Date Event

1506 Philip I of Castile dies, leaving his Burgundian lands to his son, Charles V1

1516 Charles V inherits Spain2

1516 Martin Luther releases his famous 95 Theses, effectively denouncing the Catholic Church’s practice of selling plenary indulgences

1519 Charles V succeeds Maximilian I as Holy Roman Emperor3

1521 Diet of Worms occurs where Martin Luther faces charges of heresy by the papacy.

1536 John Calvin publishes Systematic Theology: Institutes of the Christian Religion.

1555 Charles V abdicates his various crowns, leaving the Netherlands and Spain to his son Philip II and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother Ferdinand I

1566 Calvinists storm churches in the Netherlands and destroy statues and paintings of catholic saints4

1567 Philip II sends in an army to crush the revolt5

1568 William of Orange attempts to force out the highly unpopular Duke of Alba from Brussels, an act that was seen as

1 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philip-I-king-of-Castile 2 https://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/charles-v%E2%80%99s-spanish-abdication 3 Ibid. 4 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War 5 Ibid.

treasonous against the king. Ultimately, this initial attempt fails. Marks what many see as the start of the eighty years war6

1569 By this time the rebellion was thought to be stamped out completely by the Spanish

1572 William of Orange, with the support of England and France, invades the Netherlands and successfully takes multiple dutch cities, gaining a strong foothold in the North7

1572 Protestants all over the country, encouraged by William of Orange, revolted8

1573 Spanish army succeeded in capturing rebel cities9

1575 Spain declared bankruptcy and was unable to pay its troops, who proceeded to mutiny10

1576 Pacification of Ghent, where catholics from the south and protestants from the north united in a common front against mutinous Spanish forces despite religious differences. However, this alliance would not last.11

1578 Philip sent another army to crush the rebellion under the duke of Parma, who began a successful campaign12

1579 Northern provinces of the Netherlands

6 Ibid. 7 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004 From World History in Context 8 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War 9 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004 From World History in Context 10 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War 11 https://www.britannica.com/event/Pacification-of-Ghent 12 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004 From World History in Context

create the Union of Utrecht, establishing the United Provinces13

1579 Southern provinces create the Union of Arras and aligned themselves with Spain14

1581 Union of Utrecht deposes Philip II as ruler of the Netherlands15

1584 William of Orange assassinated by a royalist16

1585 In the face of a Spanish reconquest, the United Provinces seek military aid from England once more, who granted it in exchange for having the right to appoint the governor-general of the Netherlands. This was known as the Treaty of Nonsuch17

1588 In response to English involvement in the revolt, Spain sent a huge armada to invade England, which failed disastrously18

1609 Philip III, son of Philip II, saw no use in continuing the costly war with the Netherlands and initiates a Twelve Year Truce19

1621 Twelve Year Truce expired, however both sides were preoccupied in the Thirty Years’ War and instead opted to negotiate for peace20

1648 Peace of Westphalia officially ends war

13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid.

between Spain and the United Provinces21

For eighty years the United Provinces of the Netherlands had waged war against Spain for independence. The revolt, beginning in 1568 and ending after the Peace of Westphalia,22 overlapped with the Thirty Years War. The rebellion ultimately resulted in Northern seven provinces had declared their independence to become the Dutch Republic, which was later recognized in the Peace of Westphalia.23

The Netherlands had been united in a personal union during the fourteenth and fifteenth century, ruled by the Duke of Burgundy. This was the case until the birth of Charles V in the 16th century, whose bloodline gave him claims to the thrones of Holy Roman Emperor, the Duchy of Burgundy, and the Kingdoms of Spain along with Spanish holdings in the New World.24 Such a vast Empire proved to be impossible to govern effectively, and at the end of his reign, an exhausted Charles gave the throne of King of Spain and the Duke of Burgundy to his son Philip II and his title of Holy Roman Emperor to his brother Ferdinand I.25 This thus split the house of Habsburg into an Austrian and a Spanish branch, which was still closely intertwined.

During the time of Charles V’s reign, many of the problems that would eventually cause the Dutch Revolt already was being set in motion. For one, the Netherlands had embraced the Protestant reformation; the Lutherans, the Sacramentarians, the Anabaptists and the Calvinists all having gained a strong foothold in the region.26 This went directly against the state doctrine of their Habsburg rulers, who were hardline Catholics that saw Protestants as heretics who must be purged.

Prior to the 16th century, the Netherlands were not really a unified country; and were better described as a collection of independent provinces that were only loosely brought together by the dukes of Burgundy.27 The Habsburg rulers took

21 Ibid. 22 https://www.britannica.com/event/Eighty-Years-War 23 Ibid. 24 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-V-Holy-Roman-emperor 25 Ibid. 26 https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Low-Countries/The-revolt-and-the-formation-of-the-Republic-1567-79#ref413992 27 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004 From World History in Context

quick decisive steps to bring about centralized rule in The Netherlands under Charles V, who united the seventeen provinces into a single entity.28 Charles, preoccupied with having to deal with the numerous other problems of his vast Empire, was not able to deal specifically with the needs of the Dutch people, and in practice gave control of the Netherlands to his relatives in Spain who proceeded to ignore the traditions of the local nobles.

During the reign of Charles V, the Habsburg Empire had been perpetually at war. These conflicts came at a great cost on the finances of the Empire. The Netherlands were a very wealthy region in the Empire, and would have to pay high taxes in order to pay off wars which were seen largely seen as unnecessary by upper class dutchmen.29 Though Charles’ faults may have been numerous and painfully apparent, he still continued to remain a popular figure in the Netherlands. Charles had been raised in the Netherlands and could speak the same language as the people there, who saw Charles as one of their own.30 Because of this, Charles was able to quell rebellion, however his policies would continue to stir up discontent within the people. His successors did not have the same advantage as he did.

Following Charles’ abdication to the throne, Philip II, the new king of Spain and prince of the Netherlands, continued many of his father’s policies of increasing Habsburg influence, suppressing Protestantism and levying high taxes.31 However, unlike his father Philip had no real ties to the Netherlands. He was not born nor raised in the Netherlands and could hardly speak their languages. Philip was seen as a foreigner exerting rule over the lands, making him incredibly unpopular with the people.32 The Netherlands, by virtue of a papal bull in 1559, became directly governed by the church under three archbishops and 15 bishops.33 The Netherlands did not react favorably to these changes. The nobles believed that the high positions in the church were slipping away from them and were being more firmly placed in the hands of Spain. While this was going on, the continued repression of Protestantism caused the Calvinists to revolt against their Habsburg masters in order to gain religious freedom.34 Philip, fearing that he would lose all control if he did not take decisive action, sent in Spanish forces to crush the rebellion. Philip went on to execute 18 000 people in the following years, earning him nicknames such as “the Iron Duke” as well as being named the antichrist by some Protestants.35

28 Ibid. 29 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War 30 http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-revolt-of-the-spanish-netherlands/ 31 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004 From World History in Context 32 Ibid. 33 https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Low-Countries/Consolidation-of-territorial-states-1384-1567 34 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War 35 Ibid.

While the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War is widely considered to be at the defenestration of Prague where the Bohemian protestant nobles revolted against their Catholic oppressors, the war wasn’t just a Bohemian rebellion, but rather a huge European wide conflict that involved nearly every major power in Europe. Catholic and Protestant powers elsewhere involved themselves in the Thirty Years War as it progressed. Most historians view the war as to have progressed in distinct phases, each phase beginning with every major entry into the war.36 The first phase that began with the Bohemian revolt was contained completely within the Holy Roman Empire, being a conflict that merely involved the emperor and the various rebelling groups.37 A second phase can be seen to have developed after Bohemia’s defeat, spreading to the rest of Germany. The rest of the war is then divided into three phases: A Danish phase (1625-1629), a Swedish phase (1630-1634) and a French phase (1635-1648).38 As the war developed, the Holy Roman Empire became less an active aggressor and more like a helpless victim as more countries became involved.

The start of the war is widely seen to be in 1618 when Ferdinand II as both the future Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia attempted to impose Catholic absolutism on his subjects that caused a revolt in Bohemia and Austria by the Protestant nobles.39 Fueled by Dutch money, the rebellious princes fought the Empire for several years. However, they were defeated by the Habsburgs on all fronts. By 1622, the Palatinate became occupied by Spanish and Bavarian troops who supported the emperor.

King Christian IV of Denmark, reeling from a military loss against Sweden, saw opportunity in the conflict for his own expansion. Christian himself had lands in The Empire as the duke of Holstein.40 He entered the war with the hopes of receiving military aid from England and the Netherlands, who both had interests in the outcome of the war.41 He mobilized his forces and attacked, however what he had not foreseen was Ferdinand mobilizing his own massive army of 30 000. Christian’s decisive defeat at the hands of the Empire in 1629 marked the end of Denmark as a European power.42

36 The Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618-48, Peter H. Wilson The English Historical Review 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid. 39 https://www.britannica.com/event/Thirty-Years-War 40 http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/wars-and-battles/thirty-years-war 41 Ibid. 42 https://www.britannica.com/event/Thirty-Years-War

While Sweden was preoccupied with a four-year war with Poland, they were now free to invade the Holy Roman Empire on the side of the Protestants. In doing so, the King of Sweden Gustav II Adolf garnered strong support from many German princes.43 Brandenburg and Saxony now joined the fight against the Catholic bloc on the side of Sweden, who decisively defeated Ferdinand’s armies wherever they met.44 Swedish success and dominance would continue until 1634 when Spain sent a fresh army to aid The Holy Roman Empire and crushed the Swedish forces at Nördlingen in southern Germany.45 Ferdinand did not want to repeat his past mistakes of enforcing Catholic absolutism, and now sought to reach a compromise with the protestants. He proceeded to sign the Peace of Prague, where religious freedom was given to Lutherans. However, the Peace of Prague was not popular with the German princes, who resented the strengthened authority of the emperor.46

In response to a Spanish attack on Trier, an ally of France, Louis XIII declared war on Spain in 1935.47 This was then met with a declaration of war on France from Ferdinand the following year. However, by this time Spain had grown too weak from the financial burden of fighting past wars to contribute against France, leaving the Holy Roman Empire virtually on its own against the combined forces of France and Sweden.48 Despite this, the war continued for eight years, until finally Ferdinand had little option but to seek peace. Against his wishes, the various german princes were invited to the negotiations. One thing to note is that a Franco-Spanish peace proved to be too difficult, and so they were excluded from the treaties and continued to fight afterward.49

The true causes of the Thirty Years war is an issue that is hotly debated even today, nearly 400 years after the fact. There are a wide range of different opinions as to the main causes of war. Some historians view the war as a general revolt against Habsburg domination,50 while others view it as an inevitable conflict whose main purpose was to repair the social, political and economic problems of Europe.51 In

43 Ibid. 44 http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/wars-and-battles/thirty-years-war 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid. 50 http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/CXXIII/502/554.abstract 51 Ibid.

recent times, the view that the war was one of religion has regained popularity.52 Others view the war as a conflict that started in the Holy Roman Empire that gradually involved more and more European powers.53 In any case, this committee will be looking at all of these issues, and will hope to address the key causes of the war in order to ensure a lasting peace after the treaties.

Since the marriages arranged by Maximilian I made the House of Habsburg acquire Bohemia, Hungary, the Netherlands and Spain, Habsburg power in Europe was unprecedented. Several historians believe that the wars in Europe after the reign of Maximilian I were all part of a larger struggle against Habsburg hegemony.54 France, threatened by an encirclement of Spain in the west and the Holy Roman Empire in the East, sought to reduce Habsburg influence through a series of local wars.55 France’s involvement in the Thirty Years War can be interpreted as the result of their insecurity due to being surrounded on all sides by Habsburg territory. France consistently faced the possible threat of invasion from the West, the East and the North by Habsburg Spain, Habsburg Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire that was ruled by the Habsburgs.

This Franco-Habsburg rivalry would be the bane of international peace in Europe, as their conflicting ambitions would bring the other to war. However, it is also an especially difficult topic to handle, as the two sides had directly conflicting positions and a compromise would be nearly impossible.

Since Martin Luther, wars between forces of Catholicism and the various Protestant denominations became commonplace in Europe. Both Catholics and Protestants saw the other as heretics, and international politics in Europe were dominated by conflicts that were motivated by religion. To make matters more complicated, the Catholics were united under the church, while Protestants were hugely divided into countless different denominations, who often saw each other as heretics. While Lutherans (Sweden, among others) and Calvinists (the Netherlands, among others) were the two largest protestant denominations, the two groups didn’t consider the other to be “true” Christians. The Peace of Augsburg, while giving religious freedom to Catholics and Lutherans, ignored all of the other denominations of Protestantism including Calvinism.

With Europe divided into religious blocs, any lasting peace was impossible and wars were inevitable. Religious conflicts were not confined to the Holy Roman Empire, but were seen causing internal political turmoil in France as well, 52 Ibid. 53 Ibid. 54 The Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618-48 Peter H. Wilson 55 Ibid.

culminating in the French wars of religion.56 In the Holy Roman Empire and in other nations, Catholic leaders oppressed their Protestant subjects, who in turn would often rise up in rebellion. The basis of this oppression was the lack of basic rights such as freedom of worship. However, simple treaties would oftentimes not be enough to settle religious differences for very long, as religious differences would soon cause the two sides to violate the treaties. The Peace of Augsburg, while initially successful, did nothing to stop Ferdinand’s oppression of Lutherans.57 In places where religious tolerance was granted, an angry and violent reaction would occur as a result.58

France and Sweden, after expending considerable resources on waging war against the Holy Roman Empire, would assuredly demand concessions if they were to agree to any peace treaty. Sweden, having become the dominant power in the Baltics, would seek territory in the North of the Holy Roman Empire. France, vying to expand her own borders, would want to obtain territory to the West of the Empire. However, these demands were against the interests of the Habsburgs and certain German princes, as it weakened their own influence and lessened their territory. The ambitions of the German princes could be observed as they tried to leverage for territorial gain.

Drawing the new map of Europe would be an incredibly important and difficult task. Here, expansionist ambitions would directly oppose one another. A balance must be struck that can satisfy all nations, without causing bitter resentment that would soon lead to future wars. Delegates must weigh their own agendas with the continuation of peace if they would like the peace settlements to be successful. Terms which are too harsh on a single country would only cause more future conflict.

Freedom of religion, while today is seen as a universal right, was a concept that was nearly unheard of in the 17th century. Allowing the freedom to choose whatever religion you would wish, or at least accepting all of the different denominations of Christianity, would be a step forward in preventing future conflict. While this solution would surely benefit minorities as they would be allowed to continue to practice their faith wherever they want without fear of persecution, it would undeniably make many hard-line religious leaders upset due to them seeing the other denominations as heretics.

56 https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-Religion 57 https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Augsburg 58 https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-Religion

This option was a lot more familiar to the people of the 17th century. The Holy Roman Empire was divided up into the jurisdiction of numerous German princes, each of which had their own government, laws and norms. Allowing each of these princes to choose which religion would be the official one in their lands would allow for a more flexible solution where there isn’t sharp contrast between differing beliefs. However, persecution would still continue against minorities, who would either be forced to move or would likely be punished or even killed for practicing a faith that was not the official one in their lands.

The most simple solution to solve the conflicts between France and Spain was to merely establish areas where each would have a “sphere of influence,” where the other would not be allowed to interfere. In many instances, war between Spain and France occurred after one of them involved themselves in the affairs of the other, and establishing distinct spheres of influence for each country would help solve this problem as there would no longer be conflicting interests in the same areas competing for dominance.

While the leaders of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were hardline Catholics, at this point they were not willing to go to war to retain their religious dominance. While they may have preferred to have continued the status quo where Catholicism remained the only official religion in their lands, years of conflict and their declining power meant that even they understood they would have to make concessions if they wanted to have any chance for peace. The Habsburgs would like to continue their policy of religious oppression if they can, however external factors may make this impossible.

The Habsburgs would also like to keep the status quo in territory as they have an advantageous position but were in danger of losing lands. The Habsburgs surrounded France on all sides, but were declining and would likely be forced to make territorial concessions.

France and Sweden, emerging as the victors in the Thirty Years War, would want to reap the benefits of their success and annex as much territory as they can. While it is not their highest priority to ensure religious freedom for Protestants, Sweden was a protestant country and France allowed religious freedom for Protestants. These two major powers would want there to be more rights for Protestants in other countries, as well as ensuring the safety of their own Protestant governments.

German princes valued strongly in their own autonomy away from the influence of the Holy Roman Empire. They would look favorably upon a resolution that gave them more control and power, such as being given the right to choose their own official religion within their own borders.

Many of these princes are allied with different major powers of Sweden, France or the Habsburgs. However, they would prefer if those countries did not meddle in their affairs.

These states would want the recognition of their borders and to be seen as completely independent from the Habsburgs, instead of being within the borders of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. They value freedom away from foreign influence the most out of anything. Given that they are Protestant countries, these states would also like religious freedom for Protestants elsewhere as well. However, they can also be hostile to Catholicism.

1. What was the main cause of the Thirty Years’ War?

2. Was the Thirty Years’ War a German or a European war?

3. How can we ensure that Protestants and Catholics coexist?

4. Which denominations of protestants are acceptable? Which are not?

5. How much should the Holy Roman Empire have to concede?

6. How big of a role should the peace treaties play in the policies of individual countries? Should it make sweeping changes or continue with the status quo?

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