Curriculum Development and ExperimentationAuthor(s): Julian RobertsSource: Review of Educational Research, Vol. 36, No. 3, Curriculum Planning and Development(Jun., 1966), pp. 353-361Published by: American Educational Research AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1169795 .

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CHAPTER II

Curriculum Development and Experimentation JULIAN ROBERTS

Since the last issue of the REVIEW devoted to the matter of curriculum development (American Educational Research Association, 1963), there has been a tremendous increase in the number of efforts to develop im- proved curriculum designs and materials. Noted in that issue was the fact that few studies or projects were related to a comprehensive design or to a theoretical framework of learning or teaching. The present upsurge, un- happily, does not change the situation, though it does reflect a growing concern for viewing curriculum as a means toward behavioral ends.

Clark, Klein, and Burks (1964) reported that most curriculum innova- tions were designed to cram information into pupils. Passow and Leeper (1964) voiced this contention in declaring that the knowledge explosion has seen a moving down of topics traditionally taught in the later grades. Goodlad (1964), in a study of some 16 curriculum projects in eight subject areas, characterized the movement as having focused on single subjects- planned generally from the top down. He further pointed to the trend toward increased interest in improving curriculum by constructing new courses and producing more effective curriculum materials. His critique of the projects examined not only noted this trend but also indicated confusion in aims and objectives, lack of state or local direction to curriculum plan- ners, poor evaluative techniques, and experiments that were really not experimental since they merely compared old ways with new ways rather than suggesting alternative ways and experimenting with them. One final point made was that while the undue emphasis on single subjects gave old courses and school practices a new look, it failed to provide a fresh look at curriculum theory.

New Emphases

A few projects, in contrast to the general trends noted above, represented a desire to go beyond the rewriting of courses to a revision of basic struc- tures. The structural changes considered tend toward a synthesis of infor- mation from the several disciplines and a change in cognitive learning style representative of a more questioning attitude rather than absorption of useful facts.

Denemark (1965) identified four major trends in this vein: (a) to re- examine content of subject fields, especially the structure of knowledge and method of inquiry; (b) to view education at every level as a continuum, from preschool to graduate school; (c) to be concerned with methods of

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inquiry, processes of thinking and learning, with emphasis on ways of get- ting data relevant to decisions students will need to make; and (d) to demand better coordination of education across school, community, and state boundaries while maintaining a flexibility needed to fit curriculum to unique needs of a particular community.

Bruner (1963) foresaw these trends by suggesting a need for a theory of instruction as a guide in curriculum construction. He pointed to at least three important elements of such a theory: (a) consideration of the predis- positions of children to learn effectively, (b) identification of the structure of the disciplines, and (c) determination of the optimal sequence required for learning. Faix (1964), taking his cue from Bruner's quest for identifica- tion of structure, attempted a study based on an analogy between a social system and a curriculum system using scientific theory as a screen through which to examine curriculum theory. He concluded that the nature and use of structural-functional analysis as a conceptual tool from the behavioral sciences could help develop laws of curriculum design.

A note of warning was sounded by Kliebard (1965), who cited certain dangers if "structure of the disciplines" should become an educational slogan. One danger cited was that the question of how to organize curric- ulum will become confused with the question of what to teach. A second danger noted was that much attention will be given to each field so that curriculum as a whole will receive only superficial consideration. Thus the question of balance and integration in the curriculum may be neglected. Current research or reports of projects and of curriculum and development centers support the greater concentration on revisions of courses and the moving down of topics from later to earlier grades. Yet some few show the influence of the quest for theory as an underpinning to curriculum development, organization, and planning.

During the period under review a number of general sources have ap- peared that are valuable to students of curriculum in the several content areas. The ASCD report edited by Unruh (1965) critically presented devel- opments in nine different areas; Goodlad (1964) analyzed projects in the sciences, mathematics, English, social sciences, and foreign languages. Both documents provided careful considerations of the strengths and weak- nesses in research in curriculum development and experimentation.

English Language Arts, K-12

In the area of English language arts there were four general sources of information on research, projects, and developments in the field since June 1963. Petty and Burns (1965) examined 67 studies and 10 summaries and listings of research in the elementary school English language arts. These again revealed emphasis on research in reading, with some increase in studies related to writing. In an overview and analysis of investigations relating to English language arts in the secondary school, Strom (1965)

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reported that much of the research in English was concerned with analyses of causes of failure or lack of progress in the several aspects of the English language arts. These studies were largely predictive, computing correlations between variables and implying that conditions favored the status quo. Strom criticized the lack of emphasis on the fact that a human being's potential may change because of subtle factors related to either heredity or environment. The report by the College Entrance Examination Board (1965) of the Commission on English calls the secondary English program an "unhappy combination" of disparate elements. By implication, their suggestions for curriculum revision rest upon the Bruner concepts of struc- ture, sequence, and the need for involvement of teachers in curriculum planning, development, and experimentation.

Rosner (1964) reported on results of the first two years of a three-year project on improvement in written expression, sponsored by the New York State Educational Research Division. The study had thus far attempted to answer questions relative to the identification of independent components of subjective ratings of written expression, the extent to which objective assessments of English usage and subjective appraisals of writing samples define common factorial space, and the extent to which lay readers and teachers of English define common factorial space. The results indicated that ratings of English composition consist principally of the two dimen- sions of general merit and mechanical accuracy. They also indicated that

Cooperative English Test factors are independent of composition rating scale factors and that the use of a rating scale further delineating the two

major dimensions of composition showed lay readers can be expected to maintain the instructional emphases of the teachers of English. Final reports of this study will examine further whether or not the presence of specific identifying factors such as grade level, sex, or curriculum track influences rater's judgments of writing, and whether or not specific classroom organi- zational strategies affect the improvement of writing skills as measured by the refined rating scale developed during the project.

The Nassau County Committee for Cooperative Action (1963) in its study of the use of English 2600 by seventh graders reported that this program in grammar and usage yielded no difference in achievement be- tween students in the program and students taught the same material in conventional ways, although three of the six participating districts noted that students in conventional classes scored significantly higher on the achievement tests used. Teachers' opinions of the program were generally negative. While students enjoyed the opportunity to work independently, those who completed the program wanted the provision for teacher assist- ance. They all commented on the monotonous format and style of the text.

The basic criticisms raised by Strom (1965) in her review are borne out by an examination of the studies included. Perhaps the greater attention the government is paying to this field as evidenced by the extended domains of NDEA Titles III and XI and the studies such as those sponsored by the National Council of Teachers of English (Squire and others, 1964) will

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point the way for more theoretically based research in this subject area. The problems and challenges reported by Hogan (1965) still remain: (a) the gap between research and theory on the one hand and school programs on the other, (b) the tendency to duplicate inferior research experiments, (c) the problem of sequence and articulation, (d) the determination of appropriate reading materials at each grade level, (e) the need for research on modern approaches to language study and their relation to ability to compose, and (f) the major issues in evaluating composition. Although the Rosner study discussed above provided a means for achieving a reliable rating scale for evaluation, it did not consider specific strategies for teach- ing and learning about the process of writing. This was also noted as a prime limitation in studies with regard to frequency of assignments in writing and their effect on writing improvement.

Social Studies, K-12

Harrison and Solomon (1965), in their comprehensive review of research on the teaching of social studies, noted the initiation of many projects con- cerned with social studies curriculum development for grades K-12. In particular, the following trends were revealed: (a) development of sequen- tial curricula so that a year's course would build on the concepts and skills introduced in previous years; (b) elimination of much of the repeti- tion in American history generally found in fifth-grade, eighth-grade, and

eleventh-grade classes; (c) use of area studies and studies-in-depth of selected topics; (d) communication to students of the social scientist's methods of inquiry; (e) greater use of readings, case studies, and primary sources; (f) greater emphasis on developing skills of inductive thinking and critical analysis; and (g) greater emphasis on the affective as well as the cognitive outcomes of instruction. They pointed to several of the more important studies on both the elementary and secondary level that indicate the trends identified.

Elliott (1963), in a study relating curriculum development to the disci- pline of history, suggested that the historian's methods of inquiry can be taken as highly suggestive of the ways in which knowledge about the past can best be taught and learned in schools, and that historians and curric- ulum workers should cooperate to improve both school programs and the discipline of history. Trow (1965) called for an area study in the social studies curriculum. He suggested that coverage should include the usual objectives, content, and methods of the social studies curriculum but that in addition some locale at the center of the period studied should be exam- ined as if the student were a participant, thus providing a look backward and forward in the study undertaken. An important principle of area study would be the incorporation of contributions from the several social sciences: anthropology, history, geography, psychology, sociology, economics, politi- cal science, health, education, welfare, and art.

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Schmuck and others (1965), in discussing their experiences on the Michigan Elementary Social Science Education Project, advocated a social studies curriculum which spans the fields of psychology, social psychology, microsociology and the small-group aspects of social anthropology. They employed a laboratory approach to the scientific study of human behavior. They cited two criteria for selection of content: (a) the area of inquiry must have a large body of scientific data available, and (b) the area of inquiry must have relevance and meaning in a child's life.

Finally, Fenton and Good (1965), in their progress report on Project Social Studies, cited the work being done at eight universities. The four trends noted here seem to follow the general trend already noted: (a) emphasis on a study of the structure of the disciplines; (b) emphasis on discovery and exploration, i.e., inductive teaching and learning; (c) attempts to integrate information from the several social sciences; and (d) emphasis on sequential learning.

Foreign Languages

Birkmaier (1965) presented a broad overview of the status of foreign language curricula indicating the stress on the audiolingual approach; the development of both audio and visual materials for effective language teaching; and the attempts to introduce content such as world geography, world affairs, and even biology into the foreign language curriculum. The keynote seems to be sounded, however, by Politzer (1965), who called for a greater impact among linguistic study, social change, and necessity. He asked whether it is possible to teach a language in such a way that the pupil learns methods or concepts which will facilitate his acquisition of another language in a situation of future need. Carton (1962) proposed five basic principles for language study: (a) understanding the semantic function of language; (b) understanding the social or pragmatic function of language; (c) understanding the nature of linguistic structure; (d) de- velopment of perceptional and cognitive flexibility; and (e) learning how to learn a foreign language.

Mathematics and Science

The numerous reported studies in mathematics and science reflect the support given to research and development in these areas by the federal government and by private foundations. Most of them are adequately and even critically described by Blank (1964), Goodlad (1964), Heath (1964a, b), Lockard (1965), and Unruh (1965).

Blackwood (1965) reported twelve projects stressing the new emphasis on concepts and structure of the disciplines, three of which used this emphasis as a basis for organizing the curriculum. Five projects were

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concerned with investigation of teaching methods, procedures, and skills of scientific investigation. Five others struggled with the question of the nature and extent of laboratory experiences. Eleven of the projects empha- sized the principle of sequence, and seven called attention to developing courses that synthesize the sciences. Blackwood also pointed to the existing diversity of course content as represented in the three biology programs, the Physical Sciences Study Committee, and the Harvard physics programs. He noted that concern for development of special curricula for the slow and advanced learner as well as for the reluctant learner were reflected in at least eight of the secondary science curriculum projects examined.

Two additional studies merit special attention for the contributions they have offered. Mallinson (1965), in an abstract of a report on the Science Motivation Project I, noted a study designed to determine what factors might be responsible for the motivation and achievement of secondary school students who may hope to enter the science field. Of the four conclusions reached, two were related to curriculum development and planning: (a) where crash programs were attempted, inverse results were noted; and (b) the value of continued upgrading of science teachers' back- grounds in science may be greatly underestimated. A second study of im- port, although it did not concern the substance of curriculum, was that of Heath (1964b). He considered the problem of using traditional educational measurements for a course of study in physics which stressed cognitive styles other than traditional mastery of terms and facts. The cognitive style of critical questioning and learning of fundamental principles was considered as significant to the curriculum, instead of memorization and practical application of specific facts and terms. Two of the four hypotheses tested supported this principle. One criticism of the study might be that the cognitive structures used were those suggested by experts in the field of physics rather than those derived from research on how the mind struc- tures knowledge.

Wilson (1964) studied the role of structure in verbal problem solving by comparing three problem-solving methods identified as the "wanted-given structure," the "action-sequence structure," and "practice only." Using Sheffle's multiple comparison tests, Wilson found that all differences favored the "wanted-given" structure over the "action-sequence" and the "practice only" structures. These differences were significant at the 0.05 or the 0.01 levels of confidence. The results suggested that "seeing" a problem might be a function of an acquired set other than the present perceptual field, as implied by some authors of mathematics programs.

A final word might be reserved for the National Science Teachers Associ- ation (1964) report, wherein NSTA listed some guidelines for curriculum development in the sciences. These echo the demands for sequence from kindergarten through twelfth grade, for articulation from one level to the next, for inclusion of the full range of the contemporary knowledge and ideas which scientists employ, for resultant understanding of the nature of the scientific enterprise through student involvement in the processes of

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scientific inquiry, for a developmental and learning theory to underlie curriculum change, and for continued first-rate staff, facilities, and instruc- tional materials.

Summary and Observations

This review was based on a study of the literature on projects, programs, and research in curriculum development and experimentation. It limited the specific content areas to those receiving major attention, though it included reports that in turn cover the many areas of the curriculum seem- ingly overlooked. It recognized that issues of the REVIEW are devoted to curriculum development for the disadvantaged, for the slow and gifted learner, and for many of the content areas not considered herein. Primarily, however, the report attempted to show some of the new and important emphases reflected in a few projects and research studies: the growing concern for grounding curriculum development and experimentation in theory from the behavioral sciences, concern with structure of the disci- plines and of cognitive styles of learning as a means for directing curricu- lum development, a need for sequencing learning from kindergarten through twelfth grade, a need for better articulation from level to level, and a need for the continued retraining of teachers in the several curriculum areas.

Goodlad (1964) gave the best advice for those who will be directing curriculum projects: (a) They must be concerned with curriculum se- quences from the bottom up. (b) They must move from patterns of single subject study to many subjects so that the curriculum as a whole will not receive superficial consideration. (c) They must develop and test materials with children and youth representing divergent cultural groups. (d) They must consider the advantages and disadvantages of various learning styles. (e) They must be aided by university controlled laboratory schools to en- sure the rigor of experimental design and operation. (f) And, finally, they must be concerned about new styles for educating future teachers. Perhaps these guidelines will provide impetus to experimentation and development giving greater attention to the new emphases cited in this review.

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