YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015 11

The indigenous peoples of the AmericasDDEEBBBBIIOONN HHYYMMAANNContributor

OBJECTIVES

BY THE end of the lesson you should be able to:1. Describe the migratory pattern of indigenous

peoples to the Americas and to the Caribbeanterritories (through North, Central and South America)and their interactions.

2. List the geographical location of the Tainos(Arawak), Kalinagos (Carib) and Mayan settlements.

3. Describe the socio-economic organisation of theTainos, Kalinagos and Mayans.

4. Describe the political organisation of the Tainos,Kalinagos and the Mayans.

The CSEC Caribbean history syllabus begins with astudy of the settlement of the region. It provides anexplanation of the settlement of the indigenous peoples(Amerindians/neo-Indians) who populated the areathousands of years ago. These indigenous peoplesdeveloped societies that spread across the Americas –the Caribbean and parts of South America and CentralAmerica.

SETTLEMENT OF THE AMERICAS – THE

EARLY PEOPLES

How did these early people arrive in the region? Howdid they travel to the region? Where was their ‘originalhome’? The Beringia/Bering Strait theory provides anexplanation for the arrival of these early peoples in theAmericas. The theory outlines that the early peoplesoriginated in Central East Asia. They would travel fromAsia into North America via a frozen land bridge knownas Beringia/Bering Strait. Historians suggest that theytravelled from Asia into North America as theywandered in search of food. It is suggested that theywere nomadic peoples. Once in North America, theyfollowed a southward movement which saw themmoving throughout North, Central and South Americawith some groups also venturing into the Caribbean.Figure 1 provides a concise description of the Bering

Strait and Figure 2 provides a description of themigratory movement once the groups entered theAmericas.

Our syllabus focuses on three distinct groups whichdeveloped societies in parts of the Caribbean and inCentral and South Americas – the Tainos, Kalinagosand Mayans. The Tainos were located in Hispaniola,Cuba, Puerto Rico and some parts of The Bahamas andTrinidad. The Kalinagos, in Grenada, Tobago, StVincent, St Kitts & Nevis, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola.The Mayans were located in Mexico, Belize, Honduras,and Guatemala.

FFiigguurree 11Diagram explaining the Bering Strait theory.

FFiigguurree 22Diagram showing migratory pattern in the region.

SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL

ORGANISATION OF THE EARLY PEOPLES

The Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans developedcomplex societies and below is a summary providing aconcise description of the social, economic andpolitical organisation of these societies.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION

RReelliiggiioonnReligion played an integral role in the life of the

indigenous peoples. Their societies were polytheistic innature, as they believed in many gods.

The Tainos worshipped idols known as zemis. Eachfamily in the village would have a zemi, but thecacique was thought to be the most powerful in thevillage. Zemis were considered to possess potentskills – they controlled sickness, crops, weather, warand peace.

The Kalinagos also found religion and worshipimportant. They worshipped maboyas. Many aKalinago boy was trained as priests or boyez. Duringthis time, he frequently had to fast and to abstain fromeating meat. The boy had to undergo a rigid initiationprocess as well. One of the boyez’s duties had to dowith overcoming evil spirits; the maboya was used inthis process.

The Mayans worshipped over 160 gods, someincluded Yum Kax (god of Corn) and Chac (god ofRain). They believed in immortality of the soul andpractised burying the dead with several of theirfavourite items that they would use in the afterlife.

LLaabboouurr ddiivviissiioonnThe duties in Taino and Kalinago villages were

assigned based on one’s age and sex. In this regard,men and boys undertook tasks such as clearing thefields, hunting, fishing and defence of the village. They

were also responsible for house construction andcanoe making. Females played important roles as well;they were responsible for crop cultivation, spinning andweaving of cotton, making handicrafts (baskets,hammocks, aprons and utensils) and childrearing.

VViillllaaggee lliiffeeSegregating the sexes was practised in Kalinago

societies. Boys were sent to live in communal houseswhen they reached puberty, and would remain living inthese dwelling even during adulthood.

Taino villages were normally established on siteswith easy access to reliable fresh water and to providethem with flat fertile ground for crop cultivation. Mostimportant, many villages were located along coastalareas for defence purposes.To prevent the likelihood ofsurprise attacks, military defence was part of theconsideration in setting up these villages.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIESLLoonngg--ddiissttaannccee ttrraaddeeThe indigenous peoples were also excellent

mariners, trading beyond the limits of the CaribbeanSea and further afield to South and North America. Tofacilitate this trade, they made huge canoes from treetrunks, which could be as long as 25 metres with thecapacity for 50 people. In these, they transported theirwares like cotton textile goods and ceramics, whichthey traded with neighbouring peoples and furtherafield. They also possessed well-crafted stone tools –knives, scrapers and axes – that further facilitated theconstruction of their boats and allowed them to makeimpressive wood carvings.

The Mayans had a more complex trading system –one that facilitated land and sea trade. This trade wascarried out between city-states by the ppolms.Additionally, a barter system was in place that facilitatedthe exchange of foods, textiles, and minerals. Cocoabeans served as the official currency of the Mayans.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 22

yl:history

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 12 SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

yl:english literature

All about the novelBBEERRYYLL CCLLAARRKKEEContributor

‘CLASS’ IS in session; let the fun begin.Each year, I read over the texts andpoems in preparation for the YYoouutthhlliinnkk

‘season’. This time, when I reread ChinuaAchebe’s TThhiinnggss FFaallll AAppaarrtt, I was stronglyreminded of Thomas Hardy’s MMaayyoorr ooffCCaasstteerrbbrriiddggee. Who? Perhaps you have notheard of this English author of the Victorian erawhose protagonist in the book to which Ireferred above sold his wife. Do read it whenyou have the chance. You see, in both booksthe protagonists made serious mistakes whichresulted in disastrous consequences. Wait, I’mgetting too far, too soon and will start at thebeginning, as I should.

Our text, TThhiinnggss FFaallll AAppaarrtt, is set in Nigeriaand presents the culture of a section of thatcountry in a particular time; a time just beforeEuropeans arrived, and soon after, with theirteaching of Christianity. Some came with anegatively arrogant attitude to what theythought were alien and uncivilised practicesamong the Nigerians.

In this society, a man could beat his wife orwives, for he could marry as many as he couldsupport. Agriculture was the main source oflivelihood, with yam being the chief crop. Theyalso reared animals. The people worshippeddifferent gods but believed that there was onesupreme God over all the others. They alsobelieved in a personal god or chi, oracles andspirits. They had laws that governed their day-to-day relationships and interactions, and apanel of judges.

Note must be taken of the punishment metedout to Okonkwo when his gun went off andaccidentally killed Ezuedu’s son. He was notexecuted but, rather, was banished for sevenyears. Mr Brown, who replaced Mr Smith asthe Christian minister in the area, wouldprobably have failed to recognise the similarityhere with Old Testament practice. Hard workwas admired, laziness was despised. Age wasrespected, but achievement was revered.

Family bonds were strong. Our writer presentsUmuofia and the nine Igbo clans honestly andmakes no effort to hide activities which wouldlater be condemned by the whites and whichwe, too, may find shocking and indefensible.

His protagonist, Okonkwo, is a fiercewarrior, husband and father. Here is a man whois motivated by his background. His father,Unoka, was a failure in the eyes of his son forhe had not been able to support his wife andchild. Instead, he was lazy, owing money tomany, many persons and showing no regret forhis poverty and lack of social status. Hiscondition provided a spur for Okonkwo’ssuccess. We are now going to take a break

from our story while we explore the genre towhich this text belongs.

A novel is written in continuous prose,unlike a play. It also has many elements,including a plot, characters, setting, point ofview and themes, and some amount ofdialogue. A novel tells a story and does so inan orderly manner. This does not always meanthat the story begins at point A and proceedsstep by step, or development by developmentthrough to Z. Some writers use a techniqueknown as flashback. In this, the writerintroduces the story from V or Z, then moves toA and then proceeds to Z again. This meansthat the story moves out of sequence to deal

with an event or situation that occurred beforethe time that the story takes place. In this way,the author is able to give his readersbackground information. Foreshadowing isanother technique sometimes used by authors.This is the early introduction into the story ofcharacters, situations, objects or events thathint at things to come. It gives the writer theopportunity to suggest future developmentsand to gradually prepare his readers to realisethe importance of some details.

The narrative (novel) may have some factsand some history in its background, but it isthe imaginary work of an author. In otherwords, the writer is the creator of thecharacters, their relationships, the actions inthe story and for how all is brought to an endor resolved. Of course, in some stories, thefocus is on real people and real events.

I do not have to tell you that there are manytypes of novels. You are, no doubt, familiarwith the romance novels (particularly theyoung ladies) – modern, historical or gothic;mystery; war; folk and fairy tales; sciencefiction; horror; supernatural, including thoseabout vampires and shape-shifting animalslike dragons and wolves; magic; westerns orreligious. Novels cater to a wide variety oftastes, are set anywhere and anytime. You see,narratives come out of an oral tradition. Therewas a time when storytelling was one of thechief methods of entertainment. In the long-ago days, stories were told not on paper butorally, in prose and/or poetry. Storytellersincorporated simple, clear characters and thestruggle between good and evil in their tales. Itis believed that fairy tales, like Cinderella,come out of the oral tradition and haveinfluenced the development of the modernnovel.

Reading is great fun, isn’t it? Writing whatyou have read about can also be enjoyable. Iwonder how many of you will become writers,published authors and poets and playwrights!See you soon, when we will continue on ourwork on the novel.

BBeerryyll CCllaarrkkee iiss aann iinnddeeppeennddeenntt ccoonnttrriibbuuttoorr.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aanndd ccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

World 100 and 200 metres champion Usain Bolt takes a selfie with students atWilliam Knibb Memorial High in Trelawny recently.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCOTBER 5, 2015 13

yl:biology

Planning and designMMOONNAACCIIAA WWIILLLLIIAAMMSSContributor

HELLO AGAIN, students! How are youthis week? Have you carved out yourpersonal pace for your schoolwork as

yet? Are you feeling relaxed at the end ofeach doing, knowing that you have achievedyour daily target? I hope you are, because ifyou are not, then it means that there is a lotto be done in terms of the organisation ofyour schoolwork! Enjoy your schooldays;they cannot be repeated no matter how hardyou try.

This week, we will continue our study ofthe requirements for the satisfactorycompletion of your SBAs. We will do this bylooking at the skill known as planning anddesign. This skill is a sore point for everyone,not just you! Teachers do not like it becausethey have to help you to think of creativeproblems for you to attempt to solve.Students do not like it because formulatinghypothesis and writing up these experimentsrequire too much thought and, lastly, theexaminers do not like it because they getbored reading the same experiments everyyear. Additionally, they probably throw theirhands up in the air and wonder what ishappening in science teaching in schools.

Please remember that there is a change inthe syllabus with regard to SBAs. You arenow required to plan an investigation in yourfourth-form/grade-10 year. You will berequired to carry out the plannedinvestigation in your fifth-form/grade-11 year.The actual planning of the investigation willbe marked as one of your planning anddesign assignments and your write-up of theinvestigation will be marked as one of youranalysis and interpretation assignments. Yoursyllabus gives an indication of the allotmentof the marks, so please read!

Students, you are encouraged to lookaround you to see what is happening and to

use examples of what you see as the basis onwhich you will formulate your hypotheses(note that this is the plural form of the wordhypothesis). What is a hypothesis, you ask?That is a good question because many timesthis is the word that floors you. A hypothesisis an idea or explanation about how thingswork, or why things happen, that can be usedas a starting point for an investigation. Thisidea is based on particular observations thatcan be tested by carrying out experiments.This means that you should be able to designan experiment, the results of which wouldsupport your question.

FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESISLet us look at some scenarios. Here is

something that a gardener noticed. Henoticed that whenever he planted impatiens inhis garden (a flowering plant commonlyknown in Jamaica as Lady Slipper), theywould soon die, but those planted by hisneighbour survived for years. He wascurious, so he decided to try to find a reasonfor this. He noticed that his plants wereplanted under the eaves of the verandah thatprovided very little shade from the afternoonsun; his neighbour’s were planted under aspreading breadfruit tree.

Brainstorm possible advantages that theenvironment of the breadfruit tree mayprovide that are not being provided by theeaves of the verandah for the survival of theplant. Suggest a possible hypothesis for eachadvantage, then design an experiment whichyou could carry out to test your hypothesis.

PPoossssiibbllee bbrraaiinnssttoorrmmiinngg rreessuullttss::� The breadfruit tree provides continuousshade from direct sunlight throughout theday.� The soil under the breadfruit tree is alwaysmoist.

PPoossssiibbllee hhyyppootthheessiiss::� Impatiens grow best in areas that receivediffused sunlight. If impatiens are planted in

areas that receive continuous, direct,sunlight, they will eventually die.

PPoossssiibbllee aaiimm::� To investigate the effect of direct sunlighton the growth of impatiens.

AAnnootthheerr oobbsseerrvvaattiioonn::While redesigning his garden, the gardener

had to turn over some stones in order tomove them and he noticed that there weremany millipedes found under these stones.These animals were not seen anywhere else.

PPoossssiibbllee bbrraaiinnssttoorrmmiinngg ssuuggggeessttiioonnss::� The soil under the stones was moist –millipedes ‘like’ moist conditions� The area under the stones was dark –millipedes do not ‘like’ direct sunlight.

PPoossssiibbllee hhyyppootthheessiiss::� Millipedes will move away from directlight.� Millipedes will move towards moisture.

PPoossssiibbllee aaiimm::� To investigate the effect of direct light onthe distribution of millipedes.

AAnnootthheerr oobbsseerrvvaattiioonn::It is observed that when green bananas are

cooked with a slice of lime/lemon, neither thebananas nor the water in which they arecooked darken.

What do you think would be a suitablehypothesis formed form this observation?What do you think is preventing thedarkening?

DESIGNING THE EXPERIMENTThe experiment that you will design must

have the following:� The hypothesis – this must clearly relateto the observation that was made and must bestated in such a way that it can be tested.

� An aim – this must clearly relate to thehypothesis.

� A list of the apparatus and materials thatyou will use in carrying out your experiment.Try to avoid using words such as ‘some’, ‘a few’and ‘many’. Be precise and use, instead, 500gof soil, 200cm3 of water, 10 millipedes, etc.Your list must be specific to your experiment.

� A clear method: Unlike the otherexperiments that you have written, planningand design experiments are written in thepresent tense and not the past tense. This isbecause the experiment has not yet beendone, so you are giving instructions as tohow it must be carried out in your method. Aspecific procedure or method must be stated.You must also state the control factors thatyou are going to keep constant. You mustalso include the number of repeats of themethod that are to be carried out; averagesare to be used. Remember, repeats increasethe validity of your experiment.

� Identification of the different variables –the manipulated, the responding and thecontrolled.

� A summary of the expected results.

� Assumptions/precautions/possible sourceof errors – at least one of these must bestated.

If all of these criteria are met, you wouldhave been successful in satisfying therequirements for this SBA skill. Remember, itis important to get a good grasp of therequirement for this skill because not only isit a requirement for the project in year two,but it often forms a part of Paper 2 of yourwritten examination. Now, go practise andpractise, and practise some more!

See you next week!

MMoonnaacciiaa WWiilllliiaammss iiss aann iinnddeeppeennddeenntt ccoonnttrriibbuuttoorr.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aanndd ccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 14 SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

yl:office administration

HHYYAACCIINNTTHH TTUUGGMMAANNContributor

WHAT IS AN OFFICE?

THE OFFICE is the centre of all business activities of anorganisation, whether it is located in one or several rooms, andit needs a certain amount of information in order to function

properly. The office acts as an intermediary between the public andthe organisation.

The role of the office in relation to:11.. PPrroodduuccttiioonnProduction is a combination of factors – land, labour, capital and

enterprise – to create goods and services in order to satisfyconsumer needs. In the production of goods and services,machinery has to be bought, personnel have to be recruited andpaid, and materials have to be sourced locally or from overseas. Allthese activities generate a great deal of information.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRODUCTION DEPARTMENTThe functions of the production department include ensuring that

goods are not only produced but also that they conform to anacceptable quality standard. This standard is maintained by qualitycontrol. The production department must liaise with the purchasingdepartment so that the correct quantity and quality of raw material ispurchased.

22.. DDiissttrriibbuuttiioonnWhen goods are produced, they must be distributed to the

consumer. Distribution entails transporting the finished product. Themethod of distribution will depend on the nature of the product,whether it is bulky or if it is perishable. It is important for you to beconversant with the channels of distribution.

CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION

PRODUCER Agent DISTRIBUTOR Wholesale Retail CONSUMER

33.. TThhee eexxcchhaannggee ooff ggooooddss aanndd sseerrvviicceessIn the exchange of goods and services money is used as a

medium of exchange in the process of buying and selling. An articlesold for cash is an example of an exchange of goods for money. Onthe other hand, the dressmaker charges a fee and the hairdresser,too, for services rendered.

Some of the office activities generated by the exchange of goodsand services include:

� preparing sales slips� writing cheques� preparing receipts� making ledger entries.

The office worker employed in the production, distribution andexchange of goods and services departments must have thenecessary skills to perform tasks such as:

� preparing order for raw material� preparing sales invoices� preparing accounting statements� demonstrating good communications skills� exercising good interpersonal relationships.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OFFICEThere are some office functions which are common to both large

and small organisations. They are:� Issuing instructions to departments regarding projects.� Filing all essential documents carefully so that they can be

easily retrieved.� Implementing all statutory laws and policies governing the

kind of business and its activities.� Using reports as a means of evaluating feedback systems.� Controlling the financial activities to make sure that funds are

always available.� Hiring and training of staff to provide services and support the

functions of the business.

� Making the public aware of goods/services available.

For the effective running of a business, communications must beconveyed properly, hence it is important for:

COLLECTING OF INFORMATION1. EExxtteerrnnaall ccoolllleeccttiioonn – Information may be collected by general

means. For example, an individual may telephone a company torequest information on its products, its line of business activities orto place an order. Written communication is received via the postoffice or the Internet. In today’s modern world, the use of computersenables organisations to collect information quickly and in greatvolume.

2. IInntteerrnnaall ccoolllleeccttiioonn – In a large organisation, there are severaldepartments which deal with many aspects of the business’activities. Information from one department must be communicatedto another department within the organisation so that decisions canbe made. The collection of information internally in an organisationis effected by person to person and through written formats, forexample, memoranda, routing slips, etc.

PROCESSING INFORMATIONWhere there are many departments dealing with different aspects

of the organisation, the data received must be distributed in such away that each department is supplied with the information concernedwith the operation of that department. The relevant information mustbe arranged in a form in which it can be interpreted. The followingsteps are taken when processing a document:

� sorting the information received� extracting the relevant facts� arranging the document(s) for classification� interpreting the document for decision-making� routing through various department heads for execution.

All these processing of information may be performed manually,mechanically or electronically.

Students, I am now going to ask you to read your textbookscarefully and make your own notes on what I have discussed so far.

Until then, have a productive week.

HHyyaacciinntthh TTuuggmmaann iiss aann iinnddeeppeennddeenntt ccoonnttrriibbuuttoorr.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aannddccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

Office orientation

Separationof mixtures

yl:chemistryFFRRAANNCCIINNEE TTAAYYLLOORR--CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

You should be able to:� Identify suitable separation techniques based on differencesin properties of the components of mixtures.

Mixtures can be separated based on their solubility indifferent solvents, boiling points and melting points.

Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.

The mixture is poured through a filter paper in a filter funnel.The soluble portion, called the filtrate, passes through the paperwhile the insoluble solid remains in the filter paper. This iscalled the residue.

Crystallisation is used to separate a soluble solid from aliquid. The solution is heated, evaporating most of the solvent.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 22

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015 15

yl:information technology

NNAATTAALLEEEE AA.. JJOOHHNNSSOONNContributor

GOOD DAY, students. This is lesson three in our series oflessons. In this week’s lesson, I will conclude looking at inputdevices and begin to look at output devices.

Biometric is another special type of input device that may fallunder source-data entry devices as it captures data directly from thehuman body.

BBiioommeettrriiccss ((iinnppuutt ssiiggnnaallssffrroomm tthhee hhuummaann bbooddyy))

Biometrics systems identify aperson through a fingerprint,voice, retina/iris scan or otherbiological characteristic(s). Inusing the iris for personal identification, the user’s iris is scanned anda biometrics digital certificate is released which guaranteesauthenticity and identity.

The last category of input devices is quite popular to use and theaverage individual would not function without such devices for funand entertainment.

MULTIMEDIA INPUT DEVICES

DDiiggiittaall ccaammeerraaThis is a type of camera that

stores photographed imageselectronically, instead of ontraditional film. After the image hasbeen captured, it is downloaded bya cable (which is normallypurchased with the camera) to thecomputer using software supplied with the camera. The user then hasthe opportunity to edit, delete, store, etc, the photos on the computer.This is also used to store small movie clips.

VVooiiccee--rreeccooggnniittiioonn ddeevviicceessWith these devices, special software is used to

convert voice into text or to activate menu options.Voice-recognition devices require high-speedprocessing and a large memory.

MMiiccrroopphhoonneeMicrophones form a part of most

voice-recognition systems. Microphonescan capture sounds from the air whichare good for sounds effects or voices.

WWeebbccaammThis camera is designed especially to sit on your computer. It

feeds pictures directly to the computer. For example, you could sit in

your room in Jamaica andcommunicate using yourmessenger (MSN) to someoneanywhere in the world and he/shecan see you while you text orspeak as the camera allows forvoice input and output. However,a disadvantage of this device isthat you are limited by the lengthof the cable that connects thecamera to the computer. Most laptops have a built-in webcam whichis quite popularly used for skyping.

OTHER INPUT DEVICES

TThhee rreemmoottee ccoonnttrroollBy pointing to its target and

depressing one of the buttons onthe button pad, the remote controlemits a beam of infrared light whichtransmits data signals. The remotecontrol is commonly used for inputto TVs and VCRs and other devices, and is now being used bycomputers as a wireless method of communication.

SSeennssoorrssVarious sensors are used to

measure heat, light, sound,movement and pressure. Themeasurement recorded by thesensor is sent to the CPU,where it is analysed and therelevant output is given. Sensors can be used to monitor a patientwith a heart condition or create characteristics in robots that mimichuman senses, etc.

OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device is a device which receives data in the form ofelectrical pulses from the CPU, as was shown in the data-processingcycle. It then converts this data into a form that can be understood bythe user, a machine or another process.

There are two main categories of output devices:� Soft-copy output devices� Hard-copy output devices.Softcopy output devices get information to a computer monitor or

other temporary output device that you can see but not necessarilytouch (intangible).

Let us now first look at the visual display unit (VDU).

TThhee mmoonniittoorr//VVDDUU//SSccrreeeennThis device provides output to the user. The video display adapter

on the motherboard allows information to leave the processor and

appear on the monitor. This type ofcopy that the monitor shows is knownas soft copy which, as stated above, isintangible.

KEY TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MONITOR

� Resolution – This is measured based on the output quality ofthe screen, if the monitor displays graphics and video imagesaccurately, in that there are no grains, colour change or distortion. Inaddition, the greater the pixels per inch of the screen, the higher theresolution.

� Pixel – This is the short meaning for picture element, referringto the dot per inch of the screen. The greater the number of pixels, thebetter the quality of the image.

� Types – The types of monitors can be derived from thetechnology they employ. The two most popular technologies used arecathode ray tube (CRT) and liquid crystal display (LCD).

• Cathode ray tube uses electron guns that must be at distancesof over one foot from the screen. Three electron guns are used to setthe dots glowing to see all the differentcolours. CRT technology is used withcomputer systems that are notfrequently moved from one place toanother. Examples of such computersare desktop computers,minicomputers, mainframes and supercomputers.

• Liquid crystal display isthe most popular currenttechnology for flat-screendisplay, pocket calculators anddigital watches. It is even nowavailable in television. LCDconsists of liquid crystalmaterial between two glass plates. Characters are etched on to theinner sheet but cannot be seen.

AUDIO OUTPUT DEVICES

Audio output devices include thosedevices that output voice or voice-likesounds and those that output music andother sounds. This includes headphones,speakers, earphones, sound cards, etc.

VOICE OUTPUT DEVICE

A voice output device converts digital data into speech-likesounds. Two types of voice output technology are speech coding andspeech synthesis. Voice output is used in telephone informationsystems (for example, checking your voicemail), banks (for example,to check the balance on your account) and utility companies to checkfor bills, automobile system warning devices, and weather-reportingapplications.

We have come to the end of this lesson. See you next week whenwe will continue to look at output devices. Remember, if you fail toprepare, you prepare to fail.

NNaattaalleeee AA.. JJoohhnnssoonn tteeaacchheess aatt AArrddeennnnee HHiigghh SScchhooooll.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aannddccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

Input deviceses directly to the

nicate using your

while you text or

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 16 SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

yl:english language

MMEELLIISSSSAA MMCCKKEENNZZIIEEContributor

STUDENTS, LAST week I shared with you some commonlyconfused words and their appropriate use. Incorrect use ofthese words often recurs in students’ writing and should be

avoided as much as possible. I will conclude our focus ondistinguishing these words and then give you two practice exercisesto reinforce what you have learnt.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssThought – the past tense of the verb ‘to think’Taught – the past tense of the verb ‘to teach’SSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessI thought you wanted to go to the movies.Mrs Spence taught my mother in primary school.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssSimple – not difficult, easy to understand; made in a plain way*Simply – used to emphasise what you are saying/onlySSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessElaine finds story writing to be quite simple.The design of her dress was simple.His performance was simply phenomenal.Some students lose marks simply because they don’t read the

questions properly.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssWeather – the state of the atmosphere at a particular place,

temperatureWhether – Used to express doubt or choice/used to say something

will definitely happen whether you approve or notSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessThe match was cancelled because of bad weather.I will be going on vacation whether you like it or not.My sister does not know whether she should wear the red shoes or

the gold ones.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssIs – singular present tense of the verb ‘to be’His – masculine pronoun showing ownershipSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessHe is not going to accept your explanation.His car needs to be washed soon.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssChoose – (verb) to choose which one of several possibilities you

wantChoice – (noun) the state of having several things or people from

which to choose fromSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessThey always choose to spend their vacation in The Bahamas.You have no other choice but to agree to his proposal.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssLose – to stop having something that is important you or that you

needLoose – not fixed into place/not fastened togetherSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessThey were determined that they would not lose the race.Drunk drivers should lose their licences.His pants were loose.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssBored – the state of being tired and impatient because something is

not interesting or you have nothing to doBoring – not interesting in any waSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessHer face revealed that she was bored.She tried to hide how bored she was at the party but failed.Carla thought the conversation was quite boring.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssInteresting – exciting in a way that keeps your attentionInterested – wanting to know about something or showing

interest/attentivenessSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessI found the art exhibition interesting and informative.She was very interested in his offer.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssExcept – other than, not includingAccept – receive willingly; agree toSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessEverybody can go to the party except you.Will you accept my offer?

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssPractice – (noun) a regular occasion when people meet to improve

their skill/when you do something often in order to get good at itPractise – (verb) to do something regularly in order to improve

one’s skillSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessChoir practice was scheduled for Friday.Success in English A requires a great deal of practice.She practises to dance every evening.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssBelief – the feeling that something is definitely true or definitely

existsBelieve – to be sure that something is real, to accept as trueSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessThe police officers believe his alibi.He had an unshakable belief in God.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddss*Course – a series of lessons or a period of study in a particular

subject/to flow quickly

Coarse – rough and thick, not smooth or fineSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessTears coursed down her face when she heard the sad news.Philosophy 101 is a very thought-provoking course.Jessica found the blanket uncomfortably coarse.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddss*Passed – to give something to someone else/ to go through,

across, around, etc, something*Past – (noun) period of time before the present; (adv) by, alongSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessWe passed through Mandeville last night.We must try to forget the bad things that happened in the past.She cycled past us on her way to work.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssAnger – (noun) feeling of fierce displeasure or annoyance; (verb) to

make someone feel angryAngry – full of angerSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessEmily was filled with anger at the way she had been treated.The court’s decision to free the accused angered the family.Her mother was angry with her daughter because she had lied.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddssHeard – past tense of the verb ‘to hear’Herd – group of animals living and eating togetherSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessWhen she heard the news of her aunt’s passing, she fainted.The herd of cows was grazing happily.

CCoommmmoonnllyy ccoonnffuusseedd wwoorrddss*Through – from one side or end of something to the other/from

the beginning to the endTrue – correct and based on facts, not invented/realSSeenntteennccee eexxaammpplleessThe train went through the tunnel.I have searched through all the papers, but I can’t find your

certificate.Michael is a true friend to me.Is it true that you are moving to Portland?

*These words have additional meanings. You are urged to consultyour dictionary to refresh your memory about them.

Do not take these words for granted. Misuse of them has happenedoften enough for it to have become a cause for concern. Revise themand make a special effort to use them appropriately if they arechallenging to you. Please complete the activities below.

ACTIVITY 1Underline the word in brackets that correctly completes each

sentence.1. (Whether, Weather) or not you want to admit it, she is the better

dancer.2. During the months of July and August, we usually experience

hot (whether, weather).3. Without a doubt, (your, you’re) the best person for the job.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 22

No more confusion

yl:principles of accounts

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015 17

RROOXXAANNNNEE WWRRIIGGHHTTContributor

THIS WEEK, you are being introduced toadditional concepts that you need to add toyour accounts vocabulary.

SALES

This represents the turnover or amount ofgoods sold.

PURCHASES

This represents the goods bought for resale.

CREDITORS

Creditors are the people or businesses abusiness owes money for goods or servicescredited.

DEBTORS

These are the persons who owe the businessmoney for goods they have credited.

ADDITIONAL CAPITAL

Owners of businesses, from time to time, putmore money into their businesses to increasecapital already invested.

NET WORTH

This is the same thing as capital.

SOLE PROPRIETOR

This is a single investor in a business; he getsall the profit and bears all the losses.

PARTNERSHIP

This is a business entity between two to 20investors. They share the profit and lossesaccording to the amount invested.

Below are 10 multiple-choice questions. Theywill help to show the use of the concepts thathave been highlighted so far. Go through eachand check the recommended answer at the end.

There are four responses after EACH question;choose the most appropriate.

1. Which of the following statement showscalculation of capital?

a. Assets + Capital = Liabilitiesb. Liabilities - Capital = Assetsc. Capital = Assets + Liabilitiesd. Capital = Assets - Liabilities

2. Which ONE of the following is not an asset?a. Loan from Kenneth Harveyb. Cash balancec. Buildingsd. Debtors

3. Identify the CORRECT statements

a. (i) and (ii) only b. (ii) and (iii) onlyc. (iii) and (iv) only d. (i) and (iii) only

4. Which of the following statements is apossible double-entry?

5. A sole proprietor, Paul Bayes, investsadditional cash into his business. Which of thefollowing entry is CORRECT?

6. Identify the CORRECT figure:

7. If asset is $25,000 and liabilities =$5,000.What is the net worth of the business?

a. $25,000 b. $20,000c. $30,000 d. $10,000

8. Identify the INCORRECT statement

a. (iii) and (iv) only b. (ii) and (iii) onlyc. (i) and (iv) only d. (i) and (iii) only

9. Calculate the capital from the followingitems:

Assets: Building $10,000, Stock $4,250, Cash$50:

Liabilities: Creditors $1,500, Loan from Allan$2000.

a. $10,550b. $10,800c. $16,200d. None of the above

10. Identify the INCORRECT statement.

RECOMMENDED ANSWERS

1. DReasoning:Capital of a business is derived from the

accounting equation.

2. AReasoning:We have to repay a loan, therefore, it is a

liability, NOT an asset.

3. DReasoning:1. When a motor vehicle is bought paying by

cheque, we Dr motor vehicle and Cr bank.When loan is repaid by cheque, we Dr loan

and Cr bank.

4. BReasoning:For there to be a double-entry, the transactions

must be recorded in at least two accounts. Thatis at least one account debited and anothercredited.

5. BReasoning:When a proprietor invests more cash into a

business, capital increases and is credited andcash increases and is debited.

6. AAssets = Capital + Liabilities

7. BNet worth is capital. Therefore, it is Assets =

Capital + Liabilities

8. AReasoning:(iii) Introduced more capital in cash, Dr cash

and Cr capital.(iv) A debtor Pat pays by cheque, Dr bank, Cr

Pat – debtor.

9. BReasoning:Building $10,000+ Stock $4,250+Cash $50)Less (Creditors $1,500 + Loan from Allan

$2,000)= $14,300-3,500 =$10,800

10. AReasoning:When creditors are paid by cheque, both the

bank and creditors’ accounts decrease.

RRooxxaannnnee WWrriigghhtt tteeaacchheess aatt IImmmmaaccuullaattee AAccaaddeemmyy.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aanndd ccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Accounting equation andtheory of double-entry

yl:principles of business

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 18 SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

YYVVOONNNNEE HHAARRVVEEYYContributor

IT IS so good to be with you all again. I trustyou are all well. This week, we will continueto look at the role of the government by

looking at the government’s role in taxation.

THE ROLE OF TAXES

A tax is a compulsory payment levied onindividuals and businesses by the government.It forms a major part of government revenue.Taxation is the process of paying taxes to thegovernment.

The role or purpose of taxation includes:� Taxes are used as government revenue toprovide utilities, public and merit goods and topay MPs, civil servants and other governmentworkers.� Taxes are also used to influence theconsumption of goods or services consideredby government to be harmful, e.g., cigarettesand alcohol.� Governments use taxation to lessen theinequality of incomes and wealth between therich and the poor, e.g., through progressivetaxation.� Taxes may be used to lessen imports(import duties – indirect tax) and, thereby,reduce balance of payments deficits.� Taxes are used for the protection of infantindustries.

FORMS OF TAXES

A tax may take one of three forms:PPRROOPPOORRTTIIOONNAALL:: Every taxpayer pays the

same proportion or percentage of his incomein tax. For example, in Jamaica 25 per cent ispaid on income after the tax-free income istaken out.

PPRROOGGRREESSSSIIVVEE:: A taxpayer with a higherincome not only pays a larger amount of taxes,but also a larger proportion or percentage ofhis income in tax.

RREEGGRREESSSSIIVVEE:: This represents a smallerproportion of a wealthier person’s income thanthe poorer person’s income. All indirect taxes(taxes on goods and services) are, by theirnature, regressive.

TYPES OF TAXES

Taxes are either DIRECT or INDIRECTDirect taxes are taxes on income. They are

called direct since they are levied directly onthe individual citizen or company. These taxesare either proportional or progressive.Examples are:� IINNCCOOMMEE TTAAXX:: This is, by far, the mostimportant source of revenue to mostgovernments and is usually collected by thePAYE system, which is a convenient way to paythe tax.� CCOORRPPOORRAATTIIOONN TTAAXX:: Similar to the incometax, this is levied on the profits of companiesrather than individuals.� DDEEAATTHH DDUUTTIIEESS:: This is placed on money,land, house, etc, left by a dead person. It ispaid by the person who has inherited such.� CCAAPPIITTAALL TTRRAANNSSFFEERR TTAAXX:: The recipient ofcapital goods such as land or property has topay a tax on the value of the goods transferred.� CCAAPPIITTAALL GGAAIINNSS TTAAXX:: This is paid on the

increased value of assets sold if the assets aresold for more than they were obtained for.� UUNNEEMMPPLLOOYYMMEENNTT LLEEVVYY:: A form of socialsecurity contribution, for example in Trinidadand Tobago.� RRAATTEESS AANNDD PPRROOPPEERRTTYY TTAAXXEESS:: These arepaid on the unimproved value of the property.� SSTTAAMMPP DDUUTTYY:: Payable on cheques,receipts, contracts, on sale of house and land,etc.� EEDDUUCCAATTIIOONN TTAAXX.

Note: NIS and NHT are not taxes, they arecontributions.

ADVANTAGES OF DIRECT TAXES

1. They are easy to collect since they arelevied directly on the person who is to pay.

2. They are easy to administer since they arecollected mostly by the PAYE system.

3. The rate charged can be varied to suit thecircumstance of the taxpayer, for example, theprogressive tax.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT TAXES

1. Expensive to collect and administer.2. There are sometimes disputes regarding

amounts to be paid.3. Sometimes people forget to put aside

amounts to be paid, hence the PAYE system.

Indirect taxes are taxes on goods andservices. These taxes are only paid whenpeople buy the goods and services that aretaxed. They are called indirect because theaverage taxpayer pays them indirectly. The taxis paid to the seller or importer, who passes iton to the consumer in the form of higherprices; the tax collected is then passed on tothe government. These taxes are regressivesince the person with the smaller income paysa larger proportion of his income in tax thanthe higher-income earner. These are specific orad valorem (tied to the value of the good).Some examples are:

� PPUURRCCHHAASSEE TTAAXX:: Usually paid by themanufacturer when he sells goods to theretailer, for example, GCT.� IIMMPPOORRTT DDUUTTIIEESS//TTAARRRRIIFFSS:: Paid onimported goods and services to reduce theseimports.� EEXXCCIISSEE DDUUTTIIEESS:: Similar to import dutiesbut levied on certain home-produced goods inorder to reduce their production andconsumption, e.g., alcohol and cigarettes.� VVAALLUUEE--AADDDDEEDD TTAAXX ((VVAATT)):: Levied ongoods at each stage of production.� SSTTAAMMPP DDUUTTYY:: This is sometimes seen asan indirect tax if paid when goods or servicesare purchased.

ADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT TAXES

1. Easy and cheap to collect.2. Difficult to evade since it is paid with the

purchase of goods and services.3. Foreigners and tourists pay these also.4. Usually no argument on the amount to be

paid.

DISADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT TAXES

1. They tend to be regressive, that is, richand poor pay the same percentage.

2. They tend to increase the cost of livingand may discourage trade.

3. Governments are uncertain how much taxwill be collected, as it varies with the demandfor the goods and services.

Next week, will be the final lesson on therole of government in an economy. See youthen.

YYvvoonnnnee HHaarrvveeyy tteeaacchheess aatt GGlleennmmuuiirr HHiigghh SScchhooooll.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aanndd ccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

The role of gov’t (Pt 2)

Athlete Warren Weir (second left) with Romae Kirton (left), Thembeka Jarrett(second right), and Shenell Harriott following his scholarship presentation tothem as part of his back-to-school handover, in collaboration with FaceyCommodity, at the Facey Commodity Merchandise Division, 61 NewportBoulevard, Newport West, Kingston, on Wednesday, September 16.

yl:social studies

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015 19

MMAAUURREEEENN CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

THE FAMILY is seen as a fundamental unit ofthe social structure of a society and thefamily is said to be universal. Families are

more harmonious and productive when eachperson knows what he or she and other membersare responsible for. Each member of a family hasa role, whether traditional or contemporary. A roleis a set of values and responsibilities thatsomeone accepts. It identifies a person’sresponsibilities in the context of the family and, inmost cases, demonstrates the individual’s rank inthe family and the society.

ACTIVITY

Can you state all the roles you are currentlycarrying out in your daily life?

I have taken on the following roles so far :child, student, sibling, parent, homeowner, voter,neighbour, vehicle operator, employee, friend,consumer, taxpayer, and the list goes on.

CHANGING ROLES

OF FAMILY MEMBERS

Every member of a family plays a role in thehome and in the society. However, individualroles have been changing as traditional familyroles are changing. These roles, such as thefather as the breadwinner/worker and the motheras the homemaker and caregiver, are nowdeclining. The mother is becoming thesupplementary provider and she retains theresponsibilities of childrearing; and males areadaptating the role of caregiver as well asproviders in many circumstances. The genderroles are, therefore, becoming increasinglyinterwoven.

This is so as:� There is an increase in sole-occupancydwellings and smaller family sizes.� The average age of getting married is mucholder.� The average number of children is decreasingand first births are happening at a later age.� There is an ageing population and trendtowards greater life expectancy.� There is rising divorce rates and an increasingnumber of people who will never marry.� There is the issue of same-sex couples andmarriages.� There is diversity of family forms incontemporary societies.

� The interaction between family memberswithin the family varies. Do they rely on oneanother? Do they work together/rely on the workof someone in the family?

THE CHANGING ROLE OF

FATHERS AND MOTHERS

In today’s society, the father is no longeralways the traditional, married breadwinner anddisciplinarian in the family; he now shares thiswith the mother. As a couple, they can be singleor married, externally employed or stay at home,an adoptive or step-parent. Many individuals,however, still perceive certain tasks as ‘woman’swork’, including cooking and doing the laundry.Thus, in these households, there are still somegender-based divisions of chores andresponsibilities.

SOME REASONS FOR THE CHANGES

EEccoonnoommiicc cchhaannggeessa. Employment opportunities for womenb Choice of employmentc. Educational opportunitiesNN..BB..::1. Once upon a time, a father’s role was

primarily to serve as breadwinners and thetransmitters of moral values and religiouseducation to their children.

2. However, with the advent of industrialisationand urbanisation, and as factories emerged as

major sources of employment, fathers becamedistanced from the household and their families.

3. Growing rates of abandonment andillegitimacy led to the development of welfareprogrammes to assist widowed or unmarriedwomen in supporting their children.

4. Many women found themselves working orlooking for work because of the tight economicsituation; they had to work to help to make endsmeet.

THE CHANGING ROLES OF WOMEN

a. In more recent decades, the changingeconomic role of women has greatly impacted therole of fathers.

b. It is believed that the percentage of working-age women employed, or looking for work, hasnearly doubled over recent years.

c. The increase in the financial power ofwomen made paternal financial support lessnecessary for some families.

d. Today’s fathers have started to take on rolesvastly different from fathers of previousgenerations.

CCaarreeggiivviinngg rroolleessa. Available technology makes household work

much easier and the ability to perform both roles.(‘Paid and unpaid labour’)

Child development has focused more on thesensitivity of mothers to fulfil their children’sneeds as caregivers. It is said that the influence of

a father’s love on children’s development is asgreat as the influence of a mother’s love. Childrenneed both parents as much as possible as theircaregivers.

NNoonn--rreessiiddeennttiiaall ffaatthheerrssFathers must play a role in the rearing of their

children, either by regularly communicating with,making parenting decisions with mothers andalso by fostering economic/financial care, whichmay at times be enforced by law. Many womenare left on their own to care in every way for theirhouseholds as fathers have either separatedthemselves, abandoned their family or refuse tocarry out their traditional duties.

DDiivvoorrcceedd ppaarreennttssIt is often difficult, if not impossible, for fathers

or mothers to maintain the same types ofparenting roles with their biological children aftera divorce. Most divorced fathers do not receivefull custody of their children and, in rare cases,mothers. As a result, maintaining their roles asparents can be difficult due to the reduction intime spent with their children.

SSttaayy--aatt--hhoommee ffaatthheerrss//mmootthheerrssWhile it is usually mothers who stay at home,

there is a relatively small proportion of all fatherswho do. For many fathers, the decision to stayhome with their children stems from:� their spouse’s strong earning potential.� their own desire to serve as the primarycaregiver.� a shared reluctance along with their spouse toallow someone else to raise their children.

Stay-at-home fathers are routinely confrontedwith stigma because of their contravention of thesocial norms surrounding masculine behaviour,especially in today’s society.

ACTIVITYa. Define the terms ‘role’ and ‘role conflict’.b. State TWO traditional roles of mothers in

your community.c. Outline TWO reasons why roles are

important in a household.d. Suggest THREE reasons mothers should

work, or should not work but stay at home.Explain your answer.

MMaauurreeeenn CCaammppbbeellll tteeaacchheess aatt SStt HHuugghh’’ss HHiigghh SScchhooooll..SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aanndd ccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

Changing roles of family members

Volunteers carrying an old refrigarator they picked up during InternationalCoastal Clean-up Day recently.

yl:geography

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 20 SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

THE FOCUS of this lesson is to examine theregion in which we live (its populationdistribution and density). Before we begin our

discussion, you should note that population is notevenly distributed within the Caribbean. Some areashave very large concentrations of people, somehave small concentrations and the population ismostly concentrated in coastal areas.

If you look closer at some of the islands in theCaribbean, you will notice that a vast number ofpeople live mainly near the coast and a few live inthe interior. Why do you think this is so? Well, ifyou are thinking that relief of the land plays a greatpart in determining where people in the Caribbeansettle, then you would be correct. Steep slopes aregenerally less densely populated than gentlysloping or flat areas. You will find that there are veryfew buildings in the steeper areas. This is evident incountries like St Lucia, in a town called Soufriere. Ifyou look closely at the picture below you will noticethat little or no houses are built on the highlandarea. They are mostly concentrated at the foot of thehill, where you find the flat or gently sloping areas.This is true for most Caribbean islands with highelevation in the interior.

Population distribution is not only affected by thephysical geography of the Caribbean but also by theclimate in the Caribbean, our resources, proximityto the coast and our rivers.

The distribution of people in the Caribbean ismeasured by population density. This showswhether an area is sparsely or densely populated.

Students, which islands in the Caribbean do youthink are the most and least populated? Let’s look atthe map below. This map is a choropleth map of theCaribbean. A choropleth map shows populationdensity and how it varies from country to country.

((SSeeee ddiiaaggrraamm aatt ttoopp rriigghhtt))

The shade of the country corresponds to themagnitude of the indicator. The darker the shade,the higher the value. (Please remember that the key

is the information section of the map.) Whilelooking at the map, you will observe that theCaribbean is heavily populated and the contrast isbetween the larger and smaller islands in both theGreater and the Lesser Antilles.

The population patterns within the Caribbeanshow that the smaller islands with smaller surfaceareas have a higher population density.

How do we find population density?(# of people) divided by area (length x width).

ACTIVITY

1. What is the population density of yourclassroom?

To find this out, you first have to calculate thearea of the room and then you will have to find outthe number of students in your class.

2. The information below should help you tocalculate the density of the Caribbean. Take amoment and analyse the information on theCaribbean islands.

Use the information to calculate the populationdensity of the Caribbean. Remember that in findingout the density of the Caribbean you must firstcalculate the density of the individual islands.

After working out the density of the islands in theCaribbean you should conclude that:� The most densely populated islands, likeBarbados, are relatively flat, so it is easy to buildsettlement, good for agriculture especially sugarcane, and it encourages tourism.� The islands which have relatively low populationdensity does so because of the mountainous natureof the islands with settlements and communicationson the coast.

3. Based on the population densities that youhave calculated for the various islands, wherewould you choose to live and why?

HOW ARE PEOPLE DISTRIBUTED IN JA?

What do you notice about the dots? They aremore concentrated in some areas than others. Whyis this so? If you know the physical geography ofyour country then you already understand why thepopulation is distributed in this way. Take a look atthe physical map below. What do you notice? Itshould be obvious that the areas of high elevationare sparsely populated.

What else do you think influences the pattern ofpopulation distribution here in Jamaica? Think backto our discussion on the population distribution inthe Caribbean. The same reasons apply to the

population distribution in Jamaica. What do youknow about Jamaica that will influence people tosettle in certain areas? For example, Kingston.

The following map is a choropleth map ofJamaica

What you should have noticed is that thepopulation density for most of the island is greaterthan 100 persons per square kilometre.

In Kingston, however, the population density ishigh – more than 1,000 persons per squarekilometre. This is mainly due to the accessibility ofindustries, shops and ports.

At the Blue Mountains, population density is low,less than 100 persons per square km. This is somainly because of the high altitudes and steepslopes, which hinder farming and communications.The large area of limestone landscape, rocky,undulating and extremely weathered CockpitCountry, has a very low population density.

ACTIVITYAnswer the follow questions. See how much you

have learnt. Choose from the three options, theresponse which best answers the question orcompletes the statement.

1. Population distribution is a term that refers to:� How population in a specified area changes overtime.� The number of people who die in relation to thenumber of people who are born in a specified area.� The way in which people are spread across agiven area.

2. Geographers study population distribution atwhat scales?� Local, regional� Local, regional, national� Local, regional, national and global

4. Patterns of population distribution tend to be:� Even � Uneven � Static

5. The distribution of population is usuallymeasured by calculating:� Population movement between areas (in-migration over out-migration)� Total number of people� Population density of an area

JJuuddiitthh HHeennrryy tteeaacchheess aatt AArrddeennnnee HHiigghh SScchhooooll.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aanndd ccoommmmeennttss ttoo

kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

Population and settlement

6. Population density is:� The average number of people per square kilometre (for thearea being studied).� The average number of buildings on land surface of acountry divided by total number of people on the planet.� The average number of people in the world divided by totalarea of the world’s surface (land and water).

7. How is population density calculated?� Total population divided by total land area (km2).� Total land area (km2) multiplied by total population.� Total population plus the total land area (km2).

8. When people are attracted to an area it becomes denselypopulated. Factors that influence this are:� Temperate climate� Good supply of natural resources� Fertile land� All of the above.

In the next lesson, we will be looking at populationcharacteristics and structure.

JJuuddlliitthh HHeennrryy tteeaacchheess aatt AAddrreennnnee HHiigghh SScchhooooll.. SSeenndd qquueessttiioonnss aannddccoommmmeennttss ttoo kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm..

yl:mathematics

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015 21

CCLLEEMMEENNTT RRAADDCCLLIIFFFFEEContributor

HAVING REVIEWED important aspects of the structure of theexamination, I will now consider some fundamental concepts ofmathematics. These should have been done in the lower forms

(grades seven to nine), but are worth reviewing.Prior to doing so, please let us together determine the solutions to

last week’s homework.1. 26 - 33 =(a) 3 (b) 8 (c) 37 (d) 27SSOOLLUUTTIIOONNIt is best to evaluate the answer as follows:26 - 33 = 64 - 27 = 37. The answer is (c)

2. The least number of sweets which can be shared equally among5, 10 or 15 children is

(a) 15 (b) 30 (c) 45 (d) 60SSOOLLUUTTIIOONNThe least number to be divided equally among the three numbers is

the Least Common Factor (LCM). The LCM of 5, 10 and 15 is 30.NN..BB..:: The numbers may also be divided into 60, but this is greater

than 30. Therefore, the answer is (b).You could have tested each answer also. For example, 10 sweets

cannot be shared equally among 15 children. This is also the case for45. While 60 is an answer, it is not the least number.

3. 2 expressed as a decimal is25

(a) 0.8 (b) 0.08 (c) 0.008 (d) 0.0008SSOOLLUUTTIIOONN2 expressed as a decimal is 2 = 8 = 0.0825 25 100The answer is therefore (b)

4. 7 853 to the nearest hundred isa) 7 800 (b) 7 900 (c) 7 950 (d) 8 000SSOOLLUUTTIIOONN7,853 is between 7,800 and 7,900, therefore, the nearest hundred to

7,853 is 7,900. The answer is therefore (b).

5. 79. 98 x 0.75 is approximately equal to:(a) 79.0 (b) 6.0 (c) 60 (d) 1.0SSOOLLUUTTIIOONNSince 79.98 is approximately 80 and 0.75 = 3

4then 79.98 x 0.75 = 80 x 3

480 x 3 = 60

4The answer is, therefore, (c).

6. Find the number that must be added to 7 and 9 to make theLCM 60.

(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 4

SSOOLLUUTTIIOONNIf 2 is added, the numbers become 9 and 11. The LCM is not 60.

When 3 is added, the numbers become, 10 and 12 and the LCM isindeed 60. The answer is, therefore, (b).

Now let us continue this week’s lesson by reviewing the topic,directed numbers.

Please note the following from the syllabus:

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Students should be able to:1. Perform computation using any of the four basic operations real

numbers.2. Convert among fractions, percentages and decimals.

CONTENT

Addition, multiplication, subtraction and division of wholenumbers, fractions and decimals.

Conversion of fractions to decimals and percentages, conversion ofdecimals to fractions and percentages, conversion of percentages todecimals and fractions.

Please use the above to guide your review.I do believe it is worth emphasising the importance of this topic, as

weakness in this area will affect your ability to solve problemsinvolving the application of the four arithmetic operations (+, - , x , Ö)to real numbers.

Your performance in a wide variety of topics, including many inalgebra, could also be significantly affected. The number line is quiteuseful in helping you to understand this topic. The following methodis also recommended:

EEXXAAMMPPLLEE:: Evaluate 9-14SSOOLLUUTTIIOONN:: I have nine items but owe 14I, therefore, owe five items which may be expressed as 9-14 = -5Using either approach, if necessary, you should be able to evaluate

the following examples.(1) 3 + 9 = 12 (6) 8 - (-6) = 14(2) -3 + 14 = 11 (7) -6- 9 = -15(3) -29 + 2 = -27 (8) 5 + 8 -3 = 10(4) 37 - 5 - 7= 25 (9) 43 - 0 = 43(5) 13 + 21 - 8 = 26 (10) -6 - 11- 17 = - 34It is strongly recommended that you do additional examples from

your textbooks. You may also wish to engage your friends in quizzes.If you are experiencing difficulties determining the correct answers,then seek help. It is not advisable to move on without mastering thistopic. Please attempt the following:

(1) 7 - 17 (3) 12 + 15 - 30(2) 23 - 41 (4) 6 - 7 - 8You are correct if your answers are, respectively:(1) -10 (2) -18 (3) -3 (4) -9Let us now proceed to look at the multiplication and division of

integers. Review the following examples with a view to identifyingobvious patterns.

(1) -5 x -3 = 15 (4) -3 x 6 = -18(2) -22 ÷ -3 = 66 (5) 5a x -5b = -25ab(3) 15b ÷ -3 = -5b (6) 8 x p x q = 8pq

From the examples given above, the following should be noted:PPoossiittiivvee xx PPoossiittiivvee == PPoossiittiivvee NNeeggaattiivvee xx PPoossiittiivvee == NNeeggaattiivveePPoossiittiivvee xx NNeeggaattiivvee == NNeeggaattiivvee NNeeggaattiivvee xx NNeeggaattiivvee == PPoossiittiivvee

The above pattern is also true when dividing. I strongly suggest thatthis be committed to memory. More important, you should ensure thatall future calculations satisfy these rules.

Please attempt the following:(1) - 4 x 8 (3) 7 x 3

(2) - 12 x -5 (4) 14 ÷ - 7

The answers are, respectively:(1) - 32 (2) 60 (3) 21 (4) - 2Let us now review the addition and subtraction of fractions. This is

usually the first question on the paper. It is in your best interest tobegin on a successful note. Practice is, therefore, key to developmastery.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

The method is based on the principle that : 3 + 7 = 108 8 8

The method also requires that you are comfortable with:� Finding LCM, when the denominators are not the same. Pleasereview if necessary.� Converting a fraction to its equivalent value. E.g., 3/2 is equivalentto 3 x 2 = 6/4

2 x 2The method is illustrated as follows:a). Find 1/3 + 1/2 . As the LCM of 3 and 2 is 6, we express both as

fractions of 6.2/6 + 3/6 = 5/6b) Find 5/6 + 1/4 As the LCM of 6 and 4 is 12, we express both as

fractions of 12.5 + 1 =6 4

(2 x 5) + (3 x 1) = 10 + 3 = 10 + 3 ... Answer is 1312 12 12 12 12

The principle used is that both fractions are converted to the formwith denominator 12; that is, 5/6 to 10/12, etc. Note, also, that to addfractions with the same denominator, we simply add the numerators.

Now let us attempt the following together:2 2/3 - 7/5In this case, it is recommended that mixed numbers 2 2/3 be

inverted to a fraction.... 5 2 - 7 = 17 - 7

3 5 3 5The LCM of 3 and 5 is 15, which is the common denominator.... 17 - 7 =

3 5(5 x 17) - (3 x 7) = 85 - 21 Answer = 64

15 15 15The multiplication and division of fractions are also important

fundamental concepts. Please review the following, noting that therules relating to positive and negative numbers are also applicable:

1. 2/3 x - 5/3 = - 10/92. - 3/4 ÷ - 1/2 = - 3/4 x - 2/1 = 3/23. 1/6 x 7/3 ÷ 5/12 = 1/6 x 7/3 x 12/5 = 14/15Constant practice is crucial to your success in mathematics, so I

will end this lesson with your homework.Evaluate the following:(i) -6 x -3 (vi) -8 -4 + 7(ii) -21 ÷ 7 (vii) 2a x - 6b(iii) 7/12 + 5/6 - 2/3 (viii) 7a2b ÷ ab2(iv) 5 + 4 1/6 - 1 2/3 (ix) 7/2 - 3 5/6 - 1 1/2(v) 5/3 - 1/6 - 5/6 (x) 12/25 x 5/9 ÷ 5/18

As soon as you have completed the homework, I do recommendthat you continue to do similar examples from your textbooks.

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Directed numbers

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 22 SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

yl:history yl:englishlanguage

yl:chemistryCONTINUED FROM PAGE 14

The solution is then cooled down until crystals of the soluble solid start toform in the remaining solution.

Distillation is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid or liquids withdifferent boiling points, for example, in the separation of copper sulphate from asolution. The mixture is heated and the liquid with the lower boiling point formsa vapour first, then condenses in the condenser and is collected, leaving thesecond liquid or solid in the distilling flask. Distillation is used to separatemiscible liquids (mix together completely).

Paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of dyes or pigmentsbased on their solubility in different solvents. This affects how quickly they moveup a paper column, which helps to separate the different pigments based on theirdifferent rates.

In fractional distillation, the boiling points of the liquids are similar and soseparation is carried out using a fractionating column usually made of glassbeads or porcelain. This enables condensing of the vapours of the higher boilingpoint liquid, while the lower boiling point liquid forms a vapour and enters thecondenser to be condensed and is collected first. This is called the distillate.This technique can be used in the separation of ethanol and water and also usedfor crude oil.

Immiscible liquids (do not mix) are separated using a separating funnel, forexample, oil and water. The mixture is placed in the funnel and the heavier liquid

(at the bottom) is siphoned off into a container, leaving the less dense liquid inthe separating funnel.

Sublimation is used to separate substancesbased on differences in their melting points.Substances such as ammonium chloride andiodine, which readily change from solid directly togas, can be separated from other substances usingthis method. The mixture is heated and thesubstance with the lower melting point will form avapour first and is then cooled, where it changesback to the solid state.

Common mixtures are seawater, air (which is a mixture of elements oxygen,nitrogen, neon, compounds such as carbon dioxide and water vapour) andalloys such as brass (copper and zinc).

REVIEW 2.11. What change occurs when substances are mixed?2. What are differences between compounds and mixtures?3. Give an example of a solution, suspension and colloid.4. How would you separate a mixture of sand and salt?5. How is simple distillation different from fractional distillation?

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es bac to t e so d state

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 11

AAggrriiccuullttuurraall pprraaccttiicceessThe Tainos and Kalinagos primarily practised

subsistence farming. In other words, they producedenough food to feed their villages and the surpluswould be traded. The Tainos cultivated crops suchas maize, peanut, sweet potato, hot pepper andcassava. They also hunted small animals such asiguanas, agoutis, birds and yellow snake. TheKalinagos cultivated crops such as cassava, sweetpotato and yam, and ate animals such as manatee,birds, agouti and fish. They did not eat pig or turtlebecause they believed these foods would makethem stupid.

The Mayans also had a rich seafood diet thatincluded fish and oyster.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION

TTaaiinnoossThe cacique (chief) of the Taino society enjoyed a

hereditary position. This was passed from father to

son; however, if there were no male heir, the eldestson of his eldest sister would assume the title. Ishould point out, however, that this was quite rare.Nobles or nitayanos assisted the cacique in thevillage; these were usually older men who wereconsidered wise and mature.

The cacique was entrusted with severalresponsibilities such as:

i. heading religious ceremoniesii. making the lawsiii. officiating religious and social festivalsiv. distributing land and allocating labour.

KKaalliinnaaggoossThe ouboutou (chief) gained his title through his

military dexterity. He would have had to defeat orkill several enemies in battle. His duties includedpresiding over victory celebrations and decidingwhen raids were to be held. He was assisted bytiubutuli hauthe, who acted as governors of theirvillages. They were responsible for supervising

fishing and cultivating as well as leading in socialceremonies. Other leaders included the nobles andpriests (boyez), the latter’s primary role being that ofa religious nature.

MMaayyaannssThe position of the Mayan chief (the halach

uinich) was inherited through family lineage. Thisposition passed from father to son (hereditary).However, if the son of the deceased ruler was notcompetent, one of his brothers became head ofstate. If this were not successful either, a council ofnobles would elect a suitable person from theruler’s family. Nobles and ppolms (merchants) wereother important persons in Mayan society. Theppolms were important merchants who had theirown laws, worshipped their own gods and did nothave to pay taxes.

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CONTINUED FROM PAGE 16

4. When I touched (is, his) skin, Iwas surprised at how (course, coarse)it felt.

5. (It’s, Its) very clear that he has nointention of changing his mind.

6. Sheila found the lecture to be(quite, quiet) engrossing.

7. The concert was (quiet, quite)(boring, bored).

8. I could not believe he walked(passed, past) me without greetingme.

9. During her childhood, her familywent (through, true) financialdifficulties.

10. When she found out what hehad done, the (anger, angry) she feltwas indescribable

ACTIVITY 2UUnnddeerrlliinnee tthhee wwoorrdd iinn bbrraacckkeettss tthhaatt

ccoorrrreeccttllyy ccoommpplleettee tthhee ppaarraaggrraapphh..

Sarah could not (believe/belief) it.(Were/Where) her eyes playing trickson her? It was (quite/quiet) amazingthat after all these years her father hadreturned. (Where/Were) had he(been/being) all this time? So manyyears had (passed/past) since (his/is)disappearance that she had(taught/thought) he had died. Sheremembered that her mother hadcried for weeks after he’d left. Sarahremembered the pain she had felt.She remembered the time she had(past/passed) out at school. It was(simple/simply) unbelievable that henow stood before her, no longer thehandsome man he once was. Life had(been/being) unkind to him. His facelooked haggard and (his/is) body wasgaunt. It was rather(interesting/interested) to her that her(angry/anger) was gone. All she feltwas pity. He was paying for the stupid(choose/choice) he had made somany years ago.

Next week, I will share the answerswith you.

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