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1
Joining in Car Body Engineering 2011
Tutorial 1: Adhesive bonding technologies
Lucas F M da Silva
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 1
Faculty of engineering of the University of PortoDepartment of Mechanical Engineering
Contents
Introduction Theory of adhesion Adhesive selection Adhesive selection Joint design Surface treatment Joint fabrication methods Control (destructive and non-destructive
)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 2
tests) Applications in the automotive industry
2
Introduction Applications
de Bruyne (1957)
De Havilland Comet
Aeronautical industry
De Havilland Comet
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 3
Introduction Applications
Aeronautical industry
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 4
3
Introduction ApplicationsAerospace industry Dsagulier (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 5
Introduction ApplicationsAutomotive industry
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 6
Lotus Elise
4
Introduction ApplicationsAutomotive industry
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 7
Introduction ApplicationsRail industry
Hexcel Composites
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 8
5
Introduction ApplicationsMarine industry
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 9
Introduction ApplicationsCivil industry
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 10
6
Introduction ApplicationsElectrical industry
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 11
Shoe industry
Introduction Technologies involved
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 12
7
Introduction Technologies involved
Petrie (2000)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 13
Introduction Advantages Uniform stress distribution
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 14
8
Introduction Advantages Uniform stress distribution better fatigue strength Vibration damping better fatigue strength
Powis (1968)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 15
Introduction Advantages
Ability to joint dissimilar materials
Kinloch (1997)
Ability to join thin-sheet material efficiently
Frequently represent the most convenient and cost effective joining technique
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 16
joining technique
9
Introduction Advantages An increase in design flexibility (e.g. honeycomb structures) Smooth shapes (no bolt or rivet or weld) Continuous contact between surfaces In general, reduce costs
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 17
Introduction Disadvantages
Peeling loads
Peel (one substrate is flexible)
Cl (th t b t t
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 18
Cleavage (the two substrates are rigid)
10
Introduction Disadvantages
Avoid localised stress
Best solution load in shear
Avoid localised stress
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 19
Introduction Disadvantages
Limited resistance to extreme conditions such as heat and humidity.
Need to fixing tools to keep the substrates in position until cure is complete important economic disadvantage.
To obtain good results, a surface treatment is often required. Adhesives are frequently cured at high temperatures. Quality control more difficult but recent developments in NDI
techniques.
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 20
No universal failure criterion.
11
Theory of adhesion Forces involved
Primary bonds e- are transferred or shared strong: 100-1000 kJ/molstrong: 100 1000 kJ/mol
Ionic
Covalent
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 21
Metallic
Theory of adhesion Forces involvedSecondary bonds no e- transferred or shared interaction of atomic/molecular dipoles weak < 100 kJ/mol weak < 100 kJ/mol
van der Waals London forces or dispersion
(induced dipoles) Debye forces (permanent
dipole and induced
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 22
Hydrogen
dipole and induced dipole)
Keesom forces (permanent dipoles)
12
Theory of adhesion Forces involvedAll the bonds are forces acting in very short distances (some
angstroms (1 A = 10-10 m = 0.0001 m)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 23
Theory of adhesion Surface roughness
1 ( )L
R h d
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 24
0
( )Ra h x dxL
=
0.5 m
13
Theory of adhesion Surface roughness
Roughness = 1000 x distance of action of the bonding forces
But if liquid...
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 25
Theory of adhesion Phase change
Good wetting but without strength
Hardening...
Liquid
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 26
Solid
14
Theory of adhesion Phase change
Hardening process (cure)
L f l t ( hit l f d) Loss of solvent (e.g. white glue for wood) Cooling from the molten state (hot melts) Chemical reaction (most of structural
adhesives)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 27
Theory of adhesion Wetting
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 28
15
Theory of adhesion Wetting
Contact l angle,
0 90 180
SV = SL + LV cos Young (1805)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 29
cos 1 0 -1
Spreading Complete wet. Partial wet. SL= SV Low wetting No wetting
Theory of adhesion Wetting
Unbalance of atraction forces at the surface surface energy
Surface energy,
surface energy
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 30
16
Theory of adhesion Wetting
Surface energy,
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 31
Theory of adhesion Wetting
Surface energy of liquidsWilhelmy plate, weight of a drop, capillarity, etc.
FL 2
Fl
=
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 32
17
Theory of adhesion Wetting
Surface energy of solidsCritical surface tension, C
Zisman (1950)Zisman (1950)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 33
Theory of adhesion Wetting
Surface energy of solidsDispersion and polar components
Fowkes (1963)
d p = + +
( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
2/1
2/1
2/12/1
2/1cos1 D
SD
PLP
SDL +
=+
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 34
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )2/12/12 SDLSDL
Watts (2010)
18
Theory of adhesion Spreading
Principle of minimum energy
< the liquid spreadsL < S the liquid spreadsL > S the liquid does not spread
Surfaces of high energy S = 500 ~ 5000 mJ m-2(metals and their oxides, glass and ceramics; generally hard materials with high melting points)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 35
materials with high melting points) Surfaces of low energy S = 5 ~ 100 mJ m-2
(most of organic solids and polymeric materials; generally soft materials with low melting points)
Theory of adhesion Spreading
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 36
19
Theory of adhesion Spreading
How can the user intervene?
Increase the surface energy of the solid
Contamination of surfaces (powders, greases, oils, adsorbed gases, humidity, etc.) low surface energy
The surface treatments can eliminate the
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 37
The surface treatments can eliminate the contaminants and modify the chemistry of surfaces of low energy (polymers)
Theory of adhesion Theories of adhesion
Mechanical Adsorption Diffusion Electrostatic
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 38
20
Theory of adhesion Theories of adhesion
Mechanical
Example: rubber with textile
But... Smooth surface
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 39
Increase of surface areaElimination of weak boundary layersBetter wettingMore energy dissipation
Theory of adhesion Theories of adhesion
AdsorptionPhysical adsorption
Surface forcesG d tti
Chemical adsorption
Good wettingMost importantOccurs in all bonds
Ch i l b d
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 40
Chemical bondAcid-basePrimaryBonding agents
21
1. Adhesive selection2. Joint design3. Surface treatment4. Fabrication5. Control
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 41
5. Control
Adhesive selection Classification
Function (structural and non-structural) Chemical composition (thermoplastics, thermosets,
elastomers hibrids)elastomers, hibrids) Hardening mechanism (chemical reaction, loss of
solvent or water, hardening from the melt) Physical form (liquid, paste, solid) Cost Substrates
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 42
Substrates Method of application
22
Adhesive selection Classification
Function
Adhesives
Structural Non-structural
EpoxiesPolyurethanes
RubbersPolyesters
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 43
yAcrylics
PhenolicsAromatics
yHot meltsInorganic
Adhesive selection Classification
Chemical composition
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 44
23
Adhesive selection Classification
Kinloch (1997)Chemical compositionHybrids (e.g. thermoset + rubber)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 45
Adhesive selection ClassificationChemical compositionHybrids (e.g. thermoset + rubber) da Silva & Adams (2005)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 46
24
Adhesive selection Composition
Base or binder Hardener and catalyst
S l t Solvents Diluents Fillers Carriers or reinforcements
O
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 47
Other additives
Adhesive selection Hardening
1. Chemical reactiona. Two partsb. One part, cure by catalyst or hardenerc. Cure by humidityc. Cure by humidityd. Cure by radiation (light, UV, electrons beam, etc.)e. Catalized by the substratef. Adhesives in solid form (tape, film, powder, etc.)
2. Loss of solvent or watera. Resinous solvent adhesives b. Reactivatable adhesives
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 48
c. Contact adhesives
3. Hardening from the melt
25
Adhesive selection Hardening
VULCANIZAO(CROSS-LINKING)
Chemical reaction Condensation reaction (polyimides,
polybenzimidazole, phenolics)p y p ) Addition reaction (epoxies, urethanes, acrylics)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 49
Adhesive selection Epoxies
Most important Strong but brittle Low shrinkageLow shrinkage 1 or 2 parts Exothermic cure Can be B-staged Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A
(DGEBA)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 50
(DGEBA) Cured with amines (room temp.) Most are hybrid epoxies
26
Adhesive selection Epoxies
Two part epoxyForm 2 parts in paste Method of application Manual mixture
Mi t d t t d li tiMixture and automated application Cure Room temperature (can be
accelerated at high temperature) Service temperature 40 to 100C Advantages Strength and durability Disadvantages Slow curing
Mixture (voids) Environment resistance
Water GoodSolvent Good
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 51
resistance Solvent GoodOil Good
Health and safety Dermatosis Breathing problems
Applications Aircraft, helicopters, cars, trains, sport equipment, etc.
Adhesive selection Epoxies
One part epoxy
Form Film, paste Method of application Manual Cure Temperature (~150C) Service temperature 40 to 180C Advantages Strength and durability Disadvantages Storage
Cures at high temperature Environment resistance
Water Excellent Solvent Excellent Oil Excellent
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 52
Health and safety DermatosisBreathing problems
Applications Aircraft, helicopters, cars, trains, sport equipment, etc.
27
Adhesive selection Epoxies
Hexcel Composites
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 53
Adhesive selection Epoxies
Toughened epoxies Inclusions of CTBN Increased toughness
Kinloch (1997)Increased toughness
Lower Tg Lower strength
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 54
28
Adhesive selection Epoxies
Epoxy-phenolic Epoxy resin + phenolic resin High temperature resistance High temperature resistance Continuously until 175C Very good strength to environment, oil, solvents Low toughness Aeronautical applications
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 55
Bonding honeycomb sandwich composites
Adhesive selection Epoxies
Epoxy-nylon Improved toughness and
peel strength
Kinloch (1997)
peel strength Limited resistance to the
environment Max temperature 80C Good filleting capacity
B d l i i ki t
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 56
Bond aluminium skins to honeycomb core
29
Adhesive selection Epoxies
Epoxy-polysulfide Excellent toughness, peel strength and flexibility,
chemical resistancechemical resistance Max temperature 50-80C 2 parts paste Room temperature cure High deformation applications
C t i
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 57
Bond concrete in floors and roads Sealants, glass bonding, bond rubber to metals
Cotronics
Adhesive selection Polyurethanes
Form Solutions, pastesMethod of application Cartridge Cure Room temperature and moisture (1
part) Can be accelerated with temperature (2 parts)
Service temperature 200 to 120CAdvantages Good strength at low temperatures
Toughness Wetting ability
Disadvantages Moisture cure Limited temperature resistance
Environment Water Fair
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 58
resistance Solvent Fair/Good Oil Fair/Good
Health and safety Avoid physiological risks Applications Cryogenic applications
Automotive industry
30
Adhesive selection Polyurethanes
Total / Le joint Franais
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 59
Adhesive selection Acrylics
Anaerobics Cyanoacrylates Cyanoacrylates Modified acrylics Cure rapidly Bond many substrates, including plastics Fast assembly operations
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 60
31
Adhesive selection Acrylics Anaerobics
Form 1 part liquid or paste Method of application Small container or automatic
application Cure By absence of oxygenCure By absence of oxygen
Cures in min or h at 25C or in 10 min at 120C
Service temperature 55 to 150C Advantages Little surface preparation Disadvantages Thin bondlines Environment resistance
Water Good Solvent Depends on formulation Oil Good
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 61
Oil GoodHealth and safety No major problems Applications Liquid lock washer
Small assembly works
Loctite
Adhesive selec. Acrylics Cyanoacrylates
Form 1 part liquid Method of application Small container or automatic
application Cure Substrate moisture
Cures in sec or min at 20C Service temperature 30 to 80C Advantages Fast cure Disadvantages Cannot bond large areas due to fast
cure Brittle Bad gap filling
Environment resistance
Water Weak Solvent Fair/good
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 62
resistance Solvent Fair/goodOil Good
Health and safety Can bond to skin due to fast cure Applications Rapid assemble of light structures
Optical and electronic industry
Loctite
32
Adhesive selec. Acrylics Modified acrylics
Form 2 parts Method of application Small container or automatic
applicationppCure Catalysed by an initiator that allows
a fast cure Service temperature 40 to 120C Advantages Fast cure
Can bond unprepared surfaces Good environment resistance
Disadvantages Lower strength and stiffness than epoxies
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 63
Environment resistance
Water GoodSolvent Good Oil Good
Health and safety No major problems Applications Rapid assemble of structures
Adhesive selection Phenolics
Cure at high temperature (140C) and pressure
Volatiles released during cure gporous bondlines
Good resistance to environment and temperature
Wood bonding Cheap
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 64
Cheap Brittle and low peel strength Hybrid phenolics generally used
33
Adhesive selection Phenolics
Form Solutions, powder, films Method of application Manual, brush, film Cure Temperature and pressure Service temperature 40 to 180CService temperature 40 to 180CAdvantages Good strength to fire
Cheap Disadvantages Difficult processing
Brittle Porous bondlines
Environment resistance
Water Excellent Solvent Good Oil Good
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 65
Oil GoodHealth and safety Low smoke and low level of
toxicity Applications Wood
Metal (hybrid phenolics)
Adhesive selection Phenolics
Nitrile-phenolics Vinyl-phenolic
N h li Neoprene-phenolic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake_lining
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 66
http://www.boardtek.com.tw/Metal.htm
34
Adhesive selection Polyaromatics
Polyimide, bismaleimide, polybenzimidazole
Ladder structure High temperature adhesives Expensive Difficult processing
Brittle and low peel strength
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 67
Brittle and low peel strength Difficult to toughen
Adhesive selection Polyaromatics
Form Supported film Method of application Sandwich assembly Cure Temperature (250C) and pressure p ( ) pService temperature 40 to 280C Advantages Strength at high temperatures Disadvantages Very difficult processing
Brittle at room temperature Porous bondlines Expensive
Environment resistance
Water Excellent Solvent Excellent
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 68
Oil Excellent Health and safety No major problems Applications Applications at high temperature
Aeronautical and aerospace industry
35
Adhesive selection Polyaromatics
Hexcel Composites
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 69
Adhesive selection Selection process
Substrate
Design and loading
Production requirements Adhesive
selectionExperimental
validation
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 70
Service environment
36
Adhesive selection Selection processSubstrateSpreading condition principle of minimum energy
L < S the liquid spreadsL > S the liquid does not spreadL > S the liquid does not spread
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 71
Adhesive selection Selection process
-phe
nolic
phen
olic
ene-
phen
olic
cino
l for
mal
dehy
de
l for
mal
dehy
de
min
e fo
rmal
dehy
de
orm
alde
hyde
omat
ic
ter
reth
ane
obic
acry
late
ied
acry
lic
Shields (1984)Substrate
Epo
xy
Nitr
ile-
Vin
yl-p
Neo
pre
Res
orc
Phen
ol
Mel
am
Ure
a fo
Poly
ar
Poly
est
Poly
ur
Ana
ero
Cya
noa
Mod
ifi
Metals Ceramics Wood Paper Leather Textile Elastomers Neoprene Silicone Polyurethane
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 72
yThermoplastics PVC (flexible) PVC (rigid) Cellulose acetate PE (film) PE (rigid) PP (film) PP (rigid) PC Teflon
37
Adhesive selection Selection processSubstrateResidual thermal stresses
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 73
Adhesive selection Selection process
Production requirements
Adhesive form Method of application Working time Cure conditions (temperature, pressure, time) Holding time Shelf life
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 74
Safety and health issues Cost
38
Adhesive selection Selection process
Production requirements
Type of adhesive Common forms available
Cure method
Processing conditions
d m e uid en
t so
lutio
n,
lsio
n
ent r
elea
se
mic
al re
actio
n
m te
mpe
ratu
re
h te
mpe
ratu
re
sure
requ
ired
sure
not
requ
ired Petrie (2000)
Solid
Film
Past
e
Liqu
Solv
emul
Solv
Che
m
Roo
m
Hig
h
Pres
s
Pres
s
Epoxy (polyamine) Epoxy (polyanhydride) Epoxy (polyamide) Epoxy-phenolic Epoxy-nylon Epoxy-polysulfide Nitrile-phenolic Vinyl-phenolic Neoprene-phenolic Resorcinol formaldehyde Phenol formaldehyde
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 75
yMelamine formaldehyde Urea formaldehyde Polyimide Bismaleimide Polybenzimidazole Polyester + isocyanate Polyester + monomer Polyurethane Cyanoacrylate Acrylic
Adhesive selection Selection processDesign and loading
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 76
39
Adhesive selection Selection processService environment
Adhesive Tg (C)
Epoxies Toughened epoxy
50-150
da Silva et al. (2007)
g p yEpoxy phenolic Epoxy nylon Epoxy polysulfide
200 50 50
Phenolics Nitrile phenolic Vinyl phenolic Neoprene phenolic
120 70 70
High temperature adhesives
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 77
High temperature adhesivesBismaleimide Polyimide
210-280 340-430
Polyurethanes 20-50 Anaerobics 120 Cyanoacrylates 80 Modified acrylics 60-120
Adhesive selection Selection process
Experimental validationPhysical and chemical propertiesColour viscosity shelf life working life density TColour, viscosity, shelf life, working life, density, Tg,
etc...Mechanical propertiesFailure strength tests (shear, tension, compression),
fracture tests (mode I, II)D bilit
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 78
DurabilityTemperature, moisture
40
Adhesive selection Selection process
Experimental validationTensile test EN ISO 527-2
BS 2782BS 2782
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 79
Adhesive selection Selection process
Tension vs compression
Experimental validation
Tension vs. compressionc = 1.2 to 1.4 t
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 80
41
Adhesive selection Selection process
ASTM D 695Experimental validationCompression test
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 81
Adhesive selection Selection process
Experimental validationThick Adherend Shear Test (TAST)
ISO 11003 2 ASTM D 5656ISO 11003-2, ASTM D 5656
ISO 11003-2
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 82
ISO 11003-2, ASTM D 5656da Silva et al.(2008)
42
Adhesive selection Selection process
Experimental validationShear test (Arcan)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 83
Adhesive selection Selection process
Chen et al. (2010)
Experimental validationShear test (Torsion)
Gali et al. (1981)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 84
43
Adhesive selection Selection process
ASTM D 3433
Experimental validationToughness (Double cantilever beam (DCB) test)
ASTM D 3433
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 85
356
12.7
6.35
6.35 a = 510
25.4
Adhesive selection Selection processExperimental validationMechanical properties
Tljsten (2005)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 86
44
Adhesive selection Selection processExperimental validationMechanical properties
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 87
Adhesive selection Selection processExperimental validationMechanical propertiesAdhesive Manufacturer Tension Compression Shear GIc
(J/m2) GIIc (J/m2) E
(MPa) y (MPa)
r (MPa)
r (%)
y (MPa)
r (MPa)
G (MPa)
y (MPa)
r (MPa)
r (%) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Epoxies Araldite AV138 Huntsman 4590 41.0 41.0 1.30 1559 25.0 30.2 5.50 345.9 3000 Hysol EA 9394 Loctite 4420 31.0 59.8 4.64 35.9 68.9 1140 25.0 40.4 8.36 Hysol EA 9321 Loctite 3870 22.0 46.0 3.80 34.0 1030 20.0 33.0 6.35 Supreme 10HT Master Bond 3240 25.0 45.5 2.00 1460 37.1 37.1 16.1 0.30 Araldite AV 119 Huntsman 3450 67.1 67.1 4.10 1260 47.0 47.0 50.7 0.37 Hysol EA 9150 Loctite 2852 79.0 5.00 99.9 1056 0.35 Hysol EA 9359.3 Loctite 2650 42.5 42.5 4.50 145 660.0 35.3 35.3 63.0 Hysol EA 9330 Loctite 2646 38.6 2.40 53.1 965.0 0.37 Hysol EA 9628f Loctite 2377 51.7 7.50 79.3 624.0 1401 Araldite 2015 Huntsman 1850 22.5 4.40 560.0 14.0 20.0 40.3 525.7 4700 Redux 810 Hexcel Comp. 1730 40.0 5.53 02 Rapid Delo 1000 24.0 20.0
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 88
Hysol EA 9361 Loctite 670 7.99 44.0 Polyurethanes Araldite 2026 Huntsman 200 18.0 50.00 Sikaflex 256 Sika 1.351 8.26 8.26 330 2901 Bismaleimides Redux HP655f Hexcel Comp. 3620 80.7 80.7 2.39 694.0 Redux 326f Hexcel Comp. 4850 50.9 50.9 1.28 1615 37.9 37.9 3.70 Modified acrylics DP-8005 3M 590 13.0 5.30 178.6 5.3 8.40 180 1360 Araldite 2024 Huntsman 760 20.0 42.5
45
Adhesive selection Selection processExperimental validationTg
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 89
Adhesive selection Selection processExperimental validationTg DMA
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 90
46
Adhesive selection Selection processExperimental validationTemperature
55C
70
da Silva & Adams (2005)
-55C
22C
100C20
30
40
50
60
Shea
r stre
ss (M
Pa)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 91
200C0
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Shear strain
Adhesive selection Selection processExperimental validationHumidity Bordes et al. (2009)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 92
47
1. Adhesive selection2. Joint design3. Surface treatment4. Fabrication5. Control
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 93
5. Control
Joint design Stress analysis
Two possibilities:
Analytical methods design Numerical methods (finite element
method) research
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 94
48
Joint design Stress analysis
Simple analysis
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 95
blP
=
Joint design Stress analysis
Volkersen (1938)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 96
49
Joint design Stress analysisVolkersen (1938)
Load balance of upper adherend:
( ) 11 1 1 1 1dbt bdx d btd t + = + =
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 97
( )1dx t
Load balance of lower adherend:
( ) 22 2 2 2 22
dbt d bt bdxdx t = + + =
Joint design Stress analysisVolkersen (1938)
Joint equilibrium:
1 1 2 2P bt bt = +
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 98
Shear deformation in the adhesive:
( ) 1 2 1 21 2a a a a a 1 2
1 1 1 1du dud du uG t dx G dx t dx dx t E E
= = = = =
50
Joint design Stress analysis
Volkersen (1938)1 2
a a 1 2
1 1dG dx t E E
=
2
2
ddx t
= 11
ddx t
= + +
2 2 2a1 1 2 2 1 1 2
12 2 2a a a a 1 2
1 Gt d t d dd tG dx G dx G dx dx t E E
= = =
2 Gd
From 1 1 2 2P bt bt = +2
11
12 t
tbtP =
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 99
2a1 1 2
1 2a 1 2
Gdtdx t E E
=
Substituting in
221
1 02 0d Cdx
+ = with 2 aa 1 1 2 2
1 1Gt E t E t
= +
a0
a 2 2 1
G PCt bE t t
=
Joint design Stress analysis
Volkersen (1938)( ) ( ) ( )( )
0 0 01 2 2 2
1
sinhcosh cosh 1
sinhxC C CPx l
bt l
= + + +
dFrom 11
ddx t
=
( ) ( ) ( )( )0 1 0 11
1 2 2
coshsinh cosh 1
sinhxC t C td Pt x l
dx l l
= = + +
Substituting C0 and 2 and usingPbl
=
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 100
bl
( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )1 cosh coshsinh
x l k l x xk l
= +
2 a
a 1 1 2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
1
Gt E t E tE tkE t
= +
= +
51
Joint design Stress analysis
Goland & Reissner (1944)
Not deformedBending moment M = Ft/2
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 101
Deformed
Bending moment M = kFt/2k < 1
Joint design Stress analysis
Goland & Reissner (1944)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 102
52
Joint design Stress analysis
Hart-Smith (1973)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 103
Joint design Stress analysis
Hart-Smith (1973)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 104
53
Joint design Stress analysis
Finite element method
KD = R
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Any geometryAll stresses
Parametric studies more difficult
KD R
Joint design Failure modes
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54
Joint design Failure criteria
In the adhesive Brittle adhesive maximum stress (Volkersen or (
G&R) Ductile adhesive maximum strain (Hart-Smith) Very ductile adhesive (> 20% in shear) global
yielding Fracture mechanics
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Fracture mechanics Damage mechanics
Joint design Failure criteria
Global yieldingCrocombe (1989)
pblP =max
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55
Joint design Failure criteria
Global yieldingda Silva et al. (2009)
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Joint design Failure criteria
MetalsHart-Smith (1973)
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56
Joint design Failure criteria
MetalsAdherend yielding
Adams et al. (1997)
pblP =max
ybtP =max
btPt =
btkP
kPtMbtM
3
R)&(G 2 and 6
sup
2sup
=
==
( )( )kbtP
btkP
y
t
31
31
max
supmax
+=
+=+=
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 111
For low loads and short overlaps, k = 1For joints which are long compared to the adherend thickness (l/t = 20), k = 0
4max ybtP =
Joint design Failure criteria
CompositesHart-Smith (1973)
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57
Joint design Failure criteria
Singularities
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 113
Joint design Failure criteria
Singularities adherend rounding
Zhao et al. (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 114
58
Joint design Failure criteria
Fracture mechanicsTo solve proble of singularities
But...
Difficult to relate K with experimental results
Diffi lt h th i
Crack
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Difficult when there is plastic deformation
Groth (1985)
Joint design Failure criteria
Damage mechanicsde Moura et al. (2002)
u u=
,i u i >
top bottom u u=
Initiationi
u,i,
,0
u i ii u i
u i i
=
Softening
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 116
c , ,12i u i u i
G = Propagation
o,i u,i i
, 0,u i i
59
Joint design Failure criteria
Damage mechanics Loureiro et al. (2010)
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Joint design Optimisation
Fillets
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60
Joint design Optimisation
Fillets Grant et al. (2009)
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Joint design Optimisation
Adherend shaping
Cherry & Harrison (1970)Adams et al. (1986) da Silva & Adams (2007)Hildebrand (1994) Rispler et al. (2000)Sancaktar & Nirantar (2003)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 120
Sancaktar & Nirantar (2003)Kaye & Heller (2005)
61
Joint design Optimisation
Adherend shaping
4550
da Silva & Adams (2007)
51015202530354045
Failu
re lo
ad (k
N)
Basic designTaper and adhesive fillet
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 121
05
-55C 22C -55C 22C -55C 22C
Supreme10HT
AV119 Adams et al(1986)
Joint design Optimisation
Mixed adhesive joint
Sancaktar & Kumar (2000)Pires et al. (2003)
Temiz (2006)Bouiadjra et al. (2007) das Neves et al. (2009)
Marques & da Silva (2008)
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da Silva & Lopes (2009)
Marques & da Silva (2008)
62
Joint design OptimisationMixed adhesive joint
da Silva & Lopes (2009)
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Joint design OptimisationMixed adhesive joint
da Silva & Adams (2007)
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63
Joint design Optimisation
Hybrid jointsLiu & Sawa (2001)
Liu et al. (2004) G i t l (2006)Grassi et al. (2006)
Pirondi & Moroni (2009)
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Joint design Optimisation
Hybrid jointsPirondi & Moroni (2010)
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64
Joint design Tubular joints
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Joint design T joints
Adams et al. (1997)da Silva & Adams (2002)
Apalak (2002) Marcadon et al. (2006)
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65
Joint design T joints
10
12
1210
da Silva & Adams (2002)
2
4
6
8
10
Failu
re lo
ad (k
N)
1.5 mm
10 mm
Base thickness
9
12
7
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0
2
(d)(c)(b)(a)
Joint design T joints
da Silva & Adams (2002)
(b) Apalak et al FE stress predictionObserved locus of failure(a)
Locus of failure
Maximum stresses
Yield
Progressive failure
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Locus of failure
Maximum stressesSudden failure
66
Joint design Corner joints
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 131
Adams et al. (1997)Apalak and Davies (1993)Feih and Shercliff (2005)
Joint design
da Silva et al. (2009)http://ni.fe.up.pt/~rteixeira/rjoints
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67
1. Adhesive selection2. Joint design3. Surface treatment4. Fabrication5. Control
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 133
5. Control
Surface treatment
Hagemaier (1990)
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68
Surface treatmentCharacteristics that affect adhesion
ContaminationOils, greases, fingerprints, mold release
agents etc low surface energyagents, etc. low surface energy decrease adhesion
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Surface treatmentCharacteristics that affect adhesion
Weak boundary layerContaminant films, oxide layers, rust,
corrosion scale and loose surface particlescorrosion, scale, and loose surface particles, etc.
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69
Surface treatment General principles
In surface treatment, the following operations can occur:
1- Material removal2- Chemical modification of the surface3- Change of the surface topography
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Surface treatment Importance
Aluminium joints bonded with an epoxy adhesive
Kinloch (1987)
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70
Surface treatment Assessment
Water-break test
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Surface treatment Assessment
Destructive test
Adhesive failure
Bad treatment
G d t t t
Cohesive failure
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Good treatment
71
Surface treatment Selection
1. Initial strength2. Durability3. Initial condition of the substrates4. Type of substrate and nature of the
surface5. Production factors (cost, time, etc.)
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Surface treatment MethodsPassive processes No chemical alteration Clean the surface Remove substances that are weakly attachedActive processes Chemical transformation Metals formation of a well defined oxide or structure Polymers formation of polar groups that increase
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Polymers formation of polar groups that increase surface energy and adhesion
Last treatment when high strength and durability are required
72
Surface treatment Methods
Passive processes Abrasive methods SolventsSolvents Chemical cleaningActive processes Acid etching Anodizing (metals)
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Anodizing (metals) Flame treatment, corona discharge, plasma
(polymers)
Surface treatment MethodsSteel (shot-blasted)
da Silva et al. (2008)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 144
73
Surface treatment Methods
Al (acid etching) Critchlow et al. (2006)
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Surface treatment Methods
Metals
Loctite
Metals
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74
Surface treatment Methods
Polymers
Loctite
Polymers
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1. Adhesive selection2. Joint design3. Surface treatment4. Fabrication5. Control
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 148
5. Control
75
Fabrication Steps
Adhesive applicationStorage
Metering and mixingFixturing of parts
pp
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 149
Hardening
Fabrication Storage
Adhesives degrade ith li ht h idit twith light, humidity, etc.
Viscosity increases with time determines the shelf-life
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 150
Van Twisk & Aker (1990)
76
Fabrication Storage
Ambient temperatureAmbient temperature
L
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 151
Low temperature(fridge or freezer)
Fabrication Storage
Effect of ambient conditions
Van Twisk & Aker (1990)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 152
77
Fabrication Storage
Refrigerated or frozen productsHexcel Composites
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 153
Fabrication Metering and mixing
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 154
78
Fabrication Adhesive application
Liquid Brush, simple rollers, syringes, squeeze
b ttl i d l t Easy to apply A lot of waste Any geometry
bottles, pressurized glue guns, etc.
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Good wetting
Fabrication Adhesive application
Paste Guns, spatula Simple Simple Low waste
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 156
79
Fabrication Adhesive application
Paste Application pattern to avoid air entrapment
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Translation Rotation
Fabrication Adhesive application
Paste Sika (2009)
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80
Fabrication Adhesive application
Film Minimum waste
N i i No mixing Easy Good reproducibility Uniform thickness Flat surfaces
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Expensive
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Keep surfaces in contact Avoid adhesive thickness variationsAvoid adhesive thickness variations Allow good wetting of the surface Avoid formation of voids and porosity
(adhesives that cure by condensation such as phenolics and polyimides)
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p p y )
81
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Equipment Clamps
ARIANE 5 satellite adaptor
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Dsagulier (2010)
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Equipment Moulds
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82
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Equipment Press
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 163
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Equipment Autoclave
NPL
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 164
Aschome
83
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Equipment Vacuum-bag
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 165
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Adhesive thickness Influence on joint strength (0.1 to 0.2 mm)
G t t l (2009)Grant et al. (2009)
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84
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Adhesive thickness Microspheres or carriers (films)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 167
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Adhesive thickness Shims
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Shim (controls the thickness and filet)
85
Fabrication Fixturing of parts
Adhesive thickness Wires
TWI
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 169
Fabrication Hardening
Chemical reaction (most of structural adhesives)adhesives)
Loss of solvent or water (e.g. white glue of wood)
Hardening from the melt (hot melts)
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86
Fabrication Hardening
Chemical reaction Depends on adhesive, room temperature or high
temperaturetemperature May need pressure (e. g. phenolics) Examples:
Epoxy 120C, 1hBismaleimide (for high temperatures) 175C, 2h + 230C, 2h
Cure is accelerated with temperature
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 171
Cure is accelerated with temperature Tg increases with the cure temperature but beware of
degradation of adhesive
Fabrication Hardening
Chemical reaction Time depends on temperature
PermabondESP 110
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 172
87
Fabrication Hardening
Equipment Temperature of adhesive Ovens (good air circulation)(g ) Hot press
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 173
Fabrication Hardening
Equipment Local heating (induction or dielectric)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 174
88
Fabrication Hardening
Equipment Local heating
Hexcel Composites
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 175
Fabrication Safety and environment
Schindel Bidinelli
Use gloves and masks Well ventilated area with
air e traction Schindel-Bidinelliair extraction Safety equipment Keep in a safe place
solventsE th i ti
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 176
Exothermic reaction use thin bondlines
89
1. Adhesive selection2. Joint design3. Surface treatment4. Fabrication5. Control
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 177
5. Control
Control Destructive tests
Lap joints Peel Impact Impact Fatigue Creep Environment
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 178
90
Control Destructive tests
Single lap joints
ASTM D 1002
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 179
Control Destructive tests
Modified lap jointsLaminated lap shear specimen
ASTM D 3165
Double lap specimen
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 180
ASTM D 3528
Double lap specimen
91
Control Destructive tests
PeelASTM D 1876
ASTM D 3167ASTM D 1781
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T-peelFloating roller peel
Climbing drum peel
Control Destructive tests
Peel Blackman (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 182
92
Control Destructive tests
Peel Adhesive thickness
Rider (1964)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 183
Control Destructive tests
ImpactASTM D 950
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 184
93
Control Destructive tests
ImpactHarris & Adams (1985)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 185
Control Destructive tests
Impact (wedge impact peel)ISO 11343
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 186
94
Control Destructive tests
Impact (Split Hokinson Pressure Bar) Goglio (2010)
Strain gauges
Projectile
Specimen
Strain gauges
Incident pulse distance
a)
b)
Second (transmitter) bar First (incident) bar
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 187
time
Reflected pulse Transmitted pulse
Control Destructive tests
Impact (Inertial wheel impact) Loureiro et al. (2010)
Impactor
Inertia wheel
Swing armLoad cell
AC Motor
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 188
SpecimenAnvil
95
Control Destructive tests
FatigueASTM D 3166 Banea et al. (2009)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 189
Control Destructive tests
FatigueFernndez et al. (2010)
S i 2Specimen 2
da e/dN (CBBM) = 0.0058x1.7956 0.01
0.10.1 1
G Imax/G Ic
(mm
/cyc
le)
sss
dae/dN
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 190
da /dN (BEFM)= 0.0046x 1.4131
0.0001
0.001
da/dN
da/dN
96
Control Destructive tests
CreepASTM D 2294
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 191
Control Destructive tests
Creep ASTM D 2294
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 192
97
Control Destructive tests
EnvironmentASTM D 896
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 193
Control Destructive tests
Environemnt (Boeing wedge test)ASTM D 3762
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 194
98
Control Non-destructive tests
Defects Poor adhesion Porr cohesive strength
V id di b d it Voids, disbonds or porosity
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 195
Control Non-destructive tests
Visual inspection Porosity, misalignments, non-uniform adhesive
thickness, etc.
Hart-Smith (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 196
99
Control Non-destructive tests
Tap test Tapping on the bonded joint
Sh l t d dh i Sharp clear tone good adhesion Dull hollow tone void or unattached area Can be instrumented (solenoid operated
hammer and microphone pickup)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 197
Control Non-destructive tests
Ultrasonic method Petrie (2000)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 198
100
Control Non-destructive tests
Ultrasonic method Assler (2006)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 199
Control Non-destructive tests
Acoustic emission Joint must be loaded (semi-destructive) Stress waves emitted by crack propagation or micro-cracking
d d ith i l t i t dare recorded with piezoelectric transducers The only method that can detect poor adhesion
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 200
Magalhes (1999)
101
Control Non-destructive tests
Radiography Voids or discontinuities Contrast improved with metal powder or other suitable p p
filler
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 201
Magalhes (1999)
Control Non-destructive tests
Thermal methods Petrie (2000)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 202
102
Control Post-fracture tests
Optical microscopy Failure mechanism
S f l i Surface analysis
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 203
Control Post-fracture tests
Scanning electron microscopy Surface analysis
da Silva & Adams (2005)
Failure surface of a toughened adhesive
Failure surface of an untoughened adhesive
( )
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 204
103
Control Post-fracture tests
Scanning electron microscopy Surface analysis Banea & da Silva (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 205
Control Post-fracture tests
Atomic force microscopy Surface analysis da Silva et al. (2008)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 206
104
Control Post-fracture tests
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Chemical composition of the surface
da Silva & Adams (2005)
Surface of a bi l i id
da Silva & Adams (2005)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 207
bismaleimide
Control Post-fracture tests
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) Identification of a material Suarez (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 208
FTIR spectrum of vulcanized styrene-butadiene rubber
105
Applications in the automotive industry RequirementsRequirements Areas of application Adhesives Strength Durability
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 209
y Repair
Automotive industry RequirementsBonding of multi-materials
Mangino (Fiat)
Dune Buggy 1970s Renault Espace 1984-1996
Volvo V70 XC AWD 2000Fiat 8V 1954
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 210
Chevrolet Corvette 1953
BMW M3 Sport Coup 2003Ford Thunderbird 2002
Ferrari Enzo 2003Aston Martin V12 Vanquish 2002
106
Automotive industry RequirementsBonding of multi-materials in S-Class Coup of
DaimlerChrysler
Flegel (2002)Flegel (2002)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 211
Automotive industry Requirements
Automatic application Good filling capacity (~1 mm) Fast hardening Cognard Fast hardening Flexible and tough Crash test Reduce cost
D bilit ( 15 )
Cognard
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 212
Durability (~15 years) Repair
107
Automotive industry Areas of application
Body shopHem flange bonding
Burchardt (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 213
Automotive industry Areas of application
Body shopAnti-flutter bonding
Burchardt (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 214
108
Automotive industry Areas of applicationBody shopHybrid bonding
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 215
Automotive industry Areas of applicationAssembly lineDirect glazing Sika
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 216
109
Automotive industry Areas of application
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 217
Automotive industry Areas of application
Aston Martin DB9 CoupeNorton (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 218
1C epoxy
110
Automotive industry Adhesives
Tljsten (2005)Tljsten (2005)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 219
Automotive industry StrengthIncrease in stiffness compared to welded structures
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 220
Flegel (2002)
111
Automotive industry Strength
Plastic deformation of the adherend controls failure (see joint design)
Grant et al. (2009)
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Automotive industry Strength
Use flexible and ductile adhesives (crash suitable)
Burchardt (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 222
112
Automotive industry Strength
ImpactDroste (2006)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 223
Automotive industry Strength
Jost (2000)Impact
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 224
113
Automotive industry DurabilityFatigue strength
Dilger (2005)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 225
Automotive industry DurabilityTemperature (-30 to +80C)
Burchardt (2010)Structural adhesive
1C PU
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114
Automotive industry DurabilityHumidity
Davies (2010)
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Automotive industry RepairDismantable adhesives Sato (2010)
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 228
115
Bibliography
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 229
Bibliography
Lucas da Silva JCBE2011 Adhesive bonding technologies 230