supportor supervisionsarranged by theindividual collegesis a well-tried andtested approachwhich ensures thatindividual studentsare supported,their strengths andweaknesses notedand appropriateaction taken.

The notion of small-group student supportand teaching is theaspect that casts a difference between correspondence and openand distance learning,and a regional centrefacilitates this competitive edge of the delivery mode. Harry, Johnand Keegan (1999)posit that one form ofinteraction in an open

and distance learning setup is learner-instructor interaction,and this can be facilitated through organized tutorials. Thus,the regional centreplans for, and ensuresthat the tutorials areexecuted to the bestbenefit of the learner.Race (2005) acknowledges the value of tutorials when he positsthat open learners canbe supported through,tutoring, training openlearning tutors, mentoring learners and givingtutor feedback to learners. Race (2005:120)proceeds to say:

while it ispossible to packageinformation andknowledge in a widevariety of media,and to design intoopen learning all theprocesses wherebylearning shouldbe successful, inpractice it is nowwell recognizedthat humanbeings remain anindispensable factorfor guaranteeingthe success of openlearning.

Therefore apart fromscheduling tutorials theregional centre mustcontinually train tutorsand supervise them toeffect maximum benefit from the tutorial sessions. Trained tutors

can motivate learners,advise them on how toapproach their studiesand diagnose learningproblems.

Calder and McCollum(1998: 70) say face-to-face tutorial supportis one of the most effective ways of learnersupport. They quote anopen learner saying oftutors, “The tutors arevery important, aftera certain level you getstuck, the tutors arethere for you when youget stuck, you couldnot manage withoutthe tutors.” Given thatthe core business of auniversity is teaching,it can be argued thatprovision of tutorialservices is probablythe most important roleof a regional centre.

Assignmentadministration

For both continuousassessment and as ateaching strategy, learners write tutor-markedassignments. The assignments are preparedat headquarters andsent to the regional centre from where they aredistributed to individuallearners. The regionalcentre collects and records all assignmentsfrom learners, passesthem on to markers,and keeps records ofwhat has been distrib


uted. Within an agreedtime frame (14 daysfor ZOU) the markersreturn the assignmentsto the regional centre.Before assignments arecollected back by thelearners, ProgrammeCoordinators sampleand moderate them toensure that markingis thorough, educativeand communicative.This aspect is veryimportant as the quality of learning of openand distance learnersis partly influenced bythe quality of feedbackon written assignments.Race (2005: 120) says,“The most critical sideof supporting openlearners is giving feedback on their markedwork.” The same view,is held by Mills and Tait(1999: 73 — 74) whenthey say:

Teaching bycommentingconstructively onstudents’ scriptsbecame a key skill inthe distance tutor’srepertoire. Muchstaff-developmentactivity in QDLcurrently revolvesaround the skillsand pedagogyof teaching bycommenting inwriting on a student’swork and enteringinto a dialogue usingthis medium.

Thus, the regional cen

tre plays a key role inensuring that learnersbenefit from markedassignments.

Examinationsmanagement

Learner studies culminate in formal examinations which whenpassed, lead to certification, and examinations are managed bythe regional centre. Thisinvolves safe custodyof examination papers,before and after writing, procuring examination stationary/materials; securing venuesand hiring invigilatorsand ensuring that theletter and spirit of theexamination rules areat play. If the universityis to claim quality service to its customers,the examinations mustbe managed properly.CoIlby (2003:3) andNatarajan (1993:11) argue that one quality indicator of an educationsystem is the credibilityof its examination andcertification processes.For a regional centreto execute this taskefficiently it has to beempowered in terms ofrequisite skills, values,and attitudes amongthe staff.

Marketing

Another role of the regional centre is to mar-

ket the institution. I heregional centre provides for the physicalpresence and visibilityof the institution in thelocal community. Theregional centre sellsthe institution in the locality by means of opendays, taking part in exhibitions, spearheadingresearch and hostingconferences. The regional centre also initiates linkages with thecorporate world, politicians, as well as civicleaders. In all this, thethrust is to identify theacademic needs of thecommunity and steerthe institution towardscontinually satisfyingthese needs and establishing a permanentproductive relationshipwith the community.In its marketing rolethe regional centrethus seeks to createcustomers; keep customers, and make thecustomers profitablefor the organization(Murombedzi, Mugwagwa & Chivandikwa2001 :8).

Challenges inmanaging aregional centre

Several challenges exist in the managementof a regional centre.Some of the problemsemanate from withinthe institution, whileothers have their on-


yiii, uussue isie Institution. Issues like hyperinflation, and highunemployment levelsmanifest themselvesthrough a number ofobservable indicatorsat the regional centrelevel. There are alsoissues linked to themanagement of theinstitution and availability of resources tobe considered.

Resources

In a developing country, a regional centreis inevitably faced withshortage of variousresources. First, financial resources allocated to the regional centre often fall far belowexpectations, a factalluded to by Bolton(2000) when he saysthese units are oftenexpected to deliver under scarce resourcesand meagre budgets.In some cases regional centres have enrolments higher thanconventional universities, yet what they getin terms of a budgetmay be equivalent toa departmental budgetin a conventional university. The issue ofinadequate resources,is aptly summed byMeacham (1999: 11)when he argues:In a period of rapid social and technologicalchange coupled with

government Induceddestabilization of universities, many issuesare emerging relating to the future roleof distance educationand its efficient operation in a client focusedmarket, where needsmay have to be metwith diminishing resources.

Modern technologythat would enhancethe quality of educationdelivery in a regionalcentre is usually out ofreach in terms of costfor most institutions, ormay not even be available on the market. Insuch cases, distancelearning is supportedthrough traditional andoften not-so-effectivemeans. This also hampers the undertaking ofmeaningful research.In the libraries therecould be problems oflimited loan periods,lack of stock, etc. (Mills& Tait 1999). Evenwhere technology isavailable the challengeof how to foster the effective use of electronicmedia for teaching andlearning is prevalent indeveloping countries,and Calvert (1999:2)argues that, “Manystaff and students arenew to the educationaluse of e-mail, bulletinboards, and computerconferencing.”

The human resourcesalso present a chal

The use of part-timeacademics means thatthe regional centre’sacademic life dependson borrowed manpower. These academics can only be available for the regionalcentre’s activities iftheir full-time employers release them, orif no other part-timeemployer offers thema better package atthe same time. It notproperly managed thiscould result in somepart time tutors oftenmissing scheduledtutorials. Most of thepart-time academicscome from conventional universities wherethey enjoy “academicfreedom” in terms ofwhat to teach, how tomark and even knowing what will come inthe examination. Inan open and distanceinstitution such activities are designedcentrally and the tutormust implement whatis designed, almost ina straightjacket fashion, and this leads toconflict which mayderail the teachingprogramme. Also because these lecturersare on short-term contract, should anything

lenge inregionalpecially

managing acentre, esacademics.


go wrong it is not easyto hold them accountable for their failures.Most academics run-fling CDL programmesare products of conventional universitiesboth as students andlecturers and the tendency is to employconventional deliverystrategies in an CDLset up and controllingfor this is not easy.Menon (1999:36) explains this dilemmawhen he says, “. whileit has been reasonablypossible to maintainquality in instructionalinputs, it is difficult toensure that quality ismaintained in contactsessions and practicalclasses”.

Stereotypes

In a location where aregional centre neighbours a conventionaluniversity, feelings thatthe conventional university offers better quality education abound.These feelings, mainlyemanating from thefact that CDL is a relatively new and little understood phenomenon(Mmari 1999), maydrive away potentiallearners and staff. Evenpart-time academics from conventionaluniversities may bringthese attitudes into thelearners, which may affect their zeal to learn.

The centralization/decentralizationdilemma

A regional centre is adecentralized unit ofheadquarters, and it isdebatable if the formerenjoys any meaningfulautonomy and flexibility to address learnerneeds in peculiar circumstances. Becauseof the need to often refer to headquarters, solution of problems maytake time, and this mayfrustrate the learners.Where headquartersdeliver less than whathas been promised,learners may exert a lotof pressure on the regional centre. Academic staff has to live witha dual reporting structure and this can createconfusion and conflict.Some officers at headquarters may want tocontrol the regionalcentre even if they arenot conversant withwhat goes on there.This view is supportedby Bolton (2000:2) whosays, “In a rational desire for control and orderliness, central officers have wished . . .theunits to be either organizationally weak, sothat they depend uponcentral services..

Student audit

Because learners donot report to the re

gional centre regularlyit is difficult to keepup to date learner audits. Learner attritiononly becomes visiblewhen assignments arenot submitted or whenlearners fail to turn upfor examinations. Attimes, at this juncture,the learner may havelong dropped out and itwill be too late to bringhim/her back. Failure tokeep accurate studentstatistics may lead tounder-planning for resources and services.The challenge to betackled is how to ensurethat there is maximumenrolment and minimaldropouts, as dropoutsconstitute a waste ofresources (Mntangi1999:72; Moyo & Mumbengegwi 1995: 68).

Fees payment

Some learners maydefault on their feespayment, thus suffocating financial inflowsinto the institution. Because student statements are generated atheadquarters it may bedifficult at times to verify at regional level thefees payment statusof a learner. Failure tocollect fees due causesa strain on available resources, as these willbe stretched to catereven for students whohave not paid.


space

Due to financial constraints, a regionalcentre may operatefrom rented premises,and move on whenthe lease lapses. Thisgives the centre a nomadic character, withlearners “chasing” itfrom site to site. Evenif the regional centredoes not move, learnerand staff numbers maysoon outgrow the rented premises forcing theinstitution to look for additional premises hence“scattering the region”around town. Even inthe few cases whereproperty was acquiredwhen CDL universitieswere introduced learner and staff growthhas far outstripped thecapacity to expand thepremises. Thus the regional centre finds itselfcrowded in inadequatepremises or “scatteredaround,” or both. Thisleads to loss of identityof the institution.

Distance

Even though the thrustof a regional centre isto reduce the distancebetween the institution and the learner insome cases, especiallyin rural areas, distancebetween the learnersis a serious barrier toeffective CDL. This isworsened by lack of reli

able transport and othercommunication networks, and tends to cutoff the learner from theregional centre. The result is that learners misskey deadlines, misstutorials, miss examinations and ultimatelymay dropout of the system resulting in a wasteof scarce resources.In some cases somelearners take longerthan planned to complete their study programmes, thus increasing the wastage ratio(Moyo & Mubengegwi1995: 690). Studies byGatawa (1998: 21) andDorsey, etal(1991: 23)confirm that distancetravelled by learners toeducational institutionsdisrupts learning activities. The same view,is held by Anderson,Marcus and Thomas(1 999:28) who say,“Supporting learners inremote areas of Guyanapresents a significantchallenge to IDCE’seducation system.”

The way forward

If CDL is to continueto have the desired impact CDL institutionsneed to empower theirregional centres. Someoptions are highlightedbelow.

To boost the resourcebase for the regionalcentre, it is necessary

to increase learner enrolment so as to reduceunit costs and realizeeconomies of scale ofoffering programmes.Cost effectivenessanalysis should be theguiding principle in expenditure options (Hulsmann 1999). Fixed andvariable costs shouldbe clearly isolated withthe express intention ofsuppressing the later.

Extensive training offull-time and part-timeacademics in CDL delivery modes will improve the delivery ofservice. An improvedservice delivery reduces learner complaints.The institution itself canmount CDL instructionprogrammes and ensure that all regionalacademics are properly qualified for thejob they do, rather thanrely on the assumption that any academiccan deliver in an CDLsetup. Anderson, Marcus Thomas (199:28)argue that, “Overseeing the tutorial systemand generally providinglearner support services are activities dependent on the deploymentof competent and highly motivated staff, aswell as good communication.” Reasonablestaff retention schemesshould be put in placeto motivate staff, and


curb staff-turnover,which disrupts the instructional programmeand leads to costs ofrecruiting and inductingnew staff. In the wakeof dwindling government funding the institution needs to engagein income generation,and plough back someof the proceeds to staffretention.

According to Mmari(1999) cooperationwith existing educational institutions, industry,private and public libraries makes it possible to offer uncompromised service evenwith scarce resourcesand limited budgets.The regional centrescan share into the useof existing cooperators’facilities at reducedcosts, or even at nocost at all, dependingon the negotiating aptitude of staff managingthe regional centre.

Massive investmentin modern technology such as internetand teleconferencingfacilities may improveaccess to tutorial services, and reduce theinefficiencies and inadequacies associatedwith the use of a largenumber of ill-trained tutors. This may initiallycall for an enormouscapital outlay, but in

the long run a lot ofmoney that would gointo wages would besaved, and some efficiency realized.Chacon (1999) arguesthat investment in appropriate technologiesis the way to go andyields good returnsin the long run, whileChandiram (1999:32)explains how IndiraGandhi Open University has successfullyused multimedia approach to reach out toits learner population.

To deal with the issueof distances betweenlearners and regionalcentres, the CDL institutions may furtherdecentralize to districtand study centres.However in so doing,care must be taken torestructure the institutions’ hierarchy toavoid ending up withtoo tall structures thatdelay and distort communication. In additionmobile teams can beused to provide tutorial support for learners (Anderson, Marcus& Thomas 2001:28).Learners can also beissued with a guidebook at registration thathelps to induct themto open and distancelearning, so that theycan tackle some of thechallenges they meeton their own, a strategy

that has worked for theOpen University of SriLanka (Weerasinghe1999: 57). This wouldhelp bring the university service to learners’doorsteps (ZOU:1 999).Learners in distant locations can be trainedin setting up and sustaining study groups(Lippiart 2001: 81).The regional centremust provide supportfor the study groups tokeep them focused.

In conclusion, it mustbe acknowledged thatopen and distancelearning, holds hopefor economic and social development formany nations. Ding(1999:179) says, “Dueto its features of openness, economy of scaleand flexibility, open anddistance learning hasmade a special andsignificant contribution to Chinese highereducation, and morebroadly to socio-economic development.”This can be true of anycountry, but only if theregional centre, whichis the point of delivery for the institution’sprogrammes is appropriately empowered todeliver in quality style.


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Chacon F.1999. Distance education inLatin America: growthand maturity: Highereducation throughopen and distancelearning Vol. 1:137-149.

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FACILITATING INTERACTION DURINGFACE-TO-FACE TUTORIALS IN OPEN DISTANCELEARNING: Insights from the Socratic MethodStanslaus Modesto TichapondwaBotswana College of Open and Distance Learning (B000DOL)

Abstract

The article focuses onclassroom interactionwith emphasis on thequestioning method.The purpose is to examine the significanceof the method duringlearner-tutor interaction, and to establishhow best questionscan be used to achievelearning goals. Findings, based on a communication course, arediscussed. Eight tutors were identified toconduct tutorials, andeach one worked with25 learners. After ageneral induction, fourtutors (experimentalgroup) were briefed onquestioning strategies,and the remainderserved as the controlgroup. Interaction forboth groups was tape-recorded before andafter the briefing. Results showed that tutors whose awarenesshad been raised, usedinterrogatives moreeffectively than theircounterparts. This ledto the conclusion thatconscious enhancement of knowledgeabout the Socratic

method leads to effective negotiation oflearning. One of therecommendations wasthat tutors should beguided in the use ofquestioning strategiesfor better interaction.

Introduction

Questioning is an acknowledged didacticmethod at the disposalof the tutor. Many different acts during tutorials are realised byquestions, and Sinclairand Brazil (1982:60)suggest that questionsare the chief meansof eliciting learner responses. Elkind andSweet (2004) regardquestioning as a socialisation process thatleads to the negotiationof mutual expectations.The syntactic structureof questions is interrogative, aimed at stimulating purposeful interaction to achieve pedagogic goals. Socrateswas well known for hisuse of questions toeducate. That is whythe questioning strategy has come to beknown as the Socraticmethod. Distance edu

cation has introducedface-to-face tutorialsto complement writtenmodules, which arethe primary medium ofcommunication. Theuse of questions is notat all new, however,the effectiveness withwhich it is used has notbeen established fora fact. It was againstthis background thatthe present investigation was carried out asa revisit to the Socraticmethod if only to establish ways in whichquestions are used topromote learning.

What has remainedquestionable is the effectiveness of questions in terms of achieving learning goals.Effectiveness refers tothe influence a question has in achievinglearning goals. Basically, in the context oftutorials, questions area pre-condition for oralinteraction. They areused for a whole rangeof purposes includingthe tutor’s need to establish whether learners completed theirassignments, and to


find out why they comelate for tutorials. Tutorstend to use questionsmainly for administrative purposes. Whatdid not come out clearly from my observationwas the use of the Socratic method to negotiate learning.

Without exception, thistendency was noticedin tutorials for the CDLcourses offered by theZimbabwe Open University (ZOU) and the Botswana College of Openand Distance Learning(BOCODOL). Premisedon that, the stimulus forresearch was a strongly-felt pedagogic intuitionarising from experiencegenerally, but madeconcrete in the courseof field trips to community study centres.

The researchcontext

BOCODOL originateda course for police officers known as English for ProfessionalPurposes (EPP). Thesix-month programmewas aimed at developing work related communication skills andcompetencies in corepolicing areas such asstatement writing. Tutors holding a degreequalification in Englishwere identified to handle tutorials during thepilot stage.

In the context for investigation I narroweddown the areas for negotiation to negotiationof meaning and negotiation of form, which arecentral to a communication course. Learneroutput, as conceptualised in this study,refers to the extent towhich learners, stimulated to participate bythe tutor, contributemeaningfully to thecommunicative eventsin a given tutorial usingextended discourse.By extended discourseI mean learner responses that go beyond single words orphrases, but involvethe generation of sentences in language thatis original but relevantto the topic. To guidemy investigation, threeresearch questionswere formulated thus:

1. What type ofquestions do tutors currently ask,that is after induction, to negotiatelearning?

2. What interactionchanges occur inthe oral exchanges between tutorsand learners aftertutor awarenessof the significanceof questions (inthe negotiationof learning) israised?

3. Do learners un

der tutors, whoseawareness hasbeen raised, negotiate learningbetter?

Questions andthe negotiation oflearning

In line with the EPPcourse objectives,Tichapondwa andTrennepohl (2001:48)observe that tutorsshould ask the rightkind of questions to enable learners to answerappropriately. Interrogatives are normallycategorised accordingto their levels of difficulty, or the complexityof verbal responses expected from learners.

In a typical communication course such asEPP, negotiation of formand meaning are inseparable. In the wordsof Prabhu (1988:1) language is seen as “consisting primarily of anability to conform automatically to grammaticalnoms, and communication as a matter of understanding, arriving at,or conveying meaning”.

Thus in the presentarticle, focus is on theway questions areused to promote interaction through competent use of grammatical features to sharemutual understanding


in the course of meaning-focused activity.Tutor awareness wasraised by exposingthem to theories aboutthe Socratic method.

Researchers on classroom interaction (e.g.Barnes et al, 1971;Lyster and Ranta,1997) were influencedby the evolution ofdescriptive linguisticsconcerned with procedures followed tostimulate classroomdialogue. Working withBritish elementary Liclassrooms, Sinclairand Coulthard (1975),Coulthard (1977), andSinclair and Brazil(1982), have evolvedan approach that,among other issues,examines the role ofquestions in promoting learning and classroom interaction. Theirsociolinguistic slantis partly the result ofinfluence from ethnographic investigationsinto the structure of interaction (e.g. Hymes.1972). Ethnographersare concerned with thequalitative, process-oriented investigationof interaction, and theirquestion is: What arethe functions of questions and other discourse features in theclassroom where it isclaimed that learningtakes place? Work-

ing with pupils in theirfirst year of secondaryschool in Zimbabwe,Tichapndwa (2000)dwells on the contextual significance of questions.

Questions, like otherlinguistic features, canbe quantified and interpreted. That is whyin the approach, analysts are concernedwith interactional conventions, features ofdiscourse, and theeducational functionsof discourse when theteacher stands in frontof a class.

Applied Linguists, Malamah-Thomas (1987)and Van Lier (1988)shed more light on theeducational value ofquestions and arguethat teaching stylesand learning strategies,as linguistic preoccupations, depend onmetalinguistic awareness. Value judgementabout the significanceof questions in negotiation of learning (Vanden Branden, 1997),and in the guided construction of knowledge(Mercer, 1995) willtherefore be made.

Sinclair and Coulthard(1975) proposed that alesson can be analysedas having a number ofranks: lesson, transac

tion, exchange, move,and act. Each constitutes the elements ofthe rank above, according to rank-specificstructural rules. In theirapproach, a transaction is essentially anepisode of talk on aparticular theme, andit usually consists of anumber of exchanges.A common example ofan exchange is a question followed by an answer, followed by anacknowledgement ofthat answer.

Tutors and learnerstake part in exchangesfor much of the timethey will be talking. Anexchange often consists of three moves:Initiation (1) - Response (R) - Feedback

T Takesure,what is aplot? (I)

L: The events ina novel (A)

T Good. (F)

In what follows I examine questions as tutorinput and the responses to such questionsas learner output.

QuestionCategories

When the tutor intervenes, by giving input,what does the studentdo with her slot interms of a fitting contri

(F):[1]


bution relative to formand meaning? VanLier (1988:105) says,“because of the turn-taking rules, participants are restricted intheir power and initiative to change and influence the discourse.”This means, it is theway turns are allocatedwhich constrains or liberates initiative. Hence,there are ways of asking questions which account for more effectivediscourse at both theinput and output levels.By contrasting the twoexamples given below,it is evident that thesecond interrogative isless constraining thanthe first.

[2] a. Waterevaporateswhen it isheated, isn’tit?

b. Why doeswaterevaporate?

Van Lier (1988) examines how and when initiative is possible, andhow it can be identified.Initiative is the willingness, by an individual,to originate languagethat is more personaland influential on subsequent interaction fora given topic. Initiativecan be explained byidentifying moves usedin the process of turntaking. In a given inter-

action, we are able todescribe and evaluatethe effect of linguisticunits evident in the expression of initiative.The learner initiatesdiscourse when he/sheoriginates informationthrough language related to the topic underdiscussion, and oftenin answer to a question. For purposes ofdescription, Van Lier(1988:109) introducesthe concepts of ‘prospective’ and ‘retrospective’ classificationof speech acts. In:

[3] T: Why doeswaterevaporate?

S: because ofthe heat fromthe sun,

The teacher’s moveis said to be prospective because it looksforward to, limits thenext speakership andinfluences the content.On the other hand, thestudent’s response issaid to be retrospectivebecause it is linked tothe preceding turn, andcould exhibit varyingdegrees of influencefrom preceding turns.

In addition, Van Lierintroduces the idea oftopic control and management as a manifestation of initiative. Thisis reflected in featuressuch as student’s useof discourse to: con-

tribute new information,maintain interaction,and disputing a proposition of a prior turn,what we call counter-informs.

To interpret data fromlesson transcripts, analytical categories wereused. These were according to the way tutors asked questionsand how learners answered. Some categories account for moreeffective discoursethan others. We startwith categories attributed to teachers.

The first question category suggested bySinclair and Coulthard(1975) is the polar interrogative or the yes!no question, whichelicits a response thatis either positive ornegative, using a single word.

The second categoryis the ‘question tag’,which is linguisticallystructured to signalthat agreement wouldbe the more congruentresponse as in this example.

[4] T: The adjectiveformed fromcircle iscircular, isn’tit?

The tutor makes anassertion, and thenquestions it. Thus, the

DEA5A-SADC ODE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 77

learner is invited togive the proposition urgent support.

The third questioncategory is the display question (Love,1991:203). It is posedwith an answer in mindand it is also known asa test question. A clearexample is:

[5J T: Which arethe mathcauses of soilerosion?

Here, although an opportunity is created forthe learner to respondin more words thanwas the case in the twoprevious categories,the potential answeris limited to the regurgitation of discourseinitiated by the tutorearlier. The foregoingthree categories areconsidered to be lesseffective.

The fourth categoryis termed ‘referentialquestion’, and its objective, according toSinclair and Coulthard(1975), is the elicitationof informative content,for example:

[6] T: Why do youthink thereare moreaccidents inyour town atChristmas,than anyother monthin the year?

Here, the learner is required to communicatein his own language.Informative content refers to information necessary for discussing atopic. In this question,the tutor cannot predict the precise natureof the information andthe discourse used toconvey it.

Love (1991:102) addsthat a referential question is “reinforced bylonger pauses thanany other type of question”. A pause, thoughnon-verbal, is observable and its pedagogicfunction is to allow students to reflect on alternative language output fit to express conceptualisation of ideas.This means a pause,following a referentialquestion, encouragesstudents to plan theirdiscourse output.Some learner discourse will be morecommunicative whileothers will be lessso, and communicative discourse impliesinitiative as one of itscharacteristic featuresas illustrated below.

a. Intormatives

Three types, according to Sinclair andCoulthard (1975: 45),are identifiable. The firstone involves an answerto a display question.

[7] T: WhichcountriesborderMalawi?

S: Mozambique,Zambia,Tanzania.

The learner fulfils thetutor’s predicting move,a display question inthis case, by producing a reply in whichdiscourse is used toregurgitate rather thannegotiate content.

The second one is theminimal response inwhich pupils give singlewords or use vocalisations (e.g. uhu,ormhh).The third one involvesuse of a wide range ofconstructions, whichare neither predictablenor constrained in response to referentialquestions.

b. Clarifications

Clarification refers toextended discourseproduced by the learner in response to thetutor’s questions requiring the learner tosupply further information thereby clarifyingcontent. Cullen (1998)regards clarificationsas discourse that isexperiential. Thus, thelearner who is encouraged to clarify contentis likely to producemore effective discourse in terms of both


quality and quantitybased on personal experience.

The discourse exemplifies two principlesput forward by Tarone(1980) and Cohen(1997), namely, thestudent’s application oflearning strategies using teacher input to develop linguistic knowledge, and the student’sattempt to use language more efficiently(production strategies).

Van den Branden’s(1997) view on clarifications is that whenthe interlocutor givesnon-comprehensionsignals, students maycome to question theirlanguage output andconsciously choosemore communicativediscourse. Thus, clarifications stand as evidence of more effectiveuse of language in thenegotiation of learning.

c. Counter-informs

Counter-informs areretrospective movesoriginated by the learner to express a differentposition. For example,when one interactantinitiates a move he orshe expects a response(prospective move).In reply (retrospectivemove), the addresseegives an answer that iscontradictory. Burbules

(1993) has referred tosuch moves as divergent views expressedin discourse that isneither predictable norconstrained. When astudent initiates a particular contribution,requesting further information, or disputing aproposition, this showsactive participation andinitiative, and occurswhen the tutor or peerasks questions.

Method

The study used a pretest post-test experimental research designwith a control group.The Pilot Stage forthe EPP course comprised 8 tutors, eachhandling 25 learnersin four regions in Botswana. The part-timetutors were qualifiedteachers of Englishserving in colleges ofeducation. They helda degree in English asthe minimum academicqualification. Learners were drawn fromthe Botswana PoliceService, and their minimum academic qualification was two years ofsecondary schooling.All the 8 tutors underwent induction in preparation for tutoring, andwere, in addition, givena tutor’s guide to helpthem teach three modules over a period ofsix months.

Four tutors participated in the study as thegroup that receivedspecial intervention (theexperimental group)while the other fourwere the control group.Each tutor was audiotaped four times (twicebefore and twice after intervention for theexperimental groupand at the same timefor the control groupwithout any intervention). Those four (theexperimental group),who were randomlysampled received additional intervention onthe issue of questioning techniques. Threeone-hour sessionswere spent sharingprinciples of questioning, and raising examples from experiencefor application duringsubsequent tutorials. Awhole range of questiontypes was discussedwith specific distinction made of the morefrom the less effectiveones. This awarenessraising was linked tothe impact such teachers would make onpolice officers undertheir tutorship. Tape-recording tutorials after intervention wouldestablish whether anyintervention changesoccurred. Similarly,learner responses under teachers in the control and experimental

DEASA-SADC CDE international Journal of Open and Distance Learning 79

groups were analysedand results compared,to establish how effectively they negotiatedlearning. That way, thesecond and third research questions wereaddressed.

The study took sixmonths. Data collectedfrom sixteen tutorialswere transcribed andinterpreted in accordance with analyticalcategories determinedfor the purpose as discussed above. Pre-testand post-test resultswere then compared.

Results

The first two extractscapture interactionbefore intervention.For ease of reference,the following notationis used. T= tutor; L=learner silenceby learners;

_____=

instructional pause.

Extract 1

This extract is from atutorial by one of thetutors who were goingto receive guidance onbest ways to use questions.

T: Name thedifferent types ofreport you haveread about fromthe module...Anybody? Yes...

ReportT: Is that all? List

some more...Ls:T: Have you

forgotten? Heh...?Routine Report isone of them...andInvestigativeReport. Isn’t it?Right. Now...which are thethree main partsof a report?

Ls:T: I will give you a

clue. The first onebegins with theletter ‘I’. Yes...

L: IntroductionT: Correct. . . and the

next one? Yes...L:BodyT:Body...yes and

the last one is...L: ConclusionT:Good. What about

the documentyou write andcirculate withinthe organisation.What is it called?Anyone...

L:LetterT: What kind of

letter? It has aspecial name...starts with letter

L: MemoT: Yes.. memo or

memorandum infull. Now read thesection in yourmodules thatdeals with Reportsand other meansof communication,

and prepare forthe assignment.

The first elicit is therecall type requestingdisplay of knowledge.The learner respondsaccordingly through ashort informative. Therequest to list moreexamples, also a recallelicit, results in silenceas learners avoid giving answers. The tutorgoes on to ask the offtask question: “Haveyou forgotten?” towhich no response isforthcoming. To saveface, he answers hisown question showing there is little topicdevelopment. This isfollowed by yet anotherdisplay question aboutreport types. Realisingthere is no response,he gives a clue, andhesitantly one learnerresponds minimallyby giving one word.Guessing the answersexpected by the tutor,learners simply giveone -word answers(minimal responses).Talk is monopolisedby the tutor, and thereis little negotiation oflearning.

Extract 2

This extract is from a tutorial by a tutor who didnot receive guidanceon the principles aboutthe Socratic method(control group).

SirL: Occasional

80 DEASA-SADC CDE lnternationa Journa’ of Open and Dstance Learning

T: What name isgiven to the personwho gives youinformation whenyou are investigatinga crime? Doesanyone know? Yes...L: WitnessT: There is a specialword for it. What isit?... Informant.Isn’t it?Ls: (in chorus) Yee-esT: Then an informantwho comes onher own to giveinformation is calleda...what?A what?Ls:T: Easy. She

is called avoluntaryinformant.Together sayvoluntaryinformant.

Ls: (in chorus)Voluntaryinformant

T: At times youfind it difficultto trust aninformant.However, thereare informantsyou can trust.What term dowe use for suchinformants? Theword has to dowith trust.

L: TrustworthyT: Not exactly.

There is thatspecial word.What is it? Yourproblem is that

you don’t readin preparationfor tutorials. Isaid what is theword?

Ls:T: The word

is ‘reliable’witness. Whena person isreliable thatmeans you cantrust him.

The extract has all thefeatures identified inExtract 1, except thefocus on word meanings: “There is a specialword for it. What is it?”Again this reflects preconceived responseselicited through displayquestions. The lack ofinitiative by learnersis shown in a numberof ways, including silences. When the tutoranswers her own questions, she requestschoral answers, a lesseffective way of topicdevelopment.

Extract 3 and Extract4 reflect use of theSocratic method in tutorials recorded duringpost intervention.

Extract 3

T. Let’s see whatyou know aboutinterviews. Aperson whointerviewssomebodyis called an

interviewer.What doyou call aperson who isinterviewed?

L: ApplicantT: Applicant? No...

of course. Theperson is calledan interviewee.Together sayinterviewee...

Ls: (in chorus)interviewee-e-e

T. Right. There aredifferent typesof interviewWhat nameis given to aninterview wherea person wantsemployment?

L: Work interviewT: No. It’s called

a job interview.Now... thereare two more.An interventioninterview andan informativeinterview. Whichof these twois aimed atpersuading theintervieweeto see thingsthe way theinterviewer seesthem?

Think... Think...Can’t youjust choose?OK... thecorrect answeris interventioninterview Inyour module...

Ls:T:


there are tions are asked andfour types ofquestions askedin an interviewWhich arethese?

L: Short questionsT: Short

questions?I don’t knowthat. Leadingquestions...specificquestions...What else?

Ls:.

This is from a tutorialby the same tutor forExtract 2 (belongingto the control group).Clearly, her pre-occupation with whatlearners know placesher subsequent interrogatives in the displaycategory, and she provides answers to mostof her questions. Whenlearners volunteer theirlimited informatives,they get discouragingremarks for incorrectanswers. This resultsin silence as an indication of unwillingness toparticipate. Comparingthe two extracts by thesame tutor, the wayshe performs in thepost intervention phaseis similar to the wayshe asks questions before intervention takesplace. Clearly, therefore, there is no significant change that takesplace in the way ques

how learners respond.Some difference was,however, noted in Extract 4 from the tutorwho taught Extract 1.

Extract 4

T: / asked you toread the sectionon Meetings.How many ofyou have read?

Ls: (raise theirhands)T: Good. Who are

the key playersin a meeting?

______

Yes...Li: You need a

chairperson.. . asecretary...ummm

L2: Don’t forgetparticipants...otherwisethere is nomeeting withoutparticipants.

T: What do youmean? Canyou explain?

L2: If there are nopeople who willattend?... Thechairman andthe secretary...only two ofthem?

L3: That’s why youneed a quorum.

T: A quorum...That’s a newword. Whatdoes it mean?

L2: There shouldbe enough

people so thatthe discussionbecomesmeaningful.

L4: Also can youmake resolutionswhen there arefew participants?/ don’t think so.

L5: Resolutions arearguments...right?

T: There is aquestion. Whatare, What areresolutions?

L6: I think they areagreements.

T: Agreements?Any differentview? Yes...

Li: Decisions madewhen peoplefinish talkingabout something.

T: Fine. They aredecisions whichthe secretarywill minute.

L7: I don’t thinkonly resolutionsare minuted.Suggestionsand views byparticipants canalso be minuted.

The conversation begins with an administrative question toverify prior reading,and moves on with adisplay question thatrequires informationabout key players in ameeting. Li gives twopredictable answers,then L2 self selects and


gives as third player:participants. Througha referential question,the tutor asks L2 toexplain. The answeris not predictable, andL2’s clarification, givenin extended discourse,leads to mutual understanding (negotiationof meaning). Withoutwaiting for the tutor toallow her to speak, L3takes the initiative bygiving further clarification, thus facilitatingtopic development.

The teacher consciously draws attention of learners to thenew register ‘quorum’and seeks its elucidation. 12 provides awide ranging informative that brings a clearmeaning of the word,thus negotiation of formand meaning are fusedtogether. After that L4takes initiative by asking a question, whichintroduces the conceptof ‘resolutions’. In actual fact the question isa counter inform which,nevertheless, accountsfor discourse progress.When L5 self selects,he expresses a problem with the meaningof the word ‘resolutions’. At that point thetutor redirects the conversation by requesting learners to clarifythe term.

When L6 volunteersa response, the tutordoes not rush to accept the answer lestthat closes the smoothflow of discourse. Heasks for alternativemeaning, which Li isable to furnish. Thetutor’s rejoinder servesto acknowledge thatthe contributions madeare compatible withthe topic. Unexpectedly, L7 introducesa new position aboutthe substance of minutes. In this counter inform, more meaning isadded to the dialogue,showing learner autonomy in the negotiationof form and meaning inextended discourse.

Discussion

A number of conclusions can be drawnfrom the two pre-intervention extracts. Aclear pattern of askingquestions emergescharacterised by tutorsasking display questions (most of the time)whose constrainingeffect can be noted inthe minimal responses,and lack of initiative bylearners (Love, 1991).The key finding is thatthere is a lack of initiative by learners in preintervention exchanges. This is a direct result of the type of questions asked, and theseare mainly display, tag

and polar questions,which lead to very limited negotiation of learning (Coulthard, 1977).This finding addressesthe question to do withthe types of questionsasked by tutors beforeguidance about principles of the Socraticmethod is given.

Results from Extract 4compared to Extract 3lead to one major conclusion, namely, thattutors who receive thebenefit of principlesabout questioning strategies assist learnersto negotiate learningmore consciously andmore effectively compared to those tutorswho are not exposed toprinciples of questioning strategies. Distribution of speakership ismore conscious as evidenced in the prospective and retrospectivediscourse. The secondconclusion is that inthe hands of somebody aware of the significance of questions,display questions canbe used as a basis fornegotiation of learning,notwithstanding theirlimited effectiveness,a view subscribed toby Van Lier (1988).Thirdly, where openended questions e.g.“What do you mean?”are asked, learner responses are unpredict


able, and learners uselanguage that is original. Fourthly, the useof instructional pausesallows learners to thinkand retrieve the appropriate language to formulate a response. Finally, we conclude thatreferential questionsliberate learners totake the initiative to advance their own viewswithout waiting for thetutor to allocate turns.Evidence of initiative isshown through self-selection; providing information in more personalised and extendeddiscourse; readiness toclarify points; and providing different perceptions to the topic underdiscussion.

On account of thesefindings, therefore, itcould be said that afterexposure to ways of using the Socratic method, tutors from the experimental group showa significant change inthe manner they askquestions. The changeis attributable to theintervention more thanto any other influencesince counterparts inthe control group donot show evidence ofany change. Similarly,learners under tutorsfrom the experimentalgroup respond to questions in a creative fashion, and show evidence

of improved ability tonegotiate learning, anattribute that is absentfrom those under tutorship in the controlgroup.

Recommendations

To begin with, theresearch populationand the scope of thestudy are quite limited. Further, EPP,the course studied bylearners and on whichthe investigation wasconducted is new inBotswana. Also, muchas the findings can beconsidered to be internally valid, that is, theyare a function of the intervention, one is hesitant to make generalisations. What I shouldmake clear though isthat the research wasnot designed as anexperiment to provethe Socratic Methodempirically, but wasrather a classroomaction research fordeveloping that methodology and gainingsome insight of it. I amtherefore, comfortablewith the assumptionthat any innovation hasrelevance beyond thespecific situation it isassociated with, hencemy recommendationspresuppose the findings would apply in thereal distance educationcircumstances wherequestions are used to

conduct face-to-facetutorials.

My key recommendation is that distance education organisationswith face-to-face tuition as a component ofcourse delivery shouldactively promote methodologies that emphasise more purposeful.talk. The conclusionfrom pre-interventioninteraction, showingthat tutors ask less effective questions, suggests that somethingought to be done. Thisis because learnersunder such influencedo not show any initiative. It is, therefore,recommended thattutors of different subjects be given systematic induction about thepedagogic benefits associated with questioning strategies.

The second recommendation is that

about ways of makingclassroom talk moreproductive. Amongsuch componentsshould be the Socraticmethod. The commonpractice by distancelearning providers is tohire qualified teachers,serving in conventionalschools, as part-timetutors. The assump

courseseducationdude

in teachershould in

components


tion is that somebodywho is already qualified to teach will havea sound command ofteaching methodologies. However, as thestudy proved, qualifiedteachers (part-timetutors) showed a deficiency in the way theyask questions.

Finally, it is recommended that educationauthorities includingthe Ministry of Education in Botswana organise workshops andseminars to sensitisealready serving teachers about teacher-learner interaction asan applied linguisticphenomenon that canbe enhanced throughappropriate use ofthe Socratic method.There was ampleevidence from the investigation that moreeffective questionsstimulate more effective discourse that is ofpedagogic value. Thusit is logical to revisit

the didactic methodology under discussionto enhance cognitivedevelopment even inconventional schools.

Synthesis

In sociocultural terms,people talk for a variety of reasons, andthese include sharingof knowledge and experience. In pedagogiccontexts, where tutorand tutees constitute aspeech community, thesharing of knowledgetakes a systematicslant during which oneinterlocutor is vestedwith the responsibilityof directing speaker-ship towards attainment of cognitive goals.The chief means of doing that is the Socraticmethod that leads tointeraction and negotiation of learning.

Tutors who are successful in their responsibilities distinguish theless from the more ef

fective ways of askingquestions. As demonstrated, the moreeffective ones have apositive influence onthe discourse output oflearners. Similarly, tutors can inhibit learningby using interrogativesthat have a constrainingeffect. The languageof learning is bothpersuasive and decisive in all tutoring andlearning. In that case,in distance educationface-to-face tutorials,the case for revisitingthe Socratic methodcannot be overemphasised. Therefore,questions that fosternegotiation of learning, based on linguisticawareness, bring relations between thinkingand languaging into focus. In their wake, weget learner discoursethat is expressive ofimagination, creativity, and argumentationas topics are pursued,developed and personalised.


References

Barnes, D., Britton,J.,Rosen, H. and theLondon Association forthe teaching of English. 1971. Language,the learner and theschool. London: Penguin.

Burbules, N. 1993.Dialogue in teaching:Theory and practice.New York:Teacher’sCollege press, Columbia University

Coulthard, M.1 977.An introduction to discourse analysis. London: Longman

Cullen, R. 1998.“Teacher talk and theclassroom context”.ELT Journal Vol. 52 / 3

Elkind, D.H. andSweet, F. “How to docharacter education” inToday’s School. Sept.!Oct2004

Flanders, N. 1970.Analysing teachingbehaviour. Reading(Mass): Addison-Wesley

Hymes, D. 1972.“On communicative

competence”. In J.B.and J. Holmes (eds.).Sociolinguistics. Hammondsworth: Penguin

Love, K. 1991.“Towards a furtheranalysis of teachertalk”. In Pretorius, E.J.Discourse analysis forApplied Linguistics.Pretoria: UNISA

Lyster, R. and Ranta,E. 1997. “Correctivefeedback and learneruptake: negotiation ofform in communicativeclassrooms.” Studiesin second languageacquisition, Vol.19.37-6 1

Malamah-Thomas, A.1987. Classroom interaction. New York: Oxford University Press.

Mercer, N. 1995. TheGuided Constructionof Knowledge: talkamong teachers andlearners. Clevedon:Multilingual MattersLtd.

Prabhu, N.S. 1987.Second language pedagogy. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press

Sinclair, J.M. andCoulthard, R.M. 1975.Towards an analysisof discourse: the English used by teachersand pupils. London

Oxford UniversityPress

Sinclair, J.M. and Brazil, D. 1982. TeacherTalk. London: OxfordUniversity Press

Tichapondwa, SM.2000. Interactive Communication and theteaching-learning process. Gweru: MamboPress

Tichapondwa, S.M.and Trennepohl, B.2001. Communicationskills and statementwriting. Gaborone:Botswana College ofOpen and DistanceLearning

Van den Branden, K.1997. “Effects of negotiation on languagelearner’s outpuf’. Language Learning, Vol.47. no. 4 589-635

Van Lier, L. 1988. Theclassroom and thelearner. London: Long-man


QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROLSTRATEGIES IN THE ZIMBABWE OPENUNIVERSITYGrace T. Mukeredzi — Zimbabwe Open University& Tsitsi G. Ndamba — Great Zimbabwe University

Abstract

The paper is based ona research conductedto determine qualityassurance and quality control strategiesin the Zimbabwe OpenUniversity (ZOU). Thefocus was on tutoring,assignments, examinations, staff development, external assessment, resourcesand student tutorevaluation. Qualitativeresearch design andanalysis was used.Questionnaires extracted data from forty-eight(48) students, thirty-four (34) lecturers andeight (8) regional directors. Results showthat great strides werebeing made to assurequality despite challenges in the provisionof human, material,physical and financialresources. In tutoring,highly qualified, experienced and committedpersonnel were appointed and tutorialswere effective. Itemwriting of examinationquestions involved tutors nationwide and examination marking wascentralized to facilitate

efficient moderation.Regional workshops,seminars and meetingswere crucial for preparing and updating staffon efficient servicedelivery. Student tutor evaluation throughcomprehensive instruments emerged as aneffective way of enhancing tutor performance. The researchrecommended thatZOU increases theexisting human, material and infrastructureresources and mountmore workshops foracademic staff at National, Regional, Faculty and Departmentallevels to promote andensure quality at alllevels.

Introduction

Quality assurance andquality control are vital for effective management. Most qualitymanagement strategies combine bothelements to ensurecontinued improvement. Freeman (1994)observes that if institutions wish to maximisecontrol of their operations, they have to set

and effect their ownquality agendas before others set them.It is clear that qualityassurance and qualitycontrol are importantand central tools for effective management.

External quality controlmechanisms are noteffective for internal improvement purposes. Itis therefore crucial thateducational institutionsbuild their own qualityassurance and qualitycontrol strategies focused on own on-goingdevelopment and guided by own values andjudgement as well asprofessional accountability (Nixon 1995).

In 2006 the ZimbabweOpen University hadan approximate totalenrolment of twenty-one thousand (21 000)students. Ten RegionalCentres have been established in an effort todecentralize operationsas a quality assuranceand quality controlmeasure (UNESCO,1990). The RegionalCentres offer information and advice to


the public, mainly applicants and studentsby telephone, writtencorrespondence andface-to-face meetings.Staff at the RegionalCentres provide advice on courses andalso coordinate andmanage programmes.The model of open anddistance educationfollowed by the Zimbabwe Open University, where there is thecentral administrativeoffice and a number ofregional offices, is adopted from the OpenUniversity, UK, (ZOUStrategic Plan 2000—2003).

Addressing the issue ofquality assurance, theZimbabwe Open University, in its StrategicPlan (2000 — 2003:5)states that:

There is need to develop quality assurance mechanisms thatwill ensure consistentdelivery of productsand services to staff,students and industrysuch as:

• continuous evaluation;

• administrativeprocedures thatare followed andcontinuously evaluated;

• self evaluation,peer evaluation,student evaluation

vis-à-vis set objectives;

• continuous evaluation of all ZOUprogrammes;

• evaluating servicesprovided by ZOU;and

• maintaining highquality standardsin the delivery of allprogrammes.

The strategies outlinedabove are evidence ofcommitment by ZOUin its attempt to provide quality services.Against this background, the objectiveof the study was to determine the strategiesemployed by ZOU inassuring and controlling quality in its services. Guided by thisobjective, the researchsought to answer thequestion, What qualityassurance and quality control strategieshave been put in placeby ZOU to assure andcontrol quality in openand distance learning?’

Statement of theproblem

The Zimbabwe OpenUniversity is the onlyopen and distancelearning dedicated institution in the country. However, in recentyears, the institutionhas had to compete

for clients with conventional universitiesthat are coming up withcontinuing educationprogrammes that aretaught using distanceeducation modes. It iscritical therefore, forZOU to put in placequality assurance andquality control strategies in order to maintain existing clients andattract new ones.

Literature review

Quality refers to thedegree of excellenceor conformity of services or products with therequirements or characteristics of set standards. Hoyle (1995)views quality as a conformity to specificationsregardless of whetheror not the specifications satisfy clients.Stoner, Freeman andGilbert (2003) refer toquality as focusing onthe production of increasingly better products and services.

Quality control refersto the operational techniques and activitiesemployed to fulfill requirements for quality(Hoyle 1995). In otherwords, any activitiesemployed to improve,control, manage orassure quality may besome form of qualitycontrol activity. Qualitycontrol is therefore a


process of maintainingstandards and not creating them. Accordingto Hoyle, these standards are maintainedthrough processes ofselection, measurement and correction ofactivities so that all theproducts and serviceswhich emerge meet thestandards. Quality control is often regardedas a post event activity,a means of determining whether quality hasbeen achieved and taking corrective action. Inthe Zimbabwe OpenUniversity, quality control would be referringto those processes,activities or proceduresput in place to determine whether acceptable services are beingdelivered to clients witha view to taking corrective action.

Preedy, Glatter andLevacic (1997) notethat quality control isconcerned with checking outcomes afterprocesses have occurred in order toidentify problems andweaknesses. Doherty(1994) views quality control as based on‘feedback’, which is away of assessing information from staff, students and employersso that errors can becorrected. In learninginstitutions like ZOU

for instance, monitoring and review oflearning materials, programmes and courses,external assessment,assignments and examinations and annualreviews are some quality control activities thatthe institution woulduse (Lusunzi, 1998 andAmbedkar, 1991).

Quality assurance,on the other hand, isconcerned with ‘feedfoward’ as opposed tofeedback, namely withthe design processand systems so thatpotential problems areanticipated and prevented from happening (Doherty, 1994).This entails planninga programme, whichincludes its objectives, content, staffing,resources, teachingmethods and expectedoutcomes to ensurethat students achievecourse objectives(Dhanarajan, 1997).Stoner, Freeman andGilbert (2003) go on tosay quality assuranceimplies doing thingsright during the firstattempt instead of correcting any errors later.In ZOU, quality assurance would thereforerefer to those plannedand systematic activities critical to provideclients with adequateconfidence that the

university will fulfill requirements for quality. Quality assurancemeasures are criticalfor any institution because managers andclients cannot overseeall the operations forthemselves.

Research design

A qualitative researchdesign was used to collect and analyse data.Descriptives were usedto present the findings.Information was soughtfrom students in twelvedifferent programmesat undergraduate andpostgraduate levels intwo regions of the Zimbabwe Open University (Masvingo and Midlands), namely, PostGraduate Diploma inEducation (PGDE),Bachelor of Education(B. Ed), Master of Education (M Ed), Bachelor of Arts in Englishand Communication(BA ECS), BSc Agricultural Management,BSc Nursing Science,BSc Geography, Master of Business Administration (MBA),Bachelor of Commerce (Bcom), BScPsychology (BScPSY),BSc Special Education (SPED) and BScCounseling. Information was also obtainedfrom tutors engaged indifferent programmes.All the ten Regional Di-


rectors were targetedas respondents in thisstudy.

Data collection

The sample was drawnthrough stratified andpurposive procedures.The questionnaireswere distributed to tutors and students during weekend tutorialson 2 and 3 as well as9 and 10 November2001. The questionnaires were administered to forty-eightstudents, four from

over the two weekendsas stated above andalso to thirty-eight tutors of the same programmes. Ten otherquestionnaires weremailed one each to theten Regional Directorsin the institution and ofthese, eight were returned.

All questionnaires hadopen-ended questions which addressedquality assurance andcontrol of the following aspects: tutoring,assignments, examinations, staff development, student tutorevaluation, resources,weaknesses and possible solutions. Thequestionnaire for Regional Directors hadfive additional aspects

namely: external assessment, decentralization, regional directors’ expectations ofthe university, qualityassurance measurestaken before launchingnew programmes andlessons learnt from former programmes.

Findings anddiscussion

Most of the answersgiven by Regional Directors, tutors and students were similar andas a result they werediscussed together.

Tutoring

When asked to givetheir assessment ofthe quality of tutoringin ZOU, both studentsand tutors felt that theuniversity employshighly qualified andexperienced personnel. This could be attributed to a rigorousselection exercise undertaken by the institution before appointingpart-time and full-timeteaching staff. TheOpen University (OU)(UK) (2000) points outthat university teaching staff are requiredto have a degree or itsequivalent qualification and experience.The ZOU goes furtherto appoint staff with aminimum qualificationof a Masters Degree

and at least three (3)years experience in allits programmes, exceptin critical areas wherepeople with good honours degrees are appointed as teachingassistants. Tutors werefound to be committedto their work and always availing themselves and adequatelyprepared for those faceto face sessions.

A very high standard oftutoring was confirmedby students. Tutoringwas also viewed astimeously done, focused and conductedin a positive and encouraging manner.Face-to-face contacttime was seen as adequate by both staff andstudents. Accordingto Dhanarajan (1997),teacher learner contactis crucial for good educational practice. Suchoccasions are goodfor motivating learners and overcominglearner problems. Theyalso enable learnersto measure their ownvalue systems abouttheir studies and theirfuture. Students benefit more through active learning as apposed to memorizingand reproducing factsand answers. Talking,listening, observing,discussing, writing andrelating own experienc

each of theprogrammesing weekend

twelveattend

schools


es and applying themin the context of theirlessons are all partof the active learningprocess. Face-to-facetutorials facilitate peerinteraction which assists thinking and understanding. Learningcan improve throughteam effort than soloperformances.

Respondents felt thattutorials were regularlyscheduled and timetables and semesterdiaries were carefullydeveloped. Pacedlearning is crucial forstudents. What thisimplies in teaching isa clear understandingof appropriate pacingand learning throughtutorials. Tutors in thisstudy applauded standardization meetingswhich were taken to beinformative and meantto iron out and standardize operations asthese meetings wereheld before the start ofeach semester. Teamteaching was viewedas an effective strategyof ensuring quality. Tutorial groups were seenas appropriately sizedand close supervisionof tutorials was viewedas critical for quality.

Assignments

Asked about their viewson the nature and quality of the assignments,

respondents were ofthe opinion that involving tutors nationwidein the setting of assignment questions tobuild a bank of questions was good practice. This is echoedby Ambedkar (1991)in Satyanarayana andSesharatuan (1992)who highlights that itis desirable to have anassignments questionbank to reduce delaysin the preparation ofassignments everysemester. In the ZOU,these question banksare evolved at regionaland/or national centers. Assignments wereviewed as extensive in

breath and intensive indepth. They were alsoregarded as being ofgood quality, very demanding and adequatein number to cover allaspects of the course.In-class assignmentswere seen as a verygood development thatensured authenticity ofresults. Regional Coordinators noted thatin-class assignmentswere vital as theyguarded against copying and plagiarism.

These assignmentswere viewed as demanding application ofexperiences.One respondent said:

Assignments arenot calling for

regurgitation offacts, they call onstudents to draw ontheir school/teachingexperiences. Thatmakes studentsproduce work thatis original andreflecting their livedexperiences.

Students also confirmed that assignmentquestions were givenin advance and spacing of assignments wasadequate to enablethorough research.This is supported byLusunzi (1998) whosays that as far aspossible, assignmentquestions should besent to students alongwith the first batch ofcourse materials.

Respondents werehappy with the practice of giving uniformassignments for eachcourse nationwide.Preparation of detailed marking guidesat national level wereviewed as ensuringcontrol of expectedanswers throughoutthe country. This isconfirmed by Ambedkar (1991) who pointsout that assignmentsintended for markingshould be accompanied by tutor guidesor notes to assist thetutors in assessing theassignments. Marking


was regarded as professionally, objectivelyand thoroughly done asevidenced by tutoringcomments which madestudents feel that theywere being assisted(Open University UK,2000). Comments onscripts are expected tobe constructive, rigorous, clear and carefullyfashioned to empowerlearners to improvetheir performance.

Tutors said they weregiven adequate marking time and moderation of marked assignments was effectedwhere possible. Theyalso noted that strict assignment records weremaintained. Ambedkar(1991) points out thatprogramme coordinators should be deeplyinvolved in ensuringproper assessmentof assignments. Theyshould take samplesof marked assignments for moderationand providing feedback to tutor markers.Monitoring assignmentmarking has two majorpurposes both criticalto aspects of qualityassurance by facilitating identification ofvariations in the marking practice and staffdeveloping tutor markers. Yates (1998) addsthat tutors should markassignments, provide

adequate feedbackand return marked assignments within thestipulated time. Programme coordinatorsshould insist on tutormarkers to observetime schedules for returning evaluated assignments. Studentsin this study observedthat in some isolatedcases, however, sometutors returned markedassignments late.

Examinations

Internal examiners fromregional centres arenominated by RegionalDirectors through programme coordinatorsand appointed by theuniversity. It emergedfrom both staff andRegional Directorsthat writing examination items involvedall programme tutorsnationwide throughdevelopment of itembanks. Results furtherindicate that examinations questions were ofgood quality, balancedand well focused andchallenging to teststudents’ abilities andknowledge. The questions were said to bedemanding applicationof theory and reflectionon one’s experiences atthe workplace, therebymaking students readwidely, understand andprepare for examinations. Reid and Robert-

shaw (1991) in Lusunzi(1998) give one of theattributes of quality indistance education asan assessment andexamination systemwhich measures accurately the extent towhich knowledge hasbeen acquired by thestudents.

Revision sessions withtutors were regardedas very beneficial asthey enhanced preparation through past examination and specimen papers for newprogrammes. The CUUK (2000) emphasizesthe need for specimenpapers, which enablestudents to be familiarwith the appearanceand structure of the examination papers.

Adequate securitymeasures were alwaysin place before and after examinations werewritten. Administrationand conduct of examinations were seen asprocedural and smooth,and examinations werewritten in conduciveenvironments withclose invigilation andmonitoring to guardagainst any form ofcheating. As observedby Regional Directors,all those quality controlactivities are facilitatedby decentralization ofoperations which has


been adopted by theZimbabwe Open University.

The study found thatnationally centralizedmarking was regarded as a very effective quality assuranceand control measurethrough coordinationand standardization ofmarking guides as wellas supervision andmoderation of markedscripts by team leaders. Centralised marking is also supportedby CU UK (2000) whopoints out that marking is done by coursetutors centrally underthe supervision of amarking coordinator.Centralized markingis viewed as importantas it offers an opportunity for all markersto attend and participate in the coordination exercise wherea sample of scripts isconsidered and marking standards are set.The marking schemeis also discussed andmodified as necessary.In the Zimbabwe OpenUniversity, markers aredrawn from both the regional and the nationalcenters.

Findings indicated thatmarking of examinations was done at appropriate venues bytutors selected nation-

ally. Moderation byexternal assessorswas also viewed asanother critical qualityassurance and controlmeasure which ZOUshould consider to dosystematically for allprogrammes. RegionalDirectors recommended the involvement ofexternal assessors inexaminations regularlyI ro all programmes asvital for ensuring andpromoting quality. TheCU UK (2000) goesfurther to say externalassessment ensuresmaintenance of appropriate academic standards through scrutinizing coursework andexamination scripts.

Staff development

Staff developmentthrough regular regional and nationalworkshops and seminars was viewed byboth staff and studentsas a critical strategyfor quality assuranceand control. However,tutor respondents feltthat these workshopsand seminars werenot adequate. Freeman, (1994) in Lusunzi(1998) points out thattutors need currentinformation related toprogramme administration, learner characteristics and progress,tutor competence andfeedback from stu

dents’ performanceprovided by supervisors at workplaces.

Orientation workshopsfor new tutors and students were regardedas appropriate sincethese were held before launching newprogrammes to exposethem to university, faculty, departmental andprogramme expectations. The practice issupported by CU UK(2000) who point outthat although new staffmay have wide experience and expertisein teaching and adultlearning, they still require orientation to beable to appreciate openlearning. Regional Directors indicated thatthe university makesavailable funds forsuch workshops for allregions. Regional staffmeetings held at leasttwice a month and departmental regionalmeetings at the startand end of the semester were also viewed asa useful quality assurance and control tool.The Regional Directors also pointed outthat strategic planningis crucial before thelaunch of a programmeto ensure smooth andeffective delivery of operations when the programme is eventuallylaunched.

DEASA-SADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 93

Tutor and RegionalDirector respondentsindicated that staff development was also effected through university-sponsored contactand observation visitsto other universitieslocally, in the regionand at times internationally. Participation inacademic conferences,meetings and workshops within and outside Zimbabwe sponsored by the universitywere regarded as vitalfor quality assurance.It also emerged thatthe university was encouraging and sponsoring staff to improvethemselves academically and professionally through postgraduate programmes whichit sponsored for mostcases. This is supported by the CU UK(2000) who indicatedthat they encouragedtutors to attend courses, conferences andseminars hosted byother institutions. Thestudy also noted thatmembers of staff withinZOU could register foruniversity courses freeof charge.

Student tutorevaluation

The study found outthat student tutor evaluations were done regularly both at regionaland national levels

and this was seen asa very effective qualityassurance and controlmeasure. The exercisewas seen as vital forenabling tutors to getto know their strengthsand weaknesses thereby facilitating reflection, introspection andremediation. It was feltthat such evaluation isconducive to effectivelearning and tutoringand encourages tutorsto come prepared fortutorials.

Both tutors and studentswere involved in courseevaluation as well to enable them to articulatetheir concerns. Fox,(2001) points out thatevaluation needs to bebuilt into the everydaystructure in distanceeducation thinking andplanning of curriculum development andteaching approaches.Fox goes on to say:

If we are reflectivein our work, thenevaluation will bean integral part ofour programmebecause it enablesus to becomemore focusedand informedpractitioners. (P4)

Evaluation instruments were seen asvery comprehensive,detailed and objectiveto facilitate expression

of staff and student’shonest opinions. Afurther observationby Fox (2001) is thatevaluation instrumentsshould be designedin such a manner thatthey provide diagnosticfeedback useful for improving teaching andmeasuring teaching effectiveness.

Staff also indicated thatthe performance appraisal exercise conducted on full time staffquarterly and monthlyprogress reports submitted to the nationalcentre were also critical tools for effectivequality assurance andcontrol. The practice ofperformance appraisalis also supported byCU UK (2000) who consider it to be an integralpart of career development as it involves reviews of performanceagainst set outcomesfor the previous yearand setting out objectives for the comingyear. The appraiserand appraisee togetheridentify training needsto determine the mostappropriate means ofdevelopment at theworkplace or throughformal training.

Resources

Respondents viewedthe university as having made great strides


in securing biggerand better regional office accommodationin most of the ten regional centers to facilitate the smooth flow ofoperations. Deliveringeducation to studentsoff the central campusneeds infrastructurethat is supportive of theteaching and learningenvironment. UNESCO(1990) confirms thatmany distance-teaching institutions consider a comprehensivesystem of decentralization of operations as avital component of thedelivery of services.

Appointment of full-time staff in regionswas regarded as critical for effective andefficient programmemanagement and coordination of part-timestaff. This is supportedby CU UK (2000) whoemphasise that thequality of teaching isdependent upon effective functioning throughmanagement and coordination of a range oftasks.

Libraries at the regionalcenters, were criticizedof thin stocks, but wereconsidered as havingrecent and relevanttexts. Respondents feltthat the establishmentof resource centres inthe ZOU regional dis

tricts was a welcomedevelopment althoughthese needed to be adequately equipped withnecessary resourcesespecially books. Withreference to CU UKKirk (1979) observeddistrict centres as vitalfor establishing a focusand presence of theuniversity in rural andisolated communitiesthereby providing a local contact for enrolledstudents. Althoughthe model of Openand Distance Learning followed by ZOUis adopted from OpenUniversity UK, it maynot be easy to matchthe standards in termsof human and materialresources as Zimbabwe is still a developing country.

The team approach tomaterials productionwas viewed as excellent for the productionof quality modules andother learning materials. Both student andtutor respondentsviewed ZOU modulesas of good quality andmost of them were inplace before the launchof new programmes.Team members bringwith them knowledgeand expertise gainedfrom being involvedin teaching on theground. The outstanding quality of course

materials is achievedthrough contributions ofall team members (CUUK 2000). Throughoutdevelopment and production, the team monitors, discusses andrevises draft coursematerial subjecting it tocollective criticism anddevelopment.

Weaknesses

Respondents notedthat ZOU was growing at a fast pace. Respondents cited limitedresources as a serious weakness whichpresented a big mismatch with the size ofthe enrolment. Lack ofcomputer facilities forstudents, and a limitednumber of this resourcefor staff emerged as amajor weakness.

Delays in the processing and releasing of examination results andan inadequate communication system wereregarded as other major weaknesses. Regional Directors alsopointed out that services are over-stretched,with officers in placeoverworked and thistended to compromisequality. Strategic planning and procurementof resources are critical to quality achievement of objectives.When major changesare put in place and


Recommendationsresources reduced,established quality assurance processes canappear to be at risk, orimprovements may beachieved at a slowerpace than staff andstudents would prefer(CU UK 2000).

Communication between central and regional centers with tutors and students wasviewed as unsatisfactory yet it is a high priorityto ensure that the mostcurrent information ispassed on. Dhanarajan (1997) emphasizesthe need for increasedand flexible access toinformation to enableisolated learners usually preoccupied withother demands of livingto obtain informationon both academic andadministrative matters.Dhanarajan goes onto point out that goodquality practice recognizes the need forstudents to be well informed about coursesavailable to them.

Conclusions

The objective of thestudy was to determinestrategies employedby ZOU to assure andcontrol quality. It wasevident that the Zimbabwe Open Universityhas put in place measures to assure andcontrol quality in its

service delivery. Majorfindings were that intutoring, highly qualified, experienced andcommitted personnelwere appointed andtutorials were of a highstandard. Assignmentswere regarded as demanding and adequatein number and markingwas thoroughly andprofessionally done.Item writing for examinations was viewed asof good quality. Marking of examinationswas centralized to facilitate moderation andexternal assessment.Regional workshops,seminars and meetingswere seen as crucial forpreparing and updatingstaff on efficient service delivery. However, most respondentsfelt that these were notsufficient. Evaluationof tutors by studentsthrough comprehensive instruments wascited as an effectiveway of enhancing performance. Materialresources especiallycomputers and wereviewed as inadequateand not matching therate at which the university is growing. Lackof effective, adequateand timeous communication with both students and staff wasalso highlighted as aweakness that neededattention.

Basing on the findingsand conclusions fromthis study, it is recommended that:

More manpowershould be recruitedin the examinationsection at both regional and nationallevels for speedyprocessing andpublishing of examination results.

• More full-time staffshould be recruitedat regional level toenhance efficientand effective service delivery.

• More funds shouldbe made availableto the ZimbabweOpen Universityto enable this newinstitution to increase its limitedresources.

• The establishmentof district centers inall the ten regionsof the ZimbabweOpen Universityshould be expedited. These willneed to be adequately equippedwith appropriateresources.

• An appropriateand effective communication systemneeds to be put inplace to enhanceaccessibility ofinformation by students from national


and regional cen- time and full time order to promoteters timeously. academic staff at and ensure quality

• More workshops national, regional, at all levels.

should be mounted faculty and depart

for both part- mental levels in

oEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Diatance Learning 97

References

Ambedkar, B. R.(1992) in Satyanarayana and Sesharatnam, C. (1992) StudentAssignments for Submission in DistanceEducation. KaakatiyaJournal of Education. 1(2): 33-45

Danarajan, G. (1977)Globalisation, Competitiveness and Openand Distance Education: Reflections onQuality Assurance.Paper presented at theAsian Association ofOpen Universities, 1 lAnnual Conferenceon Quality Assurancein Open and DistanceLearning in KualaLumpur, Malaysia.

Doherty, G. D. (1994)Developing QualitySystems in Education.London: Routledge.

Fox, R. (2001) Evaluating at a Distance:Making a Difference inDistance Education.Perth: CurtinUniversity.

Freeman, R. (1994)Quality Assurance inSecondary Education.Quality Assurance inEducation 2 (1): 21-25.

Kirk, L. (1979) inUNESCO (1990) Whatis a Study Centre?The Range of PossibleFunctions. Handbookon The Organisationand Management ofDistance EducationStudy Centres. Bangkok: UNESCO.

Lusunzi, I. S. (1998)The Tutor and QualityAssurance in DistanceEducation. Paperpresented at the Certificate in Adult Education Tutors’ Workshopheld at the Oasis Motel in Gaborone

Nixon, J. (1995) Preedy, M, Glatter, R. andLevacic’ (1997) Educational ManagementStrategy, Quality andResources. Burkingham: Open UniversityPress.

Open University UK(2000) Quality andStandards in the OpenUniversity. London:Open UniversityPress.

Preedy, M., Glatter, R.and Levacic’ (1997)Educational Management Strategy, Qualityand Resources. Burkingham: Open University Press.

Reid, C. N. and Robertshaw, M. (1991) InLusunzi, I. 5. (1998)The Tutor and QualityAssurance in DistanceEducation. Paperpresented at the Certificate in Adult Education Tutors’ Workshopheld at the Oasis Motel in Gaborone.

Stoner, J. A. F., Freeman, R. E. and Gilbert(Jr) D. A. (2003) Management. New Dehli:Prentice Hall.

UNESCO, (1990)What is a Study Centre” The Range ofPossible Functionsin Handbook on TheOrganisation andManagement of Distance Education StudyCentres. Bangkok:UNESCO, 1990,pp. 7-20, 30.

ZOU (2000-2003)Zimbabwe Open University Strategic Plan(2000-2003) Harare:ZOU.


TEACHING MANAGEMENT ANDACCOUNTING THROUGH OPEN ANDDISTANCE LEARNING MATERIALS: The case ofthe Lesotho College of EducationLineo Clementina Kolosoa — Lesotho College of Education

Abstract

This study was aimed atinvestigating the qualityand readability of theManagement and Accounting modules atthe Lesotho Collegeof Education (LCE).The study exploredthe learners’ perspective on the learningmaterials’ quality andreadability in terms ofthe easiness, clarity ofconcepts, illustrationsand pictures, and thetime spent studying thematerials. A comprehensive sample of 150fourth year DistanceTeacher Education Programme (DTEP) learners from the lowlandsdistricts of Maseru andBerea were studied.The data were collected through the useof the questionnaireand group discussionswith the respondents.The findings reveal thatthe majority of teacher-learners found Management and Accountinglearning materials difficult and were identifiedas taking longer to complete than others. Thestudy recommends thereview of the present

learning materials andmechanisms to allowmore fact-to-face andcounseling services tobe built in the learnersupport system.

Introduction

In distance learninglearners and instructors are separated geographically almost allthe times. For this reason and many othersthe process of learning has to be mediated to facilitate effective learning (Sauve,1994). Course mediation is an alternativemedia through whichthe teaching-at- a- distance is presented. Awide variety of mediacan be used in learningsuch as print materials,lectures, conferences,tutors, videos, pictures,sound and computers(Bork and Gunnarsdotti, 2001). Coursemediation increasesthe amount and thelevel of interactionbetween learner andlearning materials, andin some instances provides more opportunityfor human interaction.Media improves learn-

ing because learnersare different and differin how they learn. Forsome students reading may not be a goodway to learn, as different learners learn bestwith different mediaother than print. Mediaimproves the learner’scontrol of learning, dialogue, independence,interactivity, accessibility and individualization. Media canbe used to facilitatelearning in many ways:whether for creatingstimulus, attracting attention, guiding thelearning, making anillustration, providingfeedback, and enhancing retention and transfer of learned information (Sauve, 1994).Even though print remains prime mediumfor distance education, the course maybe mediated throughthe radio and television broadcast, audioand video cassettesthat are more appropriate for the provision ofgreater interactivity inthe teaching and learning process (Bork andGunnarsdotti, 2001).


Lesotho College ofEducation (LCE) introduced a new DistanceTeacher EducationProgramme (DTEP) inJanuary 2002 with theaim of upgrading thequalifications of theunqualified and underqualified serving primary school teachers.Learning is achievedthrough guided self-study of the speciallywritten course materials, and supplementedby face-to-face interaction with the tutors. InDecember 2002, 442learner-teachers werestudied in order to solicit baseline information on the learner attitudes and opinionson the programme.The findings revealedthat 16% of the learners found study materials easy, 33% ofthem were undecidedto say whether theyfound materials easyor difficult, while 51 %of the learners foundthe learning materialsquite difficult (Jones,2003).

In the same study,48% of the learnersshowed that Management and Accounting 1(CMS 106) course tooklongest of the 13 modules to complete anddo the assignments.This was followed byHome Economics 1

(HEC 104) with 46%,Science (SCI 109)43%, and Mathematics(MAT 108) 40%. Thestudy does not capturewhy the learners havethese feelings aboutthe study materials.However, it appears indistance education thatlearners have suchfeelings on study materials if they are morechallenging and moredifficult to read and understand than others.There could be otherreasons why CMS 106seems to be more demanding than othercourses, this studytherefore was intendedto investigate the quality and readability ofthe learning materialswith special referenceto Management andAccounting study modules at LCE.

Open and distancelearning materials

A definition of learning materials for Openand Distance Learning(ODL) as merely reading texts is increasinglybecoming inaccurate.CDL materials are materials put together insuch a way that userscan learn from themsatisfactorily with lesshelp from a teacher(Rowntree, 1990). AsRowntree (1994) haspointed out, ODL materials are a package;

almost anything thatstores information canbe a part of this package. This package canbe a single workbook, avideotape or audiotapewith a study guide. Itmay be a computer discor a practical kit together with back-up notes.This package has animportant role to playin CDL. What makesthe CDL materials different and importantfrom the resources thatteachers and trainersuse in ordinary classroom teaching is thatthe package will havebeen designed witha specific purpose inmind - they are aimedat achieving learners’specific objectives withspecific competencesfor distance learners(Sparkes, 1993; Rowntree, 1994).

Melton (2002) placesthe effectiveness of theCDL study materialson the extend to whichdesign strategies havebeen incorporated inthem. To design effective distance learningmaterials, it is of paramount importance tounderstand how learning takes place and thefactors that influencethe learning process.According to Melton,strategies to be employed in the designof the study materials


are, firstly, they shouldbe structured in a logical manner. The logicalframework here refersto the learners’ abilityto recognise the relationships between concepts and not feel tooentangled in a mazeof learning concepts atany point in the learning process. Learnersshould be made awareof the learning goalsand when such goalsshould be achieved.Secondly, the ODLstudy materials shouldbe designed in sucha way that they makeuse of a multimediaapproach to facilitatelearning. One appropriate medium or acombination of mediashould be used with theintention of enablinglearners to use all theirsenses for maximumteaching and learning.Thirdly, the study material should includeenough activities andprojects to encouragedeep rather than surface learning in learners (Melton, 2002). Holmberg (1960) in Jarvis(1995) suggests thatODL materials shouldbe “conversational andalmost two-way” withcomments that invitedialogue through themedium of the learner’s assignments andthe tutors’ comments.

In support to Melton(2002), Carr et al.,(2002) outline the features of high qualitydistance education materials, that the subjectmatter must be correct,inclusive of all elementsand at “the right level ofacademic demand.” Indeveloping ODL materials more attentionshould be given to thepedagogical aspects ofdistance learning - howteaching and learningtakes place in distancelearning.Well-designedself-instructional materials are developeddifferently in style andstructure from othertexts such as lecturenotes and journal articles in that they mustclearly state aims andobjectives, and includea wide range of accessdevices such as courseguides, advance organizers, self-assessment tests, clear andconsistent headingsand sub headings,summaries, glossariesand many other strategies that make individual learning possible(Carr et al., (2002). Is-man et al., (2004) onthe other hand identify12 general principlesto be incorporated inthe design of distanceeducation materials ashighlighted in Mooreand Kearsely (1996)as; 1- good structure,

2- clear objectives, 3-small units, 4-plannedparticipation, 5-completeness, 6- repetition, 7- synthesis, 8-stimulation, 9- variety,10- open-ended, 11-feedback, and 12-continuous evaluation.

According to Gough(1980) in Timmers(1990), the characteristics of an effectivedistance educationsystem should include,inter alia, the use ofspecialized educational techniques in developing learning experiences, writing self-instructional materialsand designing suitableteaching strategiesthat make learning adequately available tolearners. The systemshould produce learning materials publishedin pedagogically soundand attractive formatusing various appropriate media. The organization must have anefficient course delivery system in its widestsense, including thedevelopment of an effective support systemto meet the needs oflearners at a distanceboth pre-enrolmentand post-enrolment(Timmers, 1990).

Researchquestions

Specifically the study


addressed the following questions:

• What are learners perceptionsof the quality andreadability of theManagement andAccounting studymaterials?

• How useful dothe learners findwords, illustrationsand activities usedin the study materials to their learningof the subject?

Objectives ofthe study

The purpose of thestudy was to investigate the quality andreadability of the Management and Accounting study materials atthe Lesotho College ofEducation. The specificobjectives of the studywere as follows:

• To explore learnerattitudes and opinions on the learning materials quality and readabilityin terms of easiness of interaction,helpfulness of information, practicalactivities and general presentation ofinformation.

• To examine the nature of the subject,especially the accounting part of thereading materials,in relation to the

theories and practices in distancelearning.

• To recommendpossible intervention mechanismsthat could be builtin the design ofthe Managementand Accountinglearning materialsto improve on thelearners ability tostudy the materials.

Researchmethodology

Research design

In this study both quantitative and qualitativemethods were used.Quantitative researchapproach was employed to test data accurately in order to getresults that assisted toexplain and predict thequality and readabilityof Management andAccounting study materials, whereas qualitative research methodhelped in producinginsightful knowledgeon how the Management and Accountingstudy materials can beimproved for effectivelearning.

Population andsample

The population of thestudy was 1742 DTEPteacher-learners at

the Lesotho College ofEducation. The sampleconsisted of all the150 fourth year DTEPlearners in the Lowlands region of Maseru.This region is made oftwo districts of Maseruand Berea, which consist of six clusters. Thesample was distributedin these clusters as follows: Maseru Central(29 learners or 20%),Morija and Mantsebo(28 learners or 19%),St Michaels and Ramabanta (26 learnersor 17%), Semonkong(20 learners or 13%),Teyateyaneng andSefikeng (27 learnersor 18%) and Bela-belaand Mapoteng (20learners or 13%). Eventhough Maseru andBerea are termed lowland districts, the sitesof Mapoteng, Sefikengand Ramabanta liein the foothills regionwhile Semonkong is ahighland site.

A survey approachwas employed for thisstudy and comprehensive sampling wasviewed as appropriate in the selection ofthe sample. All the 4thyear teacher- learnersof the Maseru region(150) were engagedin the study. The respondents seemedto be knowledgeableand informative in


terms of experience,background and geographic location to givea broader view of theproblem investigated.The sampling methodbenefited the researchin that the sample wasmanageable and yetdiverse enough thatthere was variation inthe data collected arecommended by McMillan and Schumacher (2001).

Data collectioninstruments

Multimethod strategieswere used to collectdata in this study. Different data collectiontechniques were usedin this study to allow theresearcher to comparedifferent sources, situations and methods tosee whether the samepattern keeps on recurring (McMillan andSchumacher, 2001).

Out of the 150 subjectsstudied 110 filled thequestionnaire. A self-administered questionnaire was used toenlist information fromlearners. The questionnaire consisted of 20items. A questionnairewas chosen for thisstudy because it is thequickest and relativelyeconomical means ofcollecting factual information by asking thesame questions to all

subjects. The questionnaire was also used toobtain information thatcould not be easily observed such as whenopinions, beliefs andperceptions are desiredand to enlist data frominformants that couldnot be interviewedpersonally because ofdistance or time constraints (Charles, 1995,Remenyi et at., 1995).The questionnaire wasfield tested using LCEstaff and twenty year2 and 3 DTEP learnersfrom Morija and Mantsebo cluster to ensureits validity and reliability. The responses onthe field test assistedthe researcher to clarifythe questions, and refine the final questionnai re.

Group discussions

Group discussionswere conducted in allthe six clusters. Groupdiscussions were usedin this study as an alternative to in-depthinterviews that couldnot be practical for theresearcher to engagein. The researcherbecame the facilitatorof discussions, ratherthan interviewer (Ticehurst and Veal, 2000).

Module readability

In order to measurethe module readabil

ity, Gunning Fog Indexand Complexity Quotient were conductedon four Managementand Accounting studymaterials. Rowntree(1990 and 1994) describe fog index andcomplexity quotient asmeasures that judgethe “fogginess” or “thereadability of a piece ofwriting”. The readability tests usually predicthow difficult the learners are likely to find thestudy material (Hodgson, 1993). For thematerial to be readableits fog index should notexceed 12, while complexity quotient shouldnot exceed 3. Paragraphs were selectedat random from modules 1,2,3 and 4 andGunning Fog indexwas calculated. Complexity Quotient wascalculated from Module 1, unit 10 page 162;Module 2, unit 9 page140; Module 3, unit 10page 157 and Module4 unit 10 page 134.

Data analysis

In analyzing data in thisresearch study, reference was made to theobjectives of the studyand research questions. Data collectedthrough the calculations of Gunning FogIndex and ComplexityQuotient on the Management and Account-


ing modules 1 to 4 wereanalyzed mathematically through the useof one-way chi-square(X2) to test the overallreadability. While qualitative data from groupdiscussions were divided into themes. Thefrequencies of eachtheme found were tabulated, quantified andexpressed into percentages.

Findings

The study revealed thatthe majority of DTEPlearners were married(74%), females (76%),aged between 26 and

45 years (91%) andhad one or two children(54%). Most of them didnot have any teachingqualification before theyjoined DTEP but wereteaching with Cambridge Overseas Certificate (COSC) (75%).They were employedon permanent contracts(72%) with the teaching experience ranging from 4 to 10 years(70%). They lived atleast 10 km away fromthe study centres. Theystudied at home (75%)and needed more than2 hours of study perweek (91%). It took

them 1 to 5 hours oftravel to work per week(72%).

Learners were askedto indicate the modulesthat took them longest to complete andanswer assignments.The top five modulesthat took studentslongest to study andcomplete assignmentswere Management andAccounting (63%), Social and DevelopmentStudies (54%), Mathematics (46%), Science(30%) and Education(25%) respectively.

Table 1: Learners’ views of the management and accounting study materials

Views Frequencies Percentage(n=11O)

Modules

Easy 44 40

Difficult 66 60

Difficult words used in modules 81 74

Concepts presented poorly 8 10

Concepts presented clearly 102 90

Illustrations and pictures useful 98 89

Illustrations and pictures not useful 12 11

Assignments

Clear and simple 34 41

Complicated and not clear 76 69

Words used to describe assignments simple 29 26

Time spent studying


• Views Frequencies Percentage(n=11O)

Less time is taken to study the material 11 10

Much time is taken to study the material 99 90

Table 1 above shows that learners found the Management and Accountingcourse materials (modules) difficult (60%) even though most learners felt thatconcepts were presented clearly (90%). The majority of the learners foundassignments complicated and not clear (69%). They also felt that the wordsused to describe activities in the modules were difficult (74%). Learners foundpictures and illustrations used in the study materials useful in understandingthe materials (89%). Even though they found concepts clearly presented inthe modules (90%), it took many of them more time to read the materials anddo activities (90%).

Table 2: Views of learners on how the ability to learn from the management andaccounting modules should be improved

Themes No. %

Simplify modules and indicate glossary 37 34

More examples 27 25

Hire and train more qualified subject tutors 33 30

More time for revision / workshops /tutorials / practi- 68 62cal activities

Supplement modules with radio! audio taped lessons 22 20

Distribute modules and assignments on time 25 23

Table 2 shows the views of the learners on how the modules could be improved. In order to improve on their ability to study the modules, most learners felt that they needed more time for revision, workshops and practicalactivities (62%), while others wanted modules simplified (34%) and morequalified and trained tutors hired (30%).

Table 3: Gunning Fog Index calculated on management and accounting studymaterials

Materials Fog Index (0 — E) (0 — E)2 (0 — E)2Index expect- Eob- ed

served

CMS 106 25.20 12 13.20 174.24 14.52

CMS 208 20.60 12 8.60 73.96 6.16


CMS 308 12.12 12 [ 0.12 0.01 0.08

CMS 408 12.32 J L0.32 0.10 0.01

Chi squareX2 20.771’ > U.Ub, aT = , UrIU( ai x= IbiD

Table 4: Complexity quotient calculated on management and accounting studymaterials

Materials Quotient Quotient (0 — E) (0 — E)2 (Q.EITObserved Expected E

CMS 106 4.8 3 1.8 3.24 1.08

CMS 208 7 3 4 16 5.33

CMS 308 6.17 3 3.17 10.05 3.35

CMS 408 12.32 3 9.32 86.86 28.96

Chi square = X2 38.71P >0.05, df = 2, Critical X2 = 7.815

Tables 3 and 4 showcalculations of one-way chi-square (X2)goodness-of-fit teston the Gunning Fogindex scores and theComplexity Quotientscores respectively ascalculated on studymaterials. The X2 observed is 20.77 forFog index scores andX2 observed is 38.71for complexity quotientscores. Since both X2observed exceedsX2 critical (7.815) forboth measures, thescores show the confidence level of 95%and strongly supportthe opinions of the respondents interviewsthat Management andAccounting study materials were difficult.It could therefore be

concluded that the materials took longest forthe learners to studyand respond to the assignments because thewriters used complicated and long words.

Findings fromgroup discussions

According to the learners who participated inthe discussion groups,they spent more timethan is usual readingthe Management andAccounting study materials in order to beable to do their assignments. They felt thiswas because the studymaterials were notvery clear and sometimes posttest activities were not relevantto the assignments

asked. Some learners believed that somesubject tutors did notseem to know enoughsubject matter to assist in answering theassignments. The following were the viewsof the learners on howthe Management andAccounting modulescould be improved:

Modules shouldbe distributed during the on campussession and toeverybody at thesame time. Nosites should begiven preferentialtreatment on thetiming and distribution of modules.

Modules were difficult and should besimplified.


• Audiotapes, radioprogrammes orvideotapes shouldsupplement modules so that learners could listen tothem at own timesto clarify what thetutors taught.

• Modules shouldbe checked beforedistribution to correct grammar andspelling, checkmissing pages, uniformity of ink andfont on the printing.

• Moderation oftutor-marked assignments wasimportant sincethere was a lackof uniformity fromdifferent sites andtutors. Uniformity inthe marking of assignments could bemaintained if therewere similar marking guides for different sites. Tutorsshould discuss theassignments andmarking guidestogether to ensurecommon understanding beforegrading.

Discussion

As indicated earlier,the main purpose ofthis study was to investigate the quality andthe readability of theManagement and Accounting study materi

als at the Lesotho College of Education. Thestudy revealed that74% of the learnerswere married femaleswith the responsibilityof at least two children.Before enrolling on theprogramme, 75% of thelearners had no teaching qualification otherthan Cambridge Overseas School Certificate(COSC). Due to lack ofinfrastructural resources, learners travelledat least 10km fromhome to schools whichwere used as studycentres henceu few(25%) used them whilemany (75%) preferredto study at home. Themajority of them (91 %)studied for less than 2hours per week.

According to the study,60% of the learnersfound CMS study materials difficult and assignments complicatedand not clear (90%).Ninety per cent of thelearners took moretime to study the materials and do the assignments. After 4 years inthe programme, learners still ranked CMSmodules, as the materials that took longestto study (Jones, 2003).The readability testscalculated on the materials confirmed thatthe materials were difficult with long and corn-

plicated words. On allpages of the modulesstudied, Fog Index observed is higher thanthe expected index of12, while the Complexity quotient observedis higher than the expected quotient of 3.The overall chi-square(X2) observed 20.77and 38.71 respectively(cf. Table 3 and 4). Itcould be concludedtherefore that learnersfound learning materials difficult as a resultthey were unable torecognize the relationship between conceptsand practice and assuch their learningobjectives were notachieved. In order tomeet the quality criteria of ODL materials,they should incorporate multimedia approach, as suggestedby the 20% of the respondents (cf. Table2). Respondents insistthat Management andAccounting modulesshould be simplifiedand glossary should beincluded.

Inferred in the findingsof this study were thecritical features that arebrought about by thenature of the subjectand the principles thatdetermine the teaching and learning of accounting. According toWild (2000) in learning


accounting one studiesa lot of principles, concepts, procedures andanalysis. Wild explainsaccounting as a practical subject that requiresmany illustrations andexamples to clarifycomplex concepts.Bisschoft et al. (1992)perceive accountingas a “systematic subject, subject to strictdiscipline.” Researchindicates that studentslearn accounting betterwhen they are activelyinvolved in the learningthrough concentrateddrill and practice; thelearning of the subjectis stimulated when alearner is providedwith a variety of materials, media and instructional techniques.Because accounting isa procedural subject,learning is facilitatedthrough modeling andverbalization of theprocedures followed byimmediate provision offeedback (Bisschoff etal., 1992).

Due to the nature ofthe subject, Bisschoffet al., (1992) recommend teaching methods that provide moreexemplification andpractice to stimulateinterest and initiative.They recommend suchteaching methods as acombination of demonstration and explana

tion - demonstration toillustrate proceduresand systems, whilefacts and conceptscan be taught throughexpository methodssuch as explanation.Demonstration combined with explanationallow learners to seeapplication of correctprocedures and hearthe information neededto guide their studyand application. Theydiscourage teaching methods such astextbook and lecturemethods as they donot cater for learners’individual differencesand do not engagelearners actively intheir learning. The implication here is thatDCL materials shouldbe prepared bearingin mind these learningprinciples. They mustaccommodate the features of step-by-stepdemonstration methodto avoid giving learners the knowledge thatis often disconnectedfrom the features thatmake it understandable and meaningful.If study materials arethe collection of lessons, fl planning fora lesson the facilitator should always askthe question, for whatlearning objectives andfor which learners andunder what learningconditions should any

method be employedor which combinationof instructional techniques.

In agreement withBisschoff et al., (1992)and Melton (2002) therespondents (cf.Table2) recommended thatmore examples shouldbe included in the modules, more revision lessons, workshops andtutorials were neededto provide them withenough practice toenhance learning.They felt that modulesshould be supplemented with radio and oraudio taped lessons,which implied thatthere should be a connection between thefigures in the modulesin terms of what theysee and explanationsof the concepts to allowreal life application andunderstandability. Insupport Melton (2002)believes that for DCLstudy materials to provide effective learning,they must be designedin such a way that theymake use of a multimedia approach. Thestep-by-step demonstration of what actually takes place couldbe provided by the inclusion of the glossarythat 34% of the learners believe could makethe Management andAccounting modules


easier. Table 1 sup- study. Specifically cassette tapes andports the importance simplify materials radio programmesof illustrations and pic- by the inclusion to provide demontures in the learning of of glossary, more strations and illusthe subject as 89% of examples and illustrations to supple-the learners found il- trations. Incorpo- ment practicallylustrations and pictures rate quality control oriented Manage-useful in their learning, measures during ment and Account-

the production of ing study materials.Recommendations self-instructional

• Built in more learn-materials. The par- er support mechaTaking into consider-ticular advantage nisms that provideations the findings ofof self-instructionalthe study, it is recom- more face-to-facematerials is that and counselingmended that LCE:they enable learn- services, moreEngages in coners to choose their time for tutorialstinuous review ofown time and place and revision sesthe learning mate-of study. sions.rials so that their

quality and read- • Integrate other• Increase on the

ability can be as- learning technolo- capacity of thesured and to make gies such as video part-time subjectthem easier to cassettes, audio- tutors.


References

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Bork, A. and Gunnarsdotti, S. (eds). (2001).Tutorial DistanceLearning: RebuildingOur Educational System. New York: KluwerAcademic/PlenumPublisher

Carr, R., Fung, Y. andChan, S. K. (2002).Distance Educationfor Teacher Education: Hong Kong Experience. Journal ofIn-service Education,28(1)

Charles, C. M. (1995).Introduction to Educational Research. (2ndEdn.). Toronto: Long-man Publishers

Hodgson, B. (1993).Key terms and issuesin Open and DistanceLearning. London: Biddies Ltd.

Isman, A. Altinay, Z.and Altinay, F. (2004).Roles of the Studentsand Teachers in Distance Education. Turkish Online Journal ofDistance Education.5(4)

Jarvis, P. (1995).Adult & Continuinq

Education: Theory andPractice. (2nd Edn).London and New York:Routledge.

Jones, R. V. (2003).Distance TeacherEducation Proqramme:Baseline Study. Maseru: Lesotho Collegeof Education.

McMillan, J. H. andSchumacher, S.(2001). Research inEducation: A Conceptual Introduction. (5thEdn.). USA: LongmanInc.

Melton, R. F. (2002).Planning and Developing Open and DistanceLearning: A QualityAssurance Approach.London & New York:Routledge/Falmer

Remenyi, D., Williams, B., Money, A.and Swartz, E. (1998).Doing a Research inBusiness and Management: An Introduction to Process andMethod. London: SagePublications

Rowntree, D. (1990).Teaching ThroughSelf-Instruction: Howto Develop OpenLearning Materials.London: Kogan Page

Rowntree, D. (1994).Preparing Materials forOpen, Distance and

Flexible Learning: AnAction Guide to Teachers and Trainers. London: Kogan Page Ltd

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Sparkes, J. J. Matching Teaching Methodsto Educational Aimsin Distance Education.In Keegan, D. (Ed.).(1993). TheoreticalPrinciples of DistanceEducation. London:Routledge

Ticehurst, G.W. andVeal, A.J. (2000).Business ResearchMethods: A Managerial Approach. Australia: Pearson Education(Pty) Ltd

Timmers, S. (1990).The Training Needsin the Use of Mediafor Distance Education. Singapore: AsianMass CommunicationResearch and Information Centre (AMIC)

Wild, J. J. (2000).Financial Accounting:Information For Decisions. USA: Irwin McGraw-Hill Co.


ABOUT THE SOUTHERN AFRICANDEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY - Centre forDistance Education (SADC-CDE)I Thutoetsile,Southern African Development Community - Centre for Distance Education

The Southern African DevelopmentCommunity - Centrefor Distance Education was created bythe Southern AfricaDevelopment Community (SADC) Ministers for Education andthe Commonwealthof Learning (CCL) in2005 to undertakeand promote trainingand development inOpen Distance Learning (CDL), engage inand support systemicresearch activities inCDL, provide quality distance educationand increase the provision of quality distanceeducation in SouthernAfrica. The specific objectives of the Centreare to;

identify and meetthe education andtraining needs ofdifferent professional groups within Southern Africa

• build and maintaina resource baseon CDL with up-to-date informationregarding trainingmaterials, programmes, coursesand related materials, researchdocuments, localexperts and consultants in specificareas

• develop trainingstrategies andprovide trainingfor different targetgroups within ministries of education,institutions andagencies in Southern Africa

• develop plans andstrategies for systemic research anddisseminate therelevant information and findingsthrough journals,newsletters andother availablemeans

• engage in and collaborate with otherinstitutions withinthe region and internationally in staffdevelopment, training and systemicresearch activitiesin open and distance learning;

• actively seek opportunities forworking in CDLprojects and consultancies with aview to generatingrevenue for thesustainability ofthe Centre;

• serve as a centreof expertise in CDLfor Southern Africa

SADC — CDE has undertaken several activities since its establishment. Find below atable that summarisesthe activities undertaken from 2005 to date;


SADC — CDE UNDERTAKEN PROJECTS (Since June 2005 to Date)

PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. of IMPACTUNDERTAKEN PAX

Situational ODL institutions July—De- 27 institu- The Centre is wellAssessment in SADC Member cember tions known. Collabora

States 2005 tion within the counMarch & 8 institu- tries and outsideMay 2006 tions has improved.

ODL Associations—formed e.g. Malawi. Consultativemeeting in Zambiaaimed at forming anODL association inthe country

2 Facilitation of ISPU and UNISA UNISA met withCollaboration ISPU, a Mozambion Material can institution, withDevelopment a view to arrange(Sharing) for ISPU to offer

UNISA courses toMozambicans inPortuguese.

3 1 SADC SADC — CDE Advi- December Botswana, The legitimacy of— CDE Advi- sory Board 2005 COL, the Centre wassory Board Lesotho, underscored as itsMeeting Zambia recognition started

Swaziland, from the meetingSADCSecretariat

4 Policy Devel- 2 participants each January to 6 out of An ODL Policy isopment On from Lesotho, May 2006 eleven being developed inline Course Malawi, Tanzania, par- Lesotho and there

Zambia, Zimbabwe ticipants is a draft policy in& 1 from Botswana Continued Zambia

up to theend.

5 SADC — CDE SADC — CDE Advi- 25 Janu- Botswana, Acceptance of theAdvisory sory Board ary 2006 CCL, Centre as a SADCBoard Emer- Lesotho, organ in March bygency Meet- Zambia, the SADC Ministersing Swaziland, of Higher Education

SADCSecretariat



6 Copyright BOCODOL, NAM- November 4 par- The four are nowWorkshop COL, UNISA, OUT 2005 ticipants trainers in IP and(Kampala, & DODE (sent to copyright, e.g. theyUganda) Kampala) resourced in the

Centre’s IP andCopyright workshopin Pretoria. Theyhave also produceddraft copyright policies in the differentinstitutions.

7 Copyright All member states 27 Febru- 16 (Only The Draft IP reportWorkshop in except Angola & ary to Malawi, produced, is beingPretoria, RSA DRC 3 March Mauritius used by Distance(UNISA) (Language) 2006 & Swa- Education Asso

ziland ciation of Southernfailed) Africa to inform

its operations e.g.sharing of Librarymaterials

8 Research Materials develop- 15 — 19 22 from; From the 2 work-and Publica- ers, learner sup- May 2006 Botswana, shops, 15 articlestion Capac- port personnel, Namibia, have been proity Building management and Malawi, duced. These areWorkshop finance officials Zambia being reviewed#1 in Lusaka, and Zim- and about ten willZambia babwe be published in a

journal.

9 Hosting Open All member states 4—5 July 21 The Centre is now aSchooling —institutions with 2006 coordinating bodyConsortium open schooling for the open school

ing consortium

10 Research Materials Devel- Septem- 20 from; As a result of the 2and Publica- opers, Learner ber 2006 Botswana, workshops The Cention Capac- support personnel, Namibia, tre has been identiity Building management and Lesotho, fied as the trainingWorkshop #2 finance officials Zambia, arm of DEASAin Windhoek,Namibia

11 Drafting of n/a October n/a n/atechnical 2006specificationfor the Finance in CDLcourse



12 Invitation for All DEASA member December 12 ODL n/abids to design institutions 30th 2006 instituand develop tionsthe Finance inODL course

13 Formation Library personnel, January n/a SADC-CDE is host-of critical ODL practitioners, 2007 ing and coordinatingpartnerships researchers, law- the business of- registration yers, governments, AA2KATof AA2KAT — a publisherspan Africanorganisationaimed at promoting opensource andrelaxed copyright laws thatwill enable thegrowth of thepublic domain

14 First Interim Interim Board of 1 March 10 Some draft projectBoard Meet- Trustees 2007 proposals haveing been drawn, e.g. a

conference is currently being plannedfor October 2007 byAA2KAT and SARUA

15 3 SADC-CDE DEASA, Lesotho. 9 March 10 Strategic decisionsAdvisory Swaziland, Bo- 2007 have been taken thatBoard Meet- tswana, UNESCO, will further advanceing Zambia, SADC the impact of SADC

Secretariat, COL, CDEand SADC-CDE

16 Drafting of SADC Secretariat June 2007 - SADC SADC — CDE servican MoO with and member states — CDE ing SADC — SecreSADC Secre- Board tariat professionaltariat members, ODL needs

- SADC—CDESeniorsofficials,- SADCSeniorOfficials,- SADCEducationMinisters


PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. of IMPACTUNDERTAKEN PAJ(

17 Supporting in All stakeholders in 2-3 April 30 Inter institucountry Zam- ODL; Universities, 2007 tional collaborationbia Initiative colleges of educa- started.- Consultative tion, elecommuni- working towards aworkshop on cations Authority, wider national con-the revival or Ministry of Science sultative workshopformation of and Technology, where a nationalthe Zambia Ministry of Educa- ODL associationNational ODL tion will be formed andAssociation its first committee

elected

18 Conducting DOMASI, Malawi 18—22 ParticipantsODL materials College of Distance June 2007 acquired materialsdevelopment Education, Mzuzu development skillsworkshop for university and Mm- which they are usingMalawi istry of Education to develop quality

learning materialswhich will in turnhelp learners tostudy and passtheir examinationin greater numbers.This has thepotential to decreasedrop out rates andincrease throughput rates of ODLinstitutions.

19 Conducting an Ministry of Educa- 25—30 Lesotho is onODL Policy tion, Lesotho Dis- June 2007 course towards theDevelopment tance Teaching development of aworkshop Centre, National policy framework

University of Leso- that will guide ODLtho and Institute for practice in theExtra Mural Studies country to improve

access to qualityeducation which willimprove the livelihoods of many whowould otherwise beleft out of the education system


PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. ot IMPACTUNDERTAKEN PAX

20 SADC — ODE Malawi 0DL The cours- 40 people The impact willsecured 40 institution(s), es com- be measured afterMasters Zambian ODL mence in the beneficiariesdegrees institution(s), Leso- January complete the pro-scholarships tho ODL institution 2008 gramme.tenable at and BOCODOL inIndira Ghandi BotswanaOpen University (IGNOU)for capacitybuilding inSADC ODLinstitutions

21 Joint devel- The Government From n/a No impact yet asopment and of Finland, Hewlett 2006 - no project has beensubmission Foundation, Ford 2007 undertaken to date.of funding Foundation,proposals Canadian Internafor the Open tional DevelopmentSchooling Agency (CIDA),Consortium UBS Optimuswith Mindset Foundation, AgaLivelihoods Khan Foundation,

Open Society Initiative for SouthernAfrica (OSISA),W.K. Kellogg Foundation, Gary PlayerFoundation, USAfrica DevelopmentFund, Bill and Melida Gates Foundation, South AfricanDevelopment Fund,The shuttleworthFoundation

SADC — CDE in collaboration with DEASA is working on developing somecriteria that would be used to define best practice in various aspects of ODLin the context of Southern Africa. Such criteria would be circulated widely inSADC ODL institutions with a view to improve the quality of ODL provision inSADC member states.


DEASA$ADC - CDE International Journal ofOpen and Distance LearningNOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS

The DEASA-SADC CDEInternational Journalof Distance Educationis an annual refereedjournal of DEASA member institutions. It mainly publishes articles ondistance education andalso accepts papers inother related areas aswell as book reviews.Manuscripts will beseen anonymously bytwo referees.

Manuscriptsubmission

Manuscripts shouldbe submitted in electronic form in MS Wordto the Editor-in-Chief(chimedza @ ecoweb.co.zw or [email protected]) copied tothe Director SADC CDE(tthuthoetsile@ bocodol.ac.bw). Where this isnot possible contributors can send three copies of their hard copymanuscripts by couriermail to Professor Robert Chimedza, Zimbabwe Open University,71h Floor Stanley House,Jason Moyo Avenue,P.O. Box MP 1119, Ha-rare, Zimbabwe.

Format:Manuscripts should ideally be between 3000and 7000 words including the list of references.The first page shouldcontain the title and thedetails of the author/sthus name, affiliation,address, e-mail, phonenumber and fax number. The second pageis the abstract page.It should have the titleof the manuscript atthe top followed by anabstract of between100 and 200 wordsmaximum. This is a summary of the manuscriptand should cover theobjectives, main points,methodology, findingsand conclusions as appropriate to the paper.The third page, which isthe first page of the manuscript, should have thetitle at the top follow bythe abstract and thenthe main contents of thepaper. The title shouldbe in bold and the manuscript should be typedin Times New Romanin size 12 font and allpages should be numbered. Details about theauthor/s should not appear on this page.

References:

The journal makes useof the American Psychology Association(APA) Manual writingstyle 5th Edition or asupdated.

Proofs:

Authors shall normallyreceive edited proofsbefore publication toconfirm and approvethe final version of theirmanuscript with editorial input. However, thisstep may be omitted incase of delays in theprocesses.

Copyright:

It is a condition of publication in this journalthat authors vest copyright in the DistanceEducation Associationof Southern Africa andthe Southern AfricaCentre for DistanceEducation. Howeverauthors are free touse their material elsewhere after the publication without seekingpermission from thejournal provided theyacknowledge the copyright holder as the firstpublisher.


CONTRIBUTORS

Auxilia Badza is aSenior Lecturer andChairperson in theDepartment of SpecialEducation at the Zimbabwe Open University.

David Chakuchichi isSenior Lecturer, Director and Assistant to thePro Vice ChancellorAcademic at the Zimbabwe Open

Trudie Frindt is SeniorLecturer and Headof the Department ofContinuing Educationat the University of Namibia.

Louise Mostert is aLecturer at the University of Namibia

Godson Gatsha is theRegional Manager ofthe Kang Region ofthe Botswana College

of Open and DistanceLearning

Regina KegopotsweMasalela is an instructional designer andProgrammes Coordinator in the Departmentof Distance Education- Center for ContinuingEducation at the University of Botswana.She coordinates thedesign, developmentand evaluation of distance learning programs in Education

Ndaba J. Ncube is Senior Lecturer and Regional Director of theBulawayo Region ofthe Zimbabwe OpenUniversity

Stanslaus ModestoTichapondwa is Headof Department, Schoolof Business Studies,Botswana College of

Open Learning.

Grace T. Mukeredzi isSenior Lecturer in theDepartment of Education and Regional Programme Coordinator ofEducation in MasvingoRegion of the Zimbabwe Open University

Tsitsi G. Ndamba isLecturer at Great Zimbabwe University

Lineo Kolosoa is Lecturer of Managementand Accounting inthe Distance TeacherEducation Programmeat Lesotho College ofEducation.

Thulaganyo Thutoetsue is Director of theSouthern Africa Development CommunityCentre for DistanceEducation


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© DEASA-SADC CDE

Documents

DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning, First Issue September 2007