Daniel Murphy Senior Teaching Fellow University of Edinburgh

Daniel MurphySenior Teaching FellowUniversity of Edinburgh

Workshop Dealing with Dilemmas:

“the messy part of leadership and management”

Saturday June 7th, 10-45 – 12.00 D Murphy, University of Edinburgh Workshop Session

Professional School Leadership: Dealing with Dilemmas1st edition 2007, 2nd edition June 2013

Why did I write this book?


Format• Presentation (c 30 - 40 mins)

– What are these dilemmas? What issues underly them?– What kinds of challenges do leaders and managers

experience as a result of these kinds of dilemmas?– What does the analysis of dilemmas tell us about the

difficulties of turning policy into practice?

• Discussion (c 30 - 40 mins)– Based on exemplar dilemmas– Using ‘toolkit’ for resolution

• Round up (c 5 mins)Saturday June 7th, 10-45 – 12.00 D Murphy, University of Edinburgh Workshop Session

Dilemma: (a) a situation involving choice between two equally unsatisfactory alternatives; (b) a problem seemingly incapable of a satisfactory solution.’

Three Examples:1. competing perceptions (innocent or guilty); 2. competing rules (healthy eating vs freedom to trade);3. competing educational principles (entitlement to

education vs meeting the needs of the child).


Dilemmas a typical experience of school leaders

• … ‘together the constructs of ‘tensions’ and ‘dilemmas’ capture the immediacy of the continuing conflicts faced by many heads’ (Day et al 2000);

• … ‘genetic code’ of the job (Cuban 1996);• … ‘bread and butter’ of school leadership

(Cranston et al 2006);• … superintendents, middle leaders, policy

makers … many such situations …


Example 1: competing for resources

Who should get the extra help? ( vignette A)• a teacher who gives additional support for those

whose first language is not English leaves the service;• after the holiday, the school finds out that an

additional teacher has been appointed to a centre for asylum seekers but their teacher has not been replaced;

• the headteacher or teachers could make this into a ‘news’ item but risk disciplinary action;

• what should the headteacher do?Saturday June 7th, 10-45 – 12.00 D Murphy, University of Edinburgh Workshop Session

Example 2: competing perceptions

Innocent or guilty?( vignette B)• a boy is alleged to have committed a sexual assault

against a girl at the weekend;• he faces legal proceedings to determine his guilt or

innocence;• meantime the girl has to face him in school everyday;• her parents refuse to allow her to attend school and

demand that the headteacher excludes the boy;• what should the headteacher do?


Example 3: competing principlesCurriculum entitlement or meeting needs? (vignette C)• the local council decrees that all children (to age 16)

must spend 27.5 hours per week in classroom learning in school – it is their ‘entitlement’;

• a boy of 15 hates classroom learning and misbehaves very badly, but is wonderful at working with animals on his uncle’s farm;

• the school is not allowed to let him ‘learn’ on the farm, but the uncle is happy to let him do so;

• what should the headteacher do?


Example 4: micro-political pressures

Give in to pressure? (Vignette D)

• a new headteacher has introduced what he sees as a ‘common sense’ policy on taking photographs in discussion at Parent Council;

• one particular parent has a strong, vocal objection (obsession?);

• She persuades a large number of other parents to back her and the issue is becoming divisive;

• what should the headteacher do?


DilemmasPractical real-life conflicts of interests or values where: ‘It doesn’t matter what you do you will offend/ exclude /

lose the trust of / harm someone.’

Why are these kinds of situations so typical and so difficult?

What is going on ‘beneath the surface’?

/….. much of the research literature is about ‘ethical dilemmas’, but this is not the only important perspective ….


The Three Perspectives

Psychology(cognition,

emotion, learning)

Politics (power and influence)

Ethics (values and principles)

Dilemma


The first perspective: PsychologyDilemmas are:• interpreted conceptually and experienced

emotionally; • often they are situations where creativity and

learning are possible …• … but individuals may or may not learn from

such experiences.


Applying psychology• Cognition: We vary in how we interpret a dilemma

conceptually, in the language we therefore use, in the issues we believe to be at stake and these differences can affect both the situation and the potential options for resolution.

• Emotion: We vary our emotional reaction to the events and people involved. Strong emotions can shape perception and understanding, affecting relationships for good or ill.

• Learning: There are opportunities for learning: learning about others’ points of view; learning about one’s own values and emotional vulnerabilities; learning about power and influence.


Differing perceptionsHidden assumptions, poor understanding of

what is at stake or of the different perceptions of the other individuals involved may reduce the options for resolution.

What are the different perceptions of the parents involved in example 1 above?


Expectations of the leader?“Leaders… are expected to invest more than their knowledge

and skills to effectively discharge their responsibilities in contemporary organisations. Emotional involvement and a deep commitment to their relationships, their organisation, and their work is essential if they are to be regarded as credible.”

(Duignan 2001 p.35)What expectations do the parents in Example 1 have of the

headteacher? What expectations does the headteacher have of him/herself?

/ total commitment?


Total commitmentGronn (2003): The requirements of New Public Management (particularly the

personal identification of the success or failure of the school with the person of its head) have created heavy emotional labour demands, with high personal costs from these pressures;

Feelings to which school leaders may be particularly vulnerable include feelings of failure, and the associated loss of personal identity, since so much of that identity is bound up with the work role.

/ ‘Greedy Work’


Greedy Work'the logic and ethos of work in the service sectors of

increasingly service-based and knowledge-based economies, in particular the leadership of schools, represents a new form of servility…new forms of exploitation and serfdom which I term greedy work practices… Greedy work is such that it demands that one be… always attentive, alert, absorbed in and utterly committed to the particular task as a totally functioning, fully available, non-stop cognitive and emotional presence in the workplace…'

(Gronn 2003 p147,149).


The emotional challenges

People will forget what you say. They will forget what you do. But they will never forget how you made them feel.

(Maya Angelou)We need to be satisfied ‘with what we can do’,

and not broken ‘by what we cannot’ (Larry Cuban)




emotion, learning)



Dilemma


The second perspective: Politics

Dilemmas often • arise from the social and political complexity of the school

environment; • from the rapidity of social change; • traditional shared values and understandings are under

pressure from individualisation, globalisation and diversification;

• different people have and use power and influence – pulling in different directions.


Social Complexity

Dilemmas also arise because life in the 21st century is complicated:

• plurality and diversity, which traditional formal politics struggles to cope with;

• constant restless change influences purpose and direction in schooling;

• focus in education on ‘skills’ for an uncertain future not certain knowledge;

• loss of confidence in the future in the light of the uncertainties of globalisation, environmental challenge, the absence of global political authority….


Political influences on schooling: • in most countries, education is a significant

concern of government at national and local levels;

• the educational policies of governments have profound effects on experience in schools;

• effects of policy may be inconsistent and unintended (e.g. effect universal services model on uptake of ‘early years’ support in Scotland).


Who Runs the School?Varies by country /state but whatever the ‘political

power’, “ … although the policy context at the macro level may

shape the parameters of how schools operate, it is at the micro level of the school itself that policy is translated into practice. The head is undoubtedly a highly significant person in this process and may use or misuse her or his considerable power in pursuit of particular values… ”

(Mahoney et al 1998 p123)


‘Micropolitics’ within school communities

At the level of the region / district / city / school:• diversity in the school community can create

micropolitical tensions and conflicts;• different people may wield power at different

levels and in different directions;• teacher unions, parent advocates, powerful

teenage role models – many people in a school community have power.


Should ‘micropolitics’ influence practice?

• Who has power in the school / district?• Does a leader have the power to enforce what s/he

wants to happen, or does s/he need to act through others / release their power?

• Should the headteacher act from principle or act pragmatically?

• Politics as ‘the art of the possible’.

Two current Scottish concerns – inclusion and inequality


Inclusion a policy area with many dilemmas

Plurality of all-inclusive schools offers greater challenges to teachers’ perceptions of their role;

Inclusiveness may create dilemmas, as reported by Norwich 2008;

Who is included and why (wealth, academic ability, capacity to benefit, values….)?

Who is excluded and why (wealth, academic ability, behaviour, values….)?


Inequalitycan education make society more equal?

• Heath and Sullivan (2011), in their summary of ‘democratisation of upper secondary education’ in six countries suggest that ‘reforms .. seem to have little impact on the trajectory of class inequalities.’

• ‘ the natural explanation for this failure of reform, as suggested by Halsey in 1977, is that middle-class families have always adapted to the current institutional regime.. the advantaged classes will .. find ways to outwit the reformers.’ (p136).

• people have different interests and these interests will often come into conflict….


Resolving Conflict (one of the jobs of politics)

Different levels:• The law (e.g. attendance)• Agreed contractual process and procedure (e.g.

child protection)

/ but many uncertain areas remain – democracy involves constant situational resolution of

competing values


Democratic Values in tension

• Freedom• Equality• What happens to equality if you increase freedom?• If people are free, how can you increase equality?• Is it possible to have both?

/ can we trust those in power not to manipulate the system in their favour, or in favour of their children?


TrustSchools need trust to work well (Bryk and Schneider (2002) –

longitudinal research into Chicago Primary SchoolsPolitical divisions, hierarchical organisational structures,

conflicting interests, value plurality and a restless social context - all make it difficult to build trust

“All in all our democratic schooling system appears to be a bit messy... [its] confusions make it difficult in some cases to develop the kinds of long-term trusting relationships which are necessary for school communities to operate well” (p5)


Where does trust come from?• Relationships and systems

• Organic• Contractual• Relational (Bryk and Schneider);

• Predictability / reliability (little change!!);• Good management (consistency / clarity / feedback..);• Hard won but easily lost;• Building trust across a community can reduce conflict.


Politics and Ethics

• Relationships between ‘interests’ (power and negotiation) and ‘values’ (what is the right thing to do?);

• Is a purely political viewpoint enough? • Are some courses of action better than others

not just because they are what is possible….But because they are ‘the right thing to do’?

/ this moves us from interests to values




emotion, learning)



Dilemma


The third perspective: Ethics:

Dilemmas inevitably involve values, and the values of those involved often differ, so ethical frames of reference are required to understand both the dilemma and its potential solutions.

Ethics asks ‘What is right?’, not just ‘Who has power?’


Ethical stances• Critique (examine motives and interests

of those involved);• Care (compassion);• Justice (rights, rules, responsibilities)• Child at the centre (child’s interests

should come first every time)• ‘Community’ ( what would the

community consider to be ‘fair’ ?)


Value ConflictsIndividual vs Community

(e.g. school uniform)

Justice (rules) vs Mercy (care / compassion)

(e.g. bending the rules)


How well do leaders deal with ethical issues?

• ‘’…heads reported that they often felt alone, cast in the role of arbiter or mediator relying on personal values and professional ethics to find a morally defensible solution…” (Duignan and Collins);

• ‘blindfolded in a minefield ‘(Dempster and Berry 2003);• the child at the centre’ of every dilemma e.g. ‘care’ vs

‘rules’ • coping with conflicts between personal values and group or

organisational imperatives (example 3);• ‘covert subversion’ or ‘furtive disobedience’ (Rich 1984)


Principles sometime compete

• One person’s freedom can be another’s inequality;• One person’s justice is another person’s unfairness;• One faith or culture may specify one principle,

another a different one;• Who should decide which principle (not ‘principal’!!)

is more important?/ but maybe both are equally important …


Two magic ingredients: Trust and Wisdom

The wise leader is:• trusted• virtuous (charity, patience, honesty,

courage……); • understands the context / situation (people,

expectations, values, consequences….);


Recap• Dilemmas are a characteristic experience of

educational leadership and management;• They occur where competing social and

political forces (values / interests / policies / expectations ) meet in the lives of individuals;

• They are complex and best understood in full ‘3-D’.


Recap: The Three Perspectives


emotion, learning)



Dilemma


‘child at the centre’

child

parents and family

teachers and schools

policy and politicians

Ccmmunity and soceity


Leadership and Management is messy

• Political parties and school communities vary in the degree to which common values can be assumed or have to be developed …;

• School structures and systems give out different messages about what and who is valued …;

• It is at the level of the individual child that competing values create tensions and dilemmas e.g. common curriculum vs what is best for the individual child …;

• School leaders vary in what will test them and what they see as straightforward;

• What has worked for you in one situation may not work at all in another….


Advice on reducing the dilemmas

There are fewer dilemmas where there is/are:• shared clear expectations of each individual;• stable relationships;• a nice ‘fit’ between the leader, the place, the

culture / systems; • leaders who handle specific (difficult) situations

consistently – people get to know their ‘style’;• schools should aim to develop shared values;• some schools / local / national communities share

more values than others.


The COPE ‘toolkit’


1. Clarify•3D perspective on what is at stake - in this stage, you

are analysing the issues to ensure that you have the fullest possible picture of the dilemma.

2. Options •what are your choices? in this stage, you are reviewing possible ways forward, weighing up the advantages and risks of each.

3. Plan & Act

•who will do what, when, where and how? who needs to know what and when? in this stage, you are planning and acting.

4. Evaluate•how are things developing? in the end, how did it turn out and what have

you learned? this stage runs through the whole process - some evaluation is constant - you must keep eyes and ears open all the time and change tack if required; evaluation is also required at the end of the process.

Discussion• Imagine you are employed by a new authority

and this is your decision….• Discuss each of the ‘vignettes’ (groups of four) –

each group to start with a different vignette….• Use the COPE process, starting with the 3D

perpective, and assign a reporter, timekeeper etc.


– What challenges are faced by the ‘leader’ in facing up to a dilemma?

– How do the participants understand the issues / events involved? What can be ‘learned’?

– What emotions are involved?– Who has power and how can/do they use it?– What policy / policies are involved (in causing or

solving the dilemma)?– What values / principles are at stake?– What action should the leader take?


1. Murphy, D. (2013 2nd edition) ‘Professional School Leadership: Dealing with Dilemmas’, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press

2. Murphy, D. (2014 – forthcoming) ‘Schooling Scotland: Education, equity and community’, Glendaruel, Argyll Press

3. Murphy, D., Croxford, L., Howieson, C.,Raffe, D. (eds) (2014 – forthcoming) ‘All Our Future: the lessons from the first fifty years of Scottish comprehensive schooling for Scotland, the UK and beyond’, London, Trentham / Institute or Education Press

4. O’Brien, J., Murphy, D., Draper, J. (2014 – 3rd edition – forthcoming) ‘School Leadership’, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press

Other works cited in the publication are fully referenced in #1 above


Documents

Daniel Murphy Senior Teaching Fellow University of Edinburgh