INTRODUCTION

In this unit three issues are outlined – climate change, “mad cow”and foot and mouth diseases, and resource security and safety. Whatdo these very different phenomena have in common? Why shouldthey be of interest to us? Each of these cases has held the attentionof the international media at different times. What they also have incommon is the very wide potential impact they could have on thequality of life of many of the world’s citizens.

In the Caribbean, we sometimes feel far removed from issues suchas these; they do not seem connected to our daily lives.Nevertheless, we ask you to consider them carefully. You may cometo realise that living on a small island does not insulate us fromevents taking place in other countries. Perhaps we need to thinkmore about the impact of science, medicine, and technology notonly in national and regional contexts but in international contextsas well. We hope that, having completed the unit, you will have abetter appreciation of the need for scientific and technological liter-acy for all citizens if we are to understand the changes taking placearound us and make meaningful contributions to our societies.

Unit Unit 11Some Issues of Current Interest

in Science, Medicine, and Technology

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OVERVIEW

Sessions 1, 2 and 3 cover climate change, “mad cow” and foot andmouth diseases, and resource security and safety in the Caribbean, inthat order. In each case you are asked to consider the scientific andtechnological aspects of these issues as well as the implications forsociety, both internationally and locally. The unit ends by questioningthe relevance of these issues to our societies and our personal lives.Some of these issues will be referred to again in more detail in Unit 3of this Module, and in much of Module 2, The Impact of Science onSociety.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you should be able to:

1. Describe the possible causes, the effects, and the implications ofglobal warming

2. Discuss some of the issues surrounding the non-compliance ofsome nations with international environmental agreements

3. Discuss why infectious diseases of animals, such as “mad cow”disease and foot and mouth disease, are of concern internationallyand locally

4. Outline the concerns surrounding the issues of food and energysecurity, and water resources, with particular reference to smallnations such as those in the Caribbean

5. Identify some issues of current scientific, medical and,technological interest of particular relevance and importance tothe Caribbean, as well as to the wider international community

6. State some of the important inter-relationships between scientific,medical, and technological issues

7. Describe some of the social and economic implications of therelationships between scientific, medical, and technological issues.

8. Explain the necessity for being able to assess critically, issues ofcurrent scientific, medical, and technological interest in theCaribbean.

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FOR THE STUDENT

A number of readings are provided for you. You are asked to readthrough as many as you can. Some readings provide more details ontopics covered in the text; others deal with related but differentissues. The intention is for you to sample different views. You mustform your own opinions. However, we expect that you will be ableto support your views with scientific knowledge and factual infor-mation from the text or the readings.

READINGS

• Arctic ice heats global warming debate. From Innovations 5 – 7November 2000. http://www.abc.net.au/ra/elp/innovatn/inots793_b.htm

• Donahue, James. Melting ice caps and thunder. From The Mind ofJames Donahue. perdurabo10@lycos.com

• Environment: Nuclear waste shipment a health hazard toCaribbean. World News Inter Press Service. January 1998.http://www.oneworld.org/ips2/jan98/nuclear.html

• Gellateley, Juliet. Foot the bill and shut your mouth. Viva! LIFE,Issue 18. Summer 2001, p.20. Also available athttp://www.vivaorg.uk/ Foot and Mouth Home Page.

• Greenhouse gases, global climate change and energy.http://eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggcc

• Greenaway, Anthony. The linkages between ozone depletion andclimate change. The Gleaner, Monday, September 16, 2002.

• The green house gas effect. In Impacts of the Kyoto Protocol on USenergy markets and economic activity. Energy InformationAdministration, U.S. Dept of Energy, Oct. 1998.

• Health effects of air pollution. Health and Environment. WorldResources Institute 1998–99. gregm@wri.org

• Jamaica receives further assistance with ODS phase out. TheGleaner, Monday, September 16, 2002.

• LeDoux, Joseph E. Nature vs. nurture: The pendulum stillswings with plenty of momentum. The Chronicle of Higher

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Education. © Joseph E. LeDoux, Ph.D. December 1998.http://xchar.home.att.net/tna/ledoux.htm

• Nature vs. nurture: An unnecessary debate. Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention, Office of Genetics and DiseasePrevention, July 2000.

• Mad Cow Disease: The BSE epidemic in Great Britain.http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/madcow96.html

• The potential of icebergs as a global source of fresh water. © 1991–2001, SMEC Holdings Ltd. webmaster@smec.com.au

• The pros and cons of nuclear energy.http://members.tripod.com/funk_phenomenon/nuclear/procon.htm

• Pros and cons of nuclear generation.http://ess.geology.ufl.edu/ess/Labs/TermPapersFall99-00/Cavanaugh/Pr

• Statement by Caricom Heads of Government on the Shipmentof Nuclear Waste through the Caribbean Sea. Press release,67/1999 (17 July 1999).http://www.caricom.org/pressreleases/pres67_99.htm

• Thompson, Dick. Melt away future. Time, Nov. 1997, pp.38–40.

Climate Change

In recent years, there has been considerable concern about theimpact of what are called “greenhouse gases”.

What are greenhouse gases?

When fossil fuels and other carbon-based materials are burned, gases are given off into the atmosphere. One of the most commonof these gases is carbon dioxide. Large quantities pour into theatmosphere every day from automobiles, factories and powerstations. Events such as forest fires and volcanoes also make theircontribution.

How do greenhouse gases affect temperatures and climate?

There is evidence that the average temperature of the world isincreasing slowly. When carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasesare emitted, they rise high into the atmosphere surrounding theearth where they form a layer that traps heat close to the earth.

Some scientists believe that the immense amounts of gasesproduced by combustion of carbon-containing substances are largelyresponsible for this increase in the world’s temperature. (By one esti-mate, we have poured about 25,425,068,880 tonnes into the air sofar this year, 2002.) Others argue that this is simply part of thenormal fluctuations in the world’s climate. They point out that notso long ago, geologically speaking, another large variation in theearth’s temperature took place. This was the most recent Ice Age.

Changes in atmospheric temperature control the air currents aroundthe globe that are responsible for annual and seasonal weatherpatterns. Although the increase in temperature is taking place veryslowly its effects are already becoming evident.

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n FOSSIL FUELS

Natural gasOilCoal

n SOMEGREENHOUSE GASES

Carbon dioxideMethaneNitrous oxideHydrofluorocarbons

n FIND OUT...other major sourcesof greenhousegases.

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Possible long-term impacts of global warming

• Increased desertification as water sources dry up in areas thatwere once fertile.

• The melting of glaciers and the polar ice-caps, causing a rise insea levels and the disappearance of very low-lying islands.

• Changes in the nature of crops that can be cultivated in differentparts of the world. For example, growing grapes in the“temperate” zones may become a real possibility.

• Loss of coral reefs due to the death of the temperature-sensitiveorganisms that build the reef.

The Kyoto protocols: the US response

The Kyoto protocols are a set of agreements developed at an interna-tional conference in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. They include a timeframe for participating countries to reduce the emission of green-house gases by specified amounts over an extended period. Althoughthe international community agreed that there was urgent need forsuch protocols, the Bush Administration in the USA decided, inearly 2001, that it could not support the agreement. However, someEuropean countries have made significant progress in reducing emis-sions in their countries. The American response is a major setbackbecause the USA is a significant source of the greenhouse gasesbeing emitted at present. To date, this issue has not been resolved.

Table 1.1 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption andFlaring of Fossil Fuels, 1991-2000

(Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent)Source: Extracted from http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/tableh1.html

n There have beenseveral ice ages inthe history of theearth when very coldperiods alternatedwith relativelywarmer periods.20,000 years ago icecovered nearly 1/3 ofthe earth’s landsurface. Oneimmense ice sheet,two miles thick inplaces, buried mostof Canada andreached as far southas Illinois. Othermassive ice sheetscovered much ofnorthern Europe andAsia.

Region/Country 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

North America 1,552.59 1,577.33 1,608.42 1,642.15 1,652.22 1,711.55 1,743.55 1,757.44 1,783.87 1,832.50

Central & South America 204.01 208.85 217.86 224.1 235.85 244.29 254.13 263.03 265.39 268.65

Western Europe 1,002.76 965.54 957.66 953.02 972.65 1,000.03 1,005.72 1,006.23 984.14 999.62

Eastern Europe & Former U.S.S.R. 1,190.49 1,124.13 1,033.96 914.03 877.48 861.21 806.51 789.58 824.22 844.23

Middle East 217.37 223.57 234.02 243.91 251.29 259.09 272.45 276.66 281.43 288.01

Africa 204.93 205.7 213.26 215.75 225.69 224.29 238.31 246.02 238.11 240.14

Asia & Oceania 1,510.12 1,574.99 1,673.86 1,769.99 1,859.67 1,913.40 1,954.74 1,915.37 1,945.73 1,970.22

World Total 5,882.27 5,880.12 5,939.03 5,962.94 6,074.86 6,213.86 6,275.41 6,254.33 6,322.90 6,443.38

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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Do you think global warming is an issue that shouldconcern Caribbean leaders and peoples? Give reasons foryour opinion.

2. China generates a high proportion of its electricity byburning coal. What position would you expect countriessuch as China to take with respect to the Kyoto protocols?

3. What arguments would you put forward to a country that isdependent on fossil fuels to convince them of the need forchange?

4. Which aspects of global warming would you expect islandswith a sand- and sea-based tourist industry to be mostconcerned about and why?

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“Mad Cow” Disease and Foot andMouth Disease

“Mad cow” disease in the news

In the mid 1990s, in the United Kingdom (UK), there was greatconcern within the cattle industry because of increasing reports of adisease that caused cattle to stagger around and lose control of theirmovements. Concern mounted, as the disease seemed to be relatedto one called “scrapie” which had been recognised for many years insheep but not in cattle. The general population became even morealarmed when it was discovered that the disease can be transmittedto humans who eat infected beef as a variant of Creuzfeld-Jakobdisease (vCJD), a human form of the disease that the cows had.

What is “mad cow” disease?

The technical term for the disease is Bovine SpongiformEncephalopathy (BSE). The disease affects the central nervoussystem of the animals and is usually fatal. Initially scientiststhought the disease was caused by a virus. However, the infectiveagent is now believed to be a brain protein called a “prion” that hasundergone a change in shape that renders it harmful.

How is “mad cow” disease spread?

A major cause of the rise of BSE in cattle was the practice of “feed-ing cattle to cattle”! Included in the feed supplied to cattle wererendered remains of cattle and other animals such as sheep, somepresumably infected with “scrapie”. The rendering process (heatingto cause the melting of the fat) did not remove the sources of infec-tion. When eaten, this abnormal protein can be absorbed and causenormal related proteins to change their shapes into the abnormalpatterns of the BSE protein. The cattle supplied with infected feedcould develop BSE and pass it on to humans. A major problem in

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n DID YOU KNOW...?that cattle feed maycontain more than15% protein from left-over parts ofbutchered animalse.g. blood, usedchicken litter,feathers and offal?

tracking diseases of this sort is that many years elapse betweenexposure and the development of symptoms. During that timealready infected animals can spread the disease to healthy animalswithout any signs that this is happening.

Impacts and concerns

The first concern of the agricultural industry was about the impactof the epidemic on sales of beef and therefore the economic well-being of cattle farmers. Their fears were justified. Once the diseasehad been identified, most countries banned the importation of cattlefrom the UK. Soon after this, sales of all beef products from the UKfell sharply. Also costly, were the systems that had to be put in placeto prevent the spread of the disease and to ensure that beefproduced for market did not include infected animals and would besafe for human consumption. Slaughterhouses which handled cattlehad to be inspected to ascertain high standards of hygiene.Slaughtering and butchering practices were also carefully monitoredand each member of a herd had to be identified and tagged. Even incountries such as the USA, which does not usually import manybeef products from the UK, BSE became a cause for concern. InOctober 2002, the first case of an infected human was detected inthe USA.

QUESTIONS

1. In your opinion, should these costly procedures be followedwhether there is an outbreak of disease or not? (Remember“prevention is better than cure”!)

2. Do you think that your government has been able to enforcegood standards of food hygiene in your country, includingthe slaughter and handling of meat products? (If you do notknow, you should try to find out.)

Foot and mouth disease

A more recent disaster for the UK cattle industry has been the verywidespread occurrence of foot and mouth disease. The disease getsits names from its most obvious signs, the lesions and sores that

???

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develop around the mouth and on the feet of the cattle. Althoughthis disease is not necessarily fatal, it severely reduces the produc-tion of both milk and beef. Thus the economic viability of the cattleindustry is compromised. The cost of the recent outbreak to the UKgovernment – and therefore UK taxpayers – is in the billions ofpounds.

You may have seen signs in Caribbean airports announcing thatmeat imports from the UK were banned and that passengers on allflights from the UK had to walk on disinfecting mats before enter-ing the immigration and customs area. In Jamaica, for example,these measures were introduced in 1985 in an attempt to preventthe spread of this disease from the UK.

Some farmers and many citizens consider the measures used tocontain the spread of foot and mouth disease extreme. Theseinclude:

• the wholesale slaughter of entire herds on farms with only a fewinfected animals, and

• the slaughter of herds on farms close by, even when they appearhealthy.

Nevertheless, studies of the patterns of the spread of the diseasesupport the rapid and thorough culling of infected and potentiallyinfected herds as an effective control strategy.

ACTIVITY

Construct a list of regulations that Caribbean governmentscould use to reduce the likelihood of diseases such as BSE andfoot and mouth entering and spreading in the region. Includethe measures described above and add your own ideas.

Suggestion: Organize your list into categories, e.g. preventingentry into the island, treatment and control, education, dealingwith outbreaks.

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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. There has been much debate about the effectiveness of avaccination programme against foot and mouth disease. Doyou think this might be a desirable alternative to massslaughter of herds? What is the basis of your opinion?

2. There is no known link between foot and mouth disease andany human disease. Given the fact that the disease is notfatal, do you think governments should continue to takeprecautions to prevent the spread of the disease in theircountries?

3. To what extent do you think the activities of one countryare important in limiting the spread of diseases around theworld?

4. What might be some of the reasons for the absence of footand mouth disease from the USA since 1929?

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Resource Security and Safety in the Caribbean

We usually use the term “national security” in considering eventssuch as the attack on the World Trade Centre on September 11,2001 or increasing security at airports or spending on our armedforces. However, our security as sovereign nations goes much deeperthan that. To what extent are we secure when we depend on exter-nal sources for essentials such as food and energy? How secure arewe internally when our water supplies are “under attack”? We willnow look at some of the issues raised by these questions.

Food security

The Caribbean has a very large food import bill. We have becomedependent on a number of other countries for basic foodstuffs suchas flour, rice, cornmeal, meat, fruit, and vegetables. With our ever-increasing populations and the decline in local agriculture, this islikely to be the case for a long time. This dependence raises anumber of issues:

• Availability: Events outside the Caribbean region can seriouslylimit our access to these sources of food. Damage to crops fromextremes of climate and weather, and international conflicts cancut us off from our regular supplies quite suddenly.

• Costs: Importing most of our food from abroad is also aneconomic concern, as we have no control over the costs of theproducts or their transport.

• Quality: Since we import so much of our food we need to:

Have confidence in the standards of farming in the countriesfrom which food is imported.

Pay attention to the methods being used in the countriesfrom which our foods come (The debate about BSE,

Session 1.3

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genetically modified, foods and the use of variousagricultural chemicals should concern us).

Have confidence in the inspection and hygiene procedures ofthe food industries of exporting countries. The recentanthrax scare highlighted the possibilities of exporting deathin this way.

ACTIVITY

Make a list of four imported foods that you consider essential toyour diet. (At least one food must be flour-based.) What localsubstitutes can you think of that would adequately replacethese foods, if that became necessary?

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Caribbean populations are becoming more and moredependent on external sources of food than before. Suggestreasons for this trend and how it might be counteracted.

2. Given recent security concerns, do you think Caribbeancountries should take steps to ensure that a “reasonableproportion” of our food is produced in the region?

3. List some of the measures that could be introduced toachieve this? (For example, ways to encourage farming andfishing, counteract the impact of advertisements that pushforeign foods, reduce costs of locally grown produce, and so on.)

Energy and security

The Caribbean also has a very large energy import bill, mostly asderivatives of the petroleum industry. Few Caribbean countries havesignificant energy reserves in the form of oil or gas. The majorexception is Trinidad and Tobago, which has significant supplies ofboth. The energy generated and used in the Caribbean is thereforelargely dependent on external suppliers. The cost of this energy is

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beyond our control and rising. This has serious implications for ourdevelopment and our economies.

The generation of energy by nuclear fission is not an issue in theCaribbean. However, there is a major safety and security issue ofconcern to the Caribbean based on its use by other countries.Nuclear power stations in Japan send their used fuel rods to Europefor reprocessing. These spent rods are still highly radioactive. Theyare exported by ship to Europe and the refined fuel and waste,generated in the reprocessing, are shipped back to Japan. The ship-ping routes, although usually kept secret, presumably for securityreasons, go through the Caribbean. A serious accident, as a result ofa terrorist act or a massive storm, for example, could expose theenvironment in the Caribbean to considerable risk from an activityover which we have no control and from which we gain no benefits.

ACTIVITY

Find out more about the advantages and disadvantages of usingnuclear power. Consider efficiency, safety, cost, transport, anddisposal of used radioactive material.

Given what you found out, comment on the feasibility ofconstructing a nuclear power plant on a Caribbean island.

Water resources

Water is crucial to all aspects of human existence. Most Caribbeancountries have adequate water supplies, although a few of themnow depend in part on imported water (e.g. from Andros in theBahamas) or on desalination plants (e.g. in Antigua and Barbados).Some, such as Dominica, with a population of about 70,000, have amore than adequate supply by rainfall alone. While quantity ofwater may not be of immediate concern in the Caribbean, waterquality should be. Pollution of rivers and streams is increasingrapidly worldwide. The Caribbean is no exception.

In other parts of the world, access to and control of water suppliesis likely to be one of the most contentious issues of this century and

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this could be made worse by global warming. Governments willwish to ensure that they have control of sufficient water resourcesto meet the present and future needs of their peoples. This can bevery difficult when such resources are rivers that flow through anumber of countries. The quality and quantity of the water flowingfrom one country to another varies considerably depending on howeach country uses this shared resource. This can create seriousdisagreements between neighbouring countries.

There have been some interesting suggestions made about the possi-bility of exporting water from Canada (which has a populationabout one tenth that of the USA) to the USA but many Canadianenvironmentalists oppose the idea. Some countries are more inter-ested in using flowing water to generate electricity, rather than forother needs. This is another reason why sharing rivers is of seriousconcern.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Are there any effective attempts at water conservation inyour country? In your opinion, should this be a priority forCaribbean governments?

2. Do you think that there should be an increased focus onalternative energy sources – such as solar and wind – byCaribbean governments in order to reduce dependence onimported energy supplies? (See Module 2 Unit 1)

3. In light of concerns about the dangers of transportingradioactive materials by sea, do you think the Caribbeanshould have any influence on the ways in which spentnuclear fuel is transported across (a) international watersand (b) between Japan and Europe?

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Why Should I Care?

Science, medicine and technology in everyday life

Science, technology and medicine have an increasing impact on theway we live. In addition they are inextricably bound together in themodern world. At first glance, the issues outlined in the previouspages may appear to have little direct impact on your own life. Youmay well ask “Why should I care?

Thanks to information and communications technology we havebecome part of a global community. We are part of a shrinkingworld where an attack on one developed country has repercussionsaround the globe. International travel brings visitors to and fromour shores on a daily basis, and more and more of our citizens visitother countries. The implications of this for matters of healthcannot be overemphasized. Environmental pollution does not stayin the atmosphere of the countries that create it.

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If you think carefully about your everyday life, you may begin toidentify other issues besides the ones that we have raised that affectyou directly:

• A continuous, clean water supply

• An effective sewage collection and treatment system

• A continuous and reliable power supply

• Some reliable form of transport, whether private or public

• A supply of food that is both nutritious and cheap

• Access to a good health system

To what extent are these local and personal issues separate from thelarger issues discussed in this unit? We ask that you keep this ques-tion in mind as you continue the course.

ACTIVITY

Consider the following points for discussion in your nexttutorial or teleconference

n The development and use of information andcommunications technology, (see Module 2, Unit 4),provides an excellent example of the ways in which we havebecome part of a global community. We have access to moreinformation about health and disease, the environmentalimpact of industry and the impact of climate change on theCaribbean. We can see for ourselves the effects ofmismanaging global resources and how this can affect ourregion. Can we afford to have others make importantchoices for us, especially choices that might affect our veryexistence on the planet?

n Many people would argue that, given recent developmentsin science, technology, and medicine, there is urgent need toprovide an education through which people may become“scientifically and technologically literate”. By so doing, anation can ensure that its future decision making is as wellinformed as possible. Should Caribbean countries be aimingfor scientific and technological literacy for all? Is this tooidealistic a goal?

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n No one expects any one person to be fully informed aboutall of the key issues affecting the economic and socialdevelopment of a country. Should we therefore leave thedecision making about issues of scientific and technologicalimportance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with theview expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchillthat scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue israised again in Unit 3 of this Module.)

n Our governments often enter into international agreementsthat may determine their ability to provide us with basicnecessities. International events and concerns can have adirect impact on our lives, as demonstrated clearly by theevents of September 11, 2001. Are we in a position to ignorewhat takes place in the rest of the world? (Beforeconsidering this question you might like to list all the waysyou can think of that September 11 affected your country).

n If you decide that you do care about some of these issues,perhaps you can then identify ways in which you canbecome better informed about them (e.g. through theInternet, newspapers or television). In addition, you shouldconsider how you might contribute to debates on improvingprovisions for at least one of the issues from the list on page24. List your arguments clearly for further considerationwhen covering related areas in Module 2.

n Is doing this course a waste of your time?

SUMMARY

In the previous part of this unit you were asked to think aboutissues which have appeared in the news media in the past few years.These included, global warming thought to be caused by greenhousegases, and “mad cow disease” and foot and mouth disease in cattlein Britain, both of which caused epidemics that could spread abroad.These issues become news not necessarily because of their scientificor technological interest, but usually because there is some perceivedimpact on society, often bad.

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Not so much in the news but of equal importance were the issues ofenergy and food security, and secure water resources raised next.Our dependence as a region on outside sources of energy and foodwas questioned and the need to maintain sources of clean waterwas mentioned. We also noted that water, as a shared resource couldbecome a problem.

When such issues appear to threaten our safety or us, only then dowe become more concerned about the state of scientific knowledgeor the ways in which a technological advance may affect our envi-ronment. Regardless of the issues involved, it is important for all ofus to have some understanding of the ways in which scientificknowledge is generated and the scope and limitations of scientificfindings. Unit 2 of this module is about just this.

DISCUSSION

Science, technology, and medicine have an increasing impact onthe way we live. In addition they are inextricably boundtogether in the modern world. At first glance, the issuesoutlined in the previous pages may appear to have little directimpact on your own life. You may well ask “Why should I care?

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