Curious Folks Ask - pearsoncmg.comptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com › images › 9780137057382 › samplepage… · Curious folks ask : 162 real answers on amazing inventions, fascinating

at are you curious about? What haveu you alwaysu

wondered about? For more than five years, renowned

science and health writer Dr. Sherry Seethaler has been answering

questions like yours in her weekly column in the San Diego

Union-Tribune. Now she’s brought together 162 of the bestee

questions and answers in a book you won’t be able to put down.

Seethaler is one of this generation’s best science explainers,

and it shows: Every answer is accurate, fun to read, and distilled

to a single page or less!

Want to know how canned air works… or nuclear bombs?

What causes goose bumps, earwax, dandruff, headaches?

Whether it’s healthy to crack your knuckles, drink decaf,

eat chocolate? What it costs to run all those LED lights around

your house? It’s all here—and a whole lot more!

Your body’s oddities: knees to knuckles,itches to sneezesSurprising facts about how your body grows and works

Our ingenious inventionsThe past, present, and future of our relentless human inventiveness

Pesky pathogens: viruses, bacteria, and prionsHow they keep outsmarting us, and why it’s so hard to stay healthy

Common chemical concoctionsThe science behind the everyday products that have transformed our lives

Uniquely human: how we got here,how we’re uniqueNew lessons from genetics, archaeology, and evolutionary biology

W

ftpressscience.com | An imprint of Pearson

Curious Folks Ask

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Curious Folks Ask162 Real Answers on Amazing Inventions,

Fascinating Products, and Medical Mysteries

Sherry Seethaler

Vice President, Publisher: Tim MooreAssociate Publisher and Director of Marketing: Amy NeidlingerEditorial Assistant: Pamela BolandDevelopment Editor: Kirk JensenOperations Manager: Gina KanouseSenior Marketing Manager: Julie PhiferPublicity Manager: Laura CzajaAssistant Marketing Manager: Megan ColvinCover Designer: Chuti PrasertsithManaging Editor: Kristy HartProject Editor: Anne GoebelCopy Editor: Gayle JohnsonProofreader: Leslie JosephIndexer: Erika MillenSenior Compositor: Gloria SchurickManufacturing Buyer: Dan Uhrig

© 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.Publishing as FT PressUpper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

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Printed in the United States of America

First Printing February 2010

ISBN-10: 0-13-705738-5ISBN-13: 978-0-13-705738-2

Pearson Education LTD.Pearson Education Australia PTY, LimitedPearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.Pearson Education North Asia, Ltd.Pearson Education Canada, Ltd.Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V.Pearson Education—JapanPearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Seethaler, Sherry, 1970-

Curious folks ask : 162 real answers on amazing inventions, fascinating products, and medicalmysteries / Sherry Seethaler.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-13-705738-2 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Technology—Miscellanea. 2.Inventions—Miscellanea. 3. Chemical engineering—Miscellanea. 4. Human body—Miscellanea. 5. Diseases—Miscellanea. 6. Health—Miscellanea. 7. Consumer goods—Miscellanea. I. Title.

T47.S445 2010

600—dc22

2009047764

For everyone who has ever wondered


Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvii

Chapter 1 Ingenious inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Iceless icebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Full of cold air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1May the Force be with you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2Sci-fi science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Catching a wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4Out, damned spot! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Glass stretch marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6Seeing double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7Say what? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8On the road again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Kooky clocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Lost with digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Era arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Let there be light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Temperature tales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14Spying on Martians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Otherworldly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Earthling outpost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16Man or machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Play ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Pharaoh’s secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Dense edifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22Tiny toys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23Twinkle, twinkle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Curly cords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25Mr. Weasley’s collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25Electric synchrony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27In chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28Equine engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29Man’s best friend v. 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30Taking to the sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31Off-kilter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33Architecture by numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Chapter 2 Chemical concoctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35Sticky situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35Strong bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37Black gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37What’s in a name? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38Auto alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40Sugar high . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41Water fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42Periodic-table personalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44Jolt-free beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45Decaf danger? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46Gently down the stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47Water, water everywhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48Reticent rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49On top of Old Smoky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50Odor eater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51Exquisite earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51Drug disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53Lone nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54Rub-a-dub-dub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55Chore tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Chapter 3 Body parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59Toe the line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59Surgeons’ favorite organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61Longer and longer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62Tough tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62Ashes to ashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63Holey lids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64Producing peepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64Guardian lashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65Stopping short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66Grating habit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66Local harvest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68Cell selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68Whiter shade of pale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70Healing potion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71Replacement parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72Not so wise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

viii curious folks ask

Chapter 4 Bodily functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75Music of maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75Prune people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76Blinky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78Twitchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79Summertime blues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79Staying cool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80Low thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81Sweaty gourmet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82Impulsive impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83American Lilliputians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84Hair-raising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85Puny puckers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86Earplugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86Itchy and scratchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87Heart-stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88Sneeze grimace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88Photon allergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89Sleeping beauty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90Yawning maw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92Smells good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94Tip of the tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

Chapter 5 Pesky pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99Bundle up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99Invader individuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100Moving target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102Bug buddies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104Laid low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105Fever favor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106Healthy as a dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107Keep off the grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108Vexing virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110Cure claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112Food zapper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114Laboratory life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116Building organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117Tick bites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118Oh, no—mono . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119Kitchen germs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120Downers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120Mad cows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

contents ix

Chapter 6 Assorted ailments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125Two-faced warrior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125Pimple food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126Much ado about nothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128Hiccups attacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129Attacking hiccups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130Gulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131Knee forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132Brain whittling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134Head bop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135Cappuccino compulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136Many malignancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137New skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138On the mend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139Flakiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141Charley horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142Throbbin’ noggin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143Heart hurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144Knowing thyself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145Halo of stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146Hot, hot, hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147

Chapter 7 Uniquely human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149Odd eats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149Sink like a stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151Dino breath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152Modern man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153World tour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154Tree house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156Loners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157Living link? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158Tears for fears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160Blind dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161Hullabaloo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162Sentiment sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163Feeling groovy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165Mad genius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166Out of body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168Musical mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169

x curious folks ask

Chapter 8 Health nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171Counting calories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171Fat carbs, skinny carbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172Combo meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174Chugalug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175Cocoa craze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176Go the distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178Exercise regimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179Pounding the pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180Totally radical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182It’s elemental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183Color me young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184Vitamin virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185Fuel economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186Fit to be sweaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188Red and white . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188Hold the sunny side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190Grain of salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191Quicksilver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

contents xi


Acknowledgments

I am tremendously grateful for my wonderful agent, Jodie Rhodes, thevision and hard work of the FT Press Science team, and everyoneresponsible for the Quest section of the San Diego Union-Tribune, espe-cially my three editors: Leigh Fenly, Margaret King, and Scott LaFee. Ofcourse, Curious Folks Ask would not have been possible without thecurious folks who asked the questions that have taught me so much overthe years. No matter how quickly the days pass, or how busy they seem tobe, may we all find time each day to wonder.

About the Author

Sherry Seethaler is a science writer and educator at the University ofCalifornia, San Diego. She works with scientists to communicate theirdiscoveries to the public. She also writes a weekly column for the SanDiego Union-Tribune in which she answers readers’ questions spanningnearly every imaginable science topic. She earned a Bachelor of Sciencein biochemistry and chemistry from the University of Toronto, a Masterof Science and a Master of Philosophy in biology from Yale University,and a Doctor of Philosophy in science and mathematics education fromthe University of California, Berkeley. She is also the author of Lies,Damned Lies, and Science (FT Press Science, 2009). It serves as a guideand set of tools for making sense of the health and science-related issueswe encounter in our daily lives.

Preface

Inquiring minds want to know. What’s the big deal about low-carb diets?What causes muscle aches when you get the flu? How did the ancientEgyptians build the Giza Pyramids? Does it matter what brand of gaso-line you buy? Could adult stem cells have as much promise as embryonicstem cells? Is a horsepower really the power of one horse? Does choco-late cause acne? What makes glue sticky? How is it possible to designbifocal contact lenses? What causes dandruff?

And sometimes, inquiring minds ask questions that other inquiringminds did not even realize they wanted to know. Why do we get skin can-cer from sun-damaged skin when damaged cells are continually slough-ing off and being replaced? What causes out-of-body experiences? Is theStar Wars lightsaber possible? Are there beneficial viruses, just as thereare beneficial bacteria? Why do some people have second toes that arelonger than their big toes? Is increased environmental noise leading toincreased violence? With their unwieldy number system, how did theancient Romans engineer their magnificent buildings?

These are some of the 162 questions compiled in this science Q&Aanthology. The questions come from real people who range in age fromhigh schoolers to octogenarians (and probably even younger and olderfolks too). Some of them are scientists, and others tell me, “I’m not a sci-ence person, but I’ve always wanted to know...” What they share is adeep curiosity about the world around them. The questions and answersin Curious Folks Ask can rekindle the natural wonder about science andthe world around us that we all shared as children but that frequentlygets pushed aside in formal education settings.

Since I began writing a weekly science Q&A for the San DiegoUnion-Tribune in 2004, not a week has gone by that I haven’t learnedsomething surprising from answering readers’ questions. People oftenask me if I know the answers off the top of my head. Sometimes I do, orthink I do, but I extensively research each answer because, after all, sci-ence is constantly progressing. There is always something new—perhapsa different way of thinking about things, a controversy where none wasevident initially, or a myth that has masqueraded as the truth for so longthat many well-informed people have been fooled.

xvi curious folks ask

For example, the notion that getting chilled can cause one to catch acold is dismissed as an old wives’ tale by many usually reliable sources.However, a careful search of the peer-reviewed scientific literature turnsup a more interesting story, which is revealed in the first Q&A in Chap-ter 5. This illustrates a unique feature of Curious Folks Ask. The concise,palatable answers highlight not just what is known, but also where gapsin scientific understanding exist. Perhaps these mysteries will eveninspire a young reader or two to take up the torch and begin a journeyinto scientific research.

This book is organized into eight chapters of questions and answersabout humans and our creations, encompassing a plethora of topics inhuman biology, rounded out with a touch of chemistry and physics. Indi-vidual Q&As are self-contained but are grouped according to the naturalthemes that arise in people’s questions. The questions range from theproducts of our civilization, to our bodies and how they work, to thenemeses that bring us down, to what makes us tick, to the latest healthfads.

• Chapter 1, “Ingenious Inventions.” Whether high-tech or seem-ingly mundane, ancient or futuristic, interesting science is behindevery one of our inventions. Folks ponder their origins, how theywork, and how to troubleshoot them.

• Chapter 2, “Chemical Concoctions.” Chemical-free is the latestsilly buzzword being used to market food, personal-care products,and other stuff. Of course, everything, including us, is made ofchemicals. Questions about fuel, soap, decaffeination, glue, andmore provide insights into the amazing power of chemistry totransform our lives.

• Chapter 3, “Body Parts.” Wisdom teeth, appendix, knuckles, andtoes—our body parts are mysterious, and sometimes downrightodd. How we get our parts, why we have them, and what they doare some of the things people ponder.

• Chapter 4, “Bodily Functions.” Itching, yawning, sneezing, sweat-ing—our bodies are rather busy, even when we are doing nothing.Kids, and folks who have grown into perfectly civilized adults,wonder how and why their bodies work as they do.

• Chapter 5, “Pesky Pathogens.” Viruses, bacteria, and now prionssure do make it hard to stay healthy. No matter how far medicineadvances, they continue to outsmart us. How to keep ahead of

these pesky, and sometimes deadly, pathogens is never far frompeople’s minds.

• Chapter 6, “Assorted Ailments.” When we are not under siege bymicrobes, we still have aches and pains, illnesses, and embarrass-ing conditions. Young and old alike ask what causes them and whythey occur.

• Chapter 7, “Uniquely Human.” How we got here, what sets usapart from our fellow creatures, and what makes us feel a certainway may be age-old questions, but modern research is constantlyproviding a fresh perspective.

• Chapter 8, “Health Nuts.” Health advice seems to change everytime we pick up a newspaper. From carbs, to free radicals, to gain-ing the most benefit from exercise, health nuts want the realscoop.

It’s all here: the myths, mysteries, oddities, familiar but strange, everydayto exotic. Each answer succinctly synthesizes the current state of a bodyof research so that you can answer the “whys” of a child in your life, cap-tivate people at cocktail parties, or just satisfy your own inquiring mind.

preface xvii


Ingenious inventions

1

1

Iceless icebox

How does a frost-free freezer work?

In a non-frost-free freezer, water vapor from the air condenses and thenfreezes on the cooling coils in the freezer (or on the plastic of the freezercompartment covering the coils). If you put off defrosting long enough,eventually so much ice accumulates that there is no longer room for evena TV dinner.

Frost-free freezers prevent this buildup by doing a mini-defrostevery six hours or so. A timer turns on a heating coil, which surroundsthe cooling coils, and a temperature sensor turns off the heater when thetemperature starts rising above freezing.

Full of cold air

How does canned air work? Why is the air cold whenit comes out of the can?

The air or gas in the can is under pressure, and it expands as it escapesfrom the can. Inside the can, where the gas molecules are closertogether, there are attractive forces (albeit weak) between the molecules.

Because of these forces, heat energy is needed to separate the mole-cules. The heat comes from the environment or your skin if it is near thenozzle where the gas escapes.

Most refrigerators and air conditioners work by taking advantage ofthe cooling effect of an expanding gas (or a liquid expanding into a gas).Refrigerator coils contain a gas that the compressor squeezes into a liquid. Compressing the gas generates heat, which escapes through thecoils on the back of the refrigerator.

An expansion valve is then opened between the compressed liquidand the heat-exchange coils inside the refrigerator. The abrupt drop inpressure, akin to releasing the nozzle on canned air, causes the liquid toexpand rapidly into a gas. As the expansion occurs, heat from the insideof the refrigerator is transferred to the gas.

Air conditioners are similar to refrigerators, except that air condi-tioners also have fans to help move the cool air into the inside and dissi-pate the warm air outside.

2 curious folks ask

May the Force be with you

Is a lightsaber (yes, the Star Wars sword) possible?

Glow-in-the-dark Halloween costume accessories aside, it is not possibleto solidify light or make it terminate in midair. However, in his bookPhysics of the Impossible, physicist Michio Kaku explains how to makesomething akin to a lightsaber. Plasma—an extremely hot ionized gas—could be confined to a hollow rod dotted with small holes that wouldallow the glowing plasma to escape. Plasma can be hot enough to cutsteel. The plasma saber would have to be plugged into a high-energypower supply, though, so it would be more unwieldy than the GeorgeLucas version.

Gamma-ray lasers are technically possible. Lasers that produce emis-sions in the microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, and even X-rayranges already exist. The trick to producing gamma rays is finding anadequate lasing medium. This is a substance (gas, liquid, or solid) thatgets excited when energy is pumped in. It releases that energy as pho-tons, or particles of light, when it returns to the unexcited state.

In other types of lasers, it is the electrons within the atoms of the las-ing medium that get excited to higher energy levels. Whether the photons released are lower-energy microwaves or higher-energy X-raysdepends on the size of the energy gap between the electrons’ excited andrelaxed states.

Gamma rays are too energetic to be produced by electrons jumpingfrom a high to low energy level. Instead, they are produced when anatom’s nucleus switches from a high to low energy state. In laser light,photon emission is organized, but getting gamma-ray photons to move instep with each other requires many nuclei to change energy states in uni-son. This is trickier than getting electrons to change states in unison.

A few elements, including hafnium, have an excited nucleus statethat is long-lived, so these elements show promise as a lasing medium fora gamma-ray laser. The U.S. Department of Defense is interested in theproblem because a gamma-ray laser would be a formidable weapon.

The laser would also have many nonmilitary applications. Forinstance, it could be used to probe atoms and molecules to gain anunprecedented understanding of their structure and function, to treatcancerous tumors, or to kick-start nuclear fusion for energy production.

chapter 1 • ingenious inventions 3

Sci-fi science

A popular weapon in science fiction is a “graser,” orgamma-ray laser. Has anyone built one? Does any the-ory suggest that it is or is not possible? What would belikely uses?

Many natural sources (static electricity, lightning, solar flares) and man-made sources (motors, electrical equipment) can interfere with radioreception. AM is more susceptible to static than FM because of differ-ences in the characteristics of the transmitted radio signal.

In AM—amplitude modulation—the height of the radio waves, ifyou visualize them as waves on the ocean, varies according to the signal.In FM—frequency modulation—it is not the height of the waves, butrather the number of waves passing a given point each second, thatencodes your favorite music or radio show. Most interference affects theamplitude rather than the frequency of a radio signal.

In addition, radio waves in the frequency range transmitted by AMradio (near 1 megahertz), but not FM (near 100 megahertz), can reflectoff the ionosphere, the upper layer of the atmosphere. Since radio wavestravel in straight lines, the curvature of the Earth limits their range.Bouncing off the ionosphere and being reflected to Earth allows AMradio waves to travel long distances compared to (ground-based) FM sig-nals. However, interactions with the ionosphere create static, so moredistant AM stations have more static than local ones.

You cannot eliminate natural sources of static, but here are some tipsfor improving radio reception. Turn off any unneeded appliances. Touchlamps or lamps with dimmer switches may need to be unplugged. Ifpractical, try moving your radio to different places in the house (forexample, a windowsill) to see where reception is best.

Just turning the radio or moving the power cord can help, becausesometimes the AM radio antenna is inside the radio, and sometimes it isin the cord. It is also possible to purchase an external AM loop antennafor some radios. In the case of your car radio, examine the base of theantenna for signs of corrosion.

4 curious folks ask

Catching a wave

Why does my radio crackle with static or some otherinterference? This occurs on AM stations—in particu-lar, more loudly on distant stations and not as badlyon some local stations. Is there any way to eliminatethis problem?

These are mineral deposits, such as calcium and iron, left behind whenwater evaporates. The pattern depends on how the water evaporates(how well water sheets from your car, the amount of wind, and so on).Also, the concentration of minerals varies in water from differentsources.

Vinegar, a weak acid, can help dissolve the minerals and is suppos-edly the secret of expert car detailers. However, it will remove any waxon your car and cannot fix the paint if the minerals have etched it. Autoaficionados seeking to prevent mineral deposits can purchase a waterdeionizer that attaches to a garden hose.


Out, damned spot!

After I wash my car windows and let them air-dry ona bright, sunny day, I notice a grid of circles about thesize of quarters visible on the glass that wasn’t therebefore I washed them. On other cars, the grid is some-times slightly differently sized and sometimes not per-fect circles.

If (as just discussed) the circles are due to mineral deposits left behind aswater evaporates, they should appear on all the windows as well as thepaint. Also, they will not form a perfectly regular grid.

On the other hand, if the pattern is very regular, and you see it ononly the rear and side windows, the grid is part of the safety glass itself.The rear and side windows are usually made from tempered glass, and thetempering process creates a stress pattern that is visible within the glass.

To temper glass, it is heated to 1,200 degrees F (650 degrees C), andthen the outer surface of the glass is cooled rapidly by blowing air over it.The center of the glass cools more gradually. As it cools, it contracts,compressing the outer surfaces of the glass together and creating a stresspattern along the midplane of the glass.

Tempered glass is stronger than regular glass, but when it doesbreak, the internal stress causes the glass to shatter into many smallpieces. Since it would be dangerous if a stone shattered the windshieldwhile someone was driving, the windshield is made from laminatedsafety glass. Some upscale auto manufacturers offer laminated safetyglass in side windows for added occupant safety and break-in resistance.

Laminated safety glass consists of two sheets of nontempered glasssandwiched together with a sheet of vinyl in the middle, to which the glassadheres when it breaks. Windows made from laminated safety glass lackthe grid of circles characteristic of windows made from tempered glass.

The rear windows of certain cars with window tints definitely have amore noticeable grid pattern. It is possible that the plastic tinted layerhas some pattern associated with it, but it is more likely that the tint actslike polarized sunglasses to block some of the scattered light, making iteasier to discern the stress pattern in the tempered glass.

6 curious folks ask

Glass stretch marks

I have seen a grid of circles on the factory-providedwindow tints that also appear to act as the laminatelayer. This is especially true on the rear windows ofolder BMWs after you wash them. It can be seen moreprominently with polarized sunglasses. It still lookslike a pattern of regular circles about the size of quar-ters throughout the entire glass.

One bifocal contact lens design—called alternating, or translating,vision—is similar to bifocal glasses. Each lens has two segments. The dis-tance correction is on top, and the near correction is below. The eyemoves between the two lens powers as the gaze shifts up and down.

Conversely, simultaneous-vision lenses are designed so that the eyeslook through both near and distance powers at once, and the visual sys-tem determines which power to use.

Alternating-bifocal contact lenses can be weighted, or slightly flat-tened at the base, so that the lens is supported by the lower lid and isshifted upward relative to the pupil when the gaze is directed downward.

The simplest form of simultaneous vision is monovision. One eye,usually the dominant one, is fitted with the distance correction, and theother eye is fitted with the near correction. More complicated designsare concentric ring lenses and aspheric lenses. Concentric ring designsfeature a bull’s-eye pattern of the near and far prescriptions. Asphericdesigns have the two powers blended across the lens.

Because simultaneous-vision lenses maintain both the near and farprescription powers in front of the pupil at all times, both powers focuslight onto the retina. Therefore, the retina receives two images—onethat is in focus and one that is out of focus. Over time, the brain learns tomake sense of this strange state of affairs by paying attention to the clearimage and ignoring the superimposed out-of-focus image.

The adaptation is not perfect. Monovision reduces depth perceptionbecause only one eye receives a clear image of any scene. Simultaneouslenses with more than one power per lens reduce visual acuity—thesharpness of an image—because the out-of-focus image creates a veilingeffect on the retina.

Another problem with bifocal contact lenses is that the way lenses fitover an individual’s cornea is unique. As a result, it is not easy to predictwhere the optical center of the lens will be and whether the power zoneswill line up correctly with the pupil.


Seeing double

Since contact lenses move with your eyes as theymove, how are bifocal contact lenses possible?

Because of these challenges, bifocal contact lenses are not as popularas single-prescription lenses. However, the technology has improved,and there are more designs to choose from. Which design is best for anindividual depends on the shape of the eye as well as a person’s lifestyleand activities.

8 curious folks ask

Say what?

Why is it so difficult to make a hearing aid that works?

Designing a good hearing aid is actually a difficult engineering problem.When people suffer hearing loss, they often lose the ability to hear somesounds but not others. For example, presbycusis—age-related hearingloss—usually first diminishes the ability to hear higher-pitched sounds.

Therefore, if a hearing aid simply amplified all sounds equally, thesounds that were already audible would become uncomfortably loud.For this reason, hearing aids need to be adjusted to each patient’s partic-ular hearing deficits.

Hearing aids also must amplify speech sounds while minimizingbackground noise. Directional microphones can help, because a listenerusually turns to face a person who is speaking, allowing the microphoneto pick up the voice but not sounds from other directions. However, ran-dom noise can come from the same direction as the speaker’s voice,especially if sounds reverberate substantially off surfaces in the room.

Sometimes the solution to one problem leads to another. For exam-ple, reducing the size of hearing aids is desirable, not just for comfortand aesthetics, but also to minimize the occlusion effect—that hollowsound of one’s own voice when something blocks the ear canals. Unfor-tunately, shrinking the device places the microphone closer to the hear-ing aid output and increases feedback. Feedback occurs when some ofthe amplified sound is fed back to the microphone in a repeating cycle,causing an annoying whistle or squeal.

The technology is improving gradually; the hearing aid industry hasbeen transitioning from analog to digital devices. Digital permits moresophisticated sound processing to enhance speech and reduce feedbackand background noise.

According to members of SAE International (the Society of AutomotiveEngineers), a car gets better mileage:

• When the road is dry. This is because the tires get better traction,and the power is transferred to the road more efficiently.

• In humid conditions. This is because there is less need to throttlethe engine. Throttling is a way of controlling the speed of an inter-nal combustion engine, but it consumes some of the engine’spower.An internal combustion engine is a cylinder in which air and gaso-line are mixed, compressed by a piston, and ignited. In the firststep of the four-stroke combustion cycle used by most cars, a valveopens to take in air and gasoline as the piston moves downward.Throttling closes the intake valve for part of the time the piston ismoving downward, forcing the piston to pull against a partial vac-uum, which wastes energy.For a particular power output, the engine needs a constantamount of oxygen to burn the required amount of fuel. Whenmore water molecules are in the air, some of the oxygen moleculesare displaced. Therefore, in humid conditions, the engine musttake in a greater volume of air to get the same amount of oxygen.The intake valve can remain open longer, and less work is requiredto pump the gases through the engine.

• At high altitude. This is because there is less drag on a vehicle inthinner air. It also takes less effort to expel the exhaust, becausethe atmospheric pressure “pushing back” on the engine is lower.In addition, less throttling occurs, because a larger volume of airmust be taken in to get enough oxygen to burn the same amountof fuel.

• When it is very hot (assuming the air conditioning is off). This isbecause the air density is lower, so, for the same reason justdescribed, there is less need to throttle the engine.


On the road again

Assuming all things are equal, does a car get bettermileage if the road is wet or dry, the air is very humidor dry, the altitude is high or at sea level, the tempera-ture is very cold or very hot?

You may not be able to change where you drive or the weather condi-tions, but making certain that your tires are properly inflated is an excel-lent way to improve mileage. Inflating them to more than themanufacturer’s recommendation can reduce traction, but inflating toolittle can reduce the size of your wallet. With too little air, the tires flattenout, resulting in increased rolling friction, which slows down the wheeland decreases gas mileage.

10 curious folks ask

Kooky clocks

As I was engaged in my weekly chore of raising theweights and slightly resetting the time on our 1780sgrandfather clock, I wondered how people of that eracould accurately set their clocks, which undoubtedlygained or lost at least a minute or two every week. Iassume that those with almanacs could try to approxi-mate the time by coordinating with sunrise or sunset,but I don’t know if that’s true. So how did they settheir clocks?

In the late 1700s, the almanac, with its elaborate tables of astronomicaland seasonal events, was important in keeping track of time. But backthen people still relied on the rising and setting of the sun to mark time.They were much less obsessed than we are now with accurate time-keeping.

In fact, until the late 1800s, cities and towns had independent times,depending on their observation of the sun. Time zones were not consid-ered necessary until trains crisscrossed the country. Pressure from therailroads led the U.S. government to divide the country into four timezones, which were synchronized at noon on November 18, 1883 whenthe master clock at the U.S. Naval Observatory transmitted the time tomajor cities via telegraph.

The sun reaches its high point in the sky at astronomical noon—amoment also known as the meridian. (It comes from the same Latin stemas the terms ante meridiem, or a.m., and post meridiem, or p.m.) In theNorthern Hemisphere, the sun is due south at the meridian because onlybetween the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn is the sunever directly overhead.

Therefore, at noon, the shadow cast by a sundial’s shadow maker—the gnomon—points directly north. For a sundial to tell time, the noonmark must be oriented to true (celestial, not magnetic) north.

As the Earth rotates, the sun appears to move from east to westaround the sky, and the shadow cast by the gnomon moves clockwise 15degrees per hour (360 degrees in 24 hours).

Think of your watch as a little sundial. If you line up the hour handwith a shadow cast by the sun, you can look to the 12 to find thenorth/south line. However, because 360 degrees on a watch correspondsto 12 hours rather than 24, the north/south line runs through a pointhalfway between the hour and the 12. This point faces north between 6a.m. and 6 p.m., after which it faces south.

Even correcting for daylight saving time, your watch is not a perfectmeasure of direction, because it is set according to your time zone, butastronomical noon varies across a time zone. Also, because of the Earth’stilt on its axis and its elliptical orbit around the sun, successive astronom-ical noons are sometimes more and sometimes less than 24 hours apart,causing up to an additional quarter hour difference between watch andsun time.


Lost with digital

Why is it possible to point your watch’s hour handtoward the sun and then find south between the hourhand and the 12 (assuming you’re in the NorthernHemisphere)? How does this relate to sundials?

A.D. is from Latin, meaning anno Domini or “in the year of our Lord.”The monk Dionysius Exiguus, who worked out the B.C./A.D. system inthe sixth century, assigned A.D. 1 to the year he thought Christ was born.However, most religious scholars place the birth of Christ between 4 and7 B.C. by comparing what is said in the Bible to known historical andastronomical events.


Era arrangement

The date designations B.C. and A.D. (before Christand after the death of Christ) seem to leave a gap. Inother words, how do we account for the time ofChrist’s life between these designations? It looks likethere is a 30-year life span or so that cannot beincluded in either the designation “before his life” or“after his death.”

Let there be light

In 2007, Congress changed the dates on which day-light saving time begins and ends. Have any studiesbeen done to determine if DST has overall economic orsocietal benefits? I believe it was invented by Ben-jamin Franklin to aid farmers, but we are far from anagrarian society today.

Benjamin Franklin is often credited with proposing daylight saving timein the Journal de Paris in 1784, but his essay was a tongue-in-cheek rec-ommendation that people go to bed earlier and get up earlier. (Seehttp://webexhibits.org/daylightsaving/franklin3.html.)

DST was not adopted until World War I. The rationale was to con-serve energy by aligning traditional work hours with daylight hours toreduce the need for artificial light. Farmers, who disliked having todeliver their goods earlier in the day, successfully fought to get DSTrepealed after WWI. DST was not readopted until WWII.

http://webexhibits.org/daylightsaving/franklin3.html

Between 1945 and 1966, localities could choose when to observeDST. Mass confusion resulted, with radio and TV stations and trans-portation companies needing to publish new schedules every time alocality began or ended DST. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 addressedthis problem by stipulating that any state that chose to observe DST had to begin on the last Sunday of April and end on the last Sunday ofOctober.

Some studies suggest that DST reduces traffic accidents because theevening rush hour occurs during daylight. On the other hand, one studyshowed that more accidents occur the Monday after we spring forward,probably because commuters are sleep-deprived and/or in a rush.

Proponents of DST cite figures from a 1975 U.S. Department ofTransportation study conducted when DST was extended during the oilembargo. The study found that DST reduced the national electricity loadby about 1 percent. In 2001, the California Energy Commission esti-mated that daily electricity consumption would drop by about 0.5 per-cent if DST were extended through the winter months.

Energy consumption is thought to decrease during DST becausepeople use less electric lighting in the evenings, which is only partly off-set by an increase in the use of lights in the morning. People are alsodrawn outdoors when there is sunlight and therefore use householdappliances less frequently.

However, some studies that examined system-wide energy use,including commercial and residential lighting, as well as heating and airconditioning, found no effect or even negative effects of DST, dependingon the climate. Also, some studies suggest an overall energy penalty, con-sidering how much the electricity conservation is offset by people takingadvantage of the daylight by using more gasoline to go places in theevenings.

Since 2007, DST runs from the second Sunday in March to the firstSunday in November. Because commerce and lifestyles have changeddramatically since many of the studies on the energy-saving potential ofDST were conducted, Congress will review the impact of the DSTchange and reserves the right to revoke it.


Most historians agree that Daniel Fahrenheit modified a scale developedby the Danish astronomer Ole Rømer. Rømer’s scale had fewer subdivi-sions and placed the freezing point of water at a fractional degree, whichFahrenheit found cumbersome. There are conflicting accounts abouthow Fahrenheit calibrated his thermometers, but in a paper he wrote in1724, Fahrenheit described using three fixed points (as translated in AHistory of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology, by W. E.Knowles Middleton, 1966).

To get the 0 on his scale, Fahrenheit said he used a mixture of ice,salt, and water. For his second calibration point, at 32 degrees, he used amixture of ice and water.

Fahrenheit wrote that the third point was fixed at 96 degrees, where“the spirit expands” when the thermometer is held under the armpit orin the mouth of a healthy person long enough to acquire the heat of thebody. (Later Fahrenheit’s model thermometers were recalibrated, andnormal body temperature ended up at 98.6 degrees.)

Although these are Fahrenheit’s words, Middleton points out thatthey may not be completely accurate because, as an instrument maker,Fahrenheit might have wanted to conceal his methods.


Temperature tales

Can you give me a clear and reasonable explanation ofthe basis of the Fahrenheit scale? We all know that theCelsius or Centigrade scale is based on the freezingand boiling points of water at sea level, but so farnobody has been able to tell me how the Fahrenheitscale was created.

Index

AA.D. (anno Domini), 12AC (alternating current), 26ACHOO Syndrome, 89acid reflux, 131acne, dietary triggers, 126-127acromegaly, 85addiction to caffeine, 136-137adhesives, 35-37Africa, migration of early humans

from, 154-155age-related changes of voice, 75-76AIDS, 110-111air, canned, 1-2air conditioners, 2albumen (egg white), 190aldosterone, 80allergies, 128-129alternating current (AC), 26alternative energy sources, 27-28altitude, gas mileage and, 9AM (amplitude modulation), 4amylases, 57ANA (antinuclear antibodies) test,

145-146angular gyrus, 168animals

emotions of, 163-164instinctive swimming behavior of, 151Oliver (chimpanzee), 158-159zoopharmacognosy, 149-150

anno Domini (A.D.), 12ANS (autonomic nervous system), 160antibiotics, 100-101antidiuretic hormone, 80antinuclear antibodies (ANA) test,

145-146

antioxidants, 182-183antipyretics, 106antivirals, 101apoptosis, 134-135appendix, 61aquarboreal hypothesis (human

evolution), 156architecture

of Giza Pyramids, 20-22Roman architecture, 33-34

arrector pili, 85artificial turf, 108-109Asimov, Isaac, 126asphalt versus concrete as running

surfaces, 180-181Atwater, W. O., 172auditory hallucination, 169-170automobiles

compressed-air car, 41electric vehicles, 41gas mileage, 9-10tires, 49-50

autonomic nervous system (ANS), 160autosomal dominant compelling

helio-ophthalmic outburst (ACHOO)syndrome, 89

Bbacteria

commensal bacteria, 104difference between viruses and

bacteria, 100-101growth on synthetic turf, 108-109killing with irradiation, 114-115Lyme disease, 118

bacteriophages, 104-105Badwater Ultramarathon, 178

195

baking soda, 51barometric pressure, effect on joint

pain, 132-133Bartholdi, Frédéric Auguste, 59basal cell carcinoma, 138baseball, optimal bat swing angle, 20basketball shooting strategies, 19-20benzene, 46biodiesel, 40bifocal contact lenses, 7-8biofuels

ethanolproducing from cellulose, 40producing from corn, 38-40producing from sugarcane,

41-42blepharospasm, 78blind people, dreams of, 161-162blink rate, 78body. See human bodyBorrelia burgdorferi (Lyme

disease), 118bovine spongiform encephalopathy.

See BSEbovine thymic gland, clinical trial as

treatment for hepatitis C, 113brain

amygdala, 164auditory hallucination, 169-170basal ganglia, 79cell death in, 134-135cortex, 164hippocampus, 95, 164hypothalamus, 79, 147, 164loss of consciousness following blow

to head, 135medulla, 88nucleus accumbens, 136, 165out-of-body experiences, 168-169pons, 90prefrontal cortex, 136reward circuitry in, 165-166ventral tegmental area, 136, 165

BSE (bovine spongiformencephalopathy)cause of, 122-123testing for, 120-121

Ccaffeine addiction, 136-137California, use of tire chains in, 28

caloric content of food, determining,171-172

cancercancer statistics, 137heart cancer, 137skin cancer, 138susceptibility to, 125-126

canned air, 1-2carbohydrates, 172-173carpenter’s level, 33cars. See automobilescartilage, 66cattle, downer cattle, 120-121cell death in brain, 134-135cellulose, producing ethanol with, 40

roughage, 61cellusases, 57cerumen, 86Charles Bonnet Syndrome, 170chocolate, health benefits of, 176-177cholera, 104-105chronic traumatic brain injury

(CTBI), 135cigarettes, secondhand smoke, 50circular spots on windows, 5Clean Air Act, 39clocks

historical accuracy of, 10watches, 11

cocoa, health benefits of, 176-177coffee, decaffeination process, 45-46cold exposure, relationship with

common cold, 99-100cold viruses

causes of cold symptoms, 105relationship with cold exposure,

99-100cold-water laundering, 56-57commensal bacteria, 104concrete versus asphalt as running

surfaces, 180-181consciousness, loss of following blow

to head, 135contact lenses, bifocal contact

lenses, 7-8continuous versus split exercise

sessions, 179-180controlled disease versus cured

disease, 139-140cooking food, 149-150corn, producing ethanol with, 38-40cortical spreading depression

(CSD), 144

196 Index

cracking knuckles, 66-67cramps (muscle), 142-143creativity, relationship with mental

illness, 166-167Creekstone Farms, 121cremation, 63Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), 122crude oil, deriving gasoline from,

37-38crying, sensation of lump in throat

with, 131, 160CSD (cortical spreading

depression), 144CTBI (chronic traumatic brain

injury), 135cutis anserina, 85-86cyanoacrylate, 36

Ddandruff, 141-142Daniels, Greg, 139Darwin, Charles, 164daylight savings time (DST), 12-13DC (direct current), 26decaffeinated coffee, 45-46desalinating seawater, 47-48detergents, 56-57diabetes, 139-140diet and acne, 126-127dinosaur age, oxygen concentrations on

earth during, 152-153direct current (DC), 26dishes, washing, 57, 120dishwashers, 57dissociated diets, 174-175DNA

evolutionary pressure, 153HIV, 110Oliver (chimpanzee), 159rubber-degrading microbes, 49self and non-self in immunity, 144synthetic viruses, 116-117virus mutations, 102viruses, 101

dogs, susceptibility to disease, 107Donate Life website, 72dopamine, 78, 165downer cattle, 120-121dreams of people born blind, 161-162dry eyes, 78DST (daylight saving time), 12-13

Eearwax, 86eastern fence lizards, ability to destroy

Lyme bacteria, 118EBV (Epstein-Barr virus), 119Edelman, Steve, 139Edison, Thomas, 26EEG (electroencephalogram), 90eggs, 190-191Egyptian feet, 59-60Egyptian Pyramids, construction of,

20-22Electric Current Abroad (U.S.

Department of Commerce), 25electric synchrony, 27-28electric vehicles, 41electrical cords, tendency to curl over

time, 25electrical outlet designs, 25-26electrolysis, 43electromagnetic fields, exposure to,

162-163electromagnetic pollution, 162-163Elmer’s glue, 35embryonic stem cells, 69emotions, 164

feelings of pleasure and well-being,165-166

origins of, 163endorphins, 165engines, measuring horsepower

of, 29-30epithelial cells, 137Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), 119erector pili, 85ethanol

producing from cellulose, 40producing from corn, 38-40producing from sugarcane, 41-42

evolution of homo sapienscontinuing evolution of homo

sapiens, 153-154Homo species, 157-158karyotypes, 158-159transition from trees to ground,

156-157exemplar pairs, 96exercise

continuous versus split exercisesessions, 179-180

long-distance running, male/femaleperformance in, 178-179

running surfaces and injuries, 180-181

Index 197

Exiguus, Dionysius, 12expiration dates on medicines, 53The Expression of Emotion in Man and

Animals (Darwin), 164eyes, 64-65

blink rate, 78development of, 64eyelashes, 65-66eyelids, 64

FFahrenheit scale, 14Fahrenheit, Daniel, 14fever, 106fever-reducing drugs, 106fingernails, 62-63fish, mercury in, 193-194fission bombs, 44flavonoids, 176-177floaters (eye), 147FM (frequency modulation), 4food

food intolerances, 128irradiation of, 114-115nutrition

antioxidants, 182-183caloric content of food,

determining, 171-172carbohydrates, 172-173chocolate, health benefits of,

176-177dissociated diets versus eating

foods in combination, 174-175eggs, 190-191indium, 183-184mercury in fish, 193-194para-amino benzoic acid

(PABA), 184-185pork, 188-189salt, 191-192vitamin supplements, 185-186water, recommended amount to

drink, 175-176Franklin, Benjamin, 12-13free radicals, 176, 182-183freezers, frost-free freezers, 1frequency modulation (FM), 4Frey’s syndrome, 82frost-free freezers, 1fusion bombs, 44

Ggamma-ray laser, 3gas mileage, 9-10gasoline. See also biofuels

alternatives to, 40-41brand differences, 38-39deriving from crude oil, 37-38gas mileage, 9-10

gastroesophageal reflux disease, 131geckos, 36genes

disease resistance, 154dog breeding, 30-31eye development, 64-65lactase, 153nerve cell connections, 91

geophagy, 150Giza Pyramids, construction of, 20-22glass

circular spots on, 5laminated safety glass, 6tempered glass, 6

global warming, reducing with terrapreta, 51-52

globus hystericus, 131, 160globus syndrome, 131, 160glottis, 160glue, 35-37glycemic index, 173Glycyrrhizin (licorice root), clinical

trial as treatment for hepatitis C, 113gnomon, 11Goodyear, Charles, 49goose bumps, 85-86Granet, David, 146grasers (gamma-ray lasers), 3gray hair, 184-185Great Pyramid of Giza, construction

of, 21-22Greek feet, 59growth hormone, 84gustatory sweating, 82

Hhair standing on end, 85-86hallucinations

auditory hallucinations, 169-170out-of-body experiences, 168-169

hand-washing dishes, 120headaches, 143-144hearing aids, 8

198 index

heart attacks, nausea during, 144heart cancer, 137heart rate, 88heat acclimation, 80hematopoietic stem cells, 68hemifacial spasm, 79hepatitis C (HVC), treatment of,

112-113hiccups

cause of, 129cures for, 130

High-Precision Parallax CollectingSatellite (Hipparcos), 15-16

Hipparcos astrometric satellite, 15-16Hippocrates, 132A History of the Thermometer and Its

Use in Meteorology (Middleton), 14HIV, 110-111Homo species, 157-158hormones and sweat rates, 80horripilation, 85-86horsepower, measuring engines with,

29-30hot flashes, 147-148hot-water laundering, 57Hubble Space Telescope, 15human behavior

cooking food, 149-150emotions, 163-164

origins of, 163feelings of pleasure and well-

being, 165-166migration of early humans out of

Africa, 154-155out-of-body experiences, 168-169relationship between creativity and

mental illness, 166-167human body

acne, dietary triggers, 126-127allergies, 128-129antinuclear antibodies (ANA) test,

145-146apoptosis, 134-135appendix, 61auditory hallucination, 169-170autonomic nervous system

(ANS), 160blindness, dreams of people born

blind, 161-162blink rate, 78body temperature regulation, 79-81

braincaffeine addiction, 136-137cell death in, 134-135loss of consciousness following

blow to head, 135ventral tegmental area, 165

cancercancer statistics, 137heart cancer, 137skin cancer, 138susceptibility to, 125-126

cold symptoms, causes of, 105controlled disease versus cured

disease, 139-140cremation, 63dandruff, 141-142diabetes, 139-140earwax, 86eyes, 64-65

blink rate, 78development of, 64eyelashes, 65-66eyelids, 64

fever, 106fingernails/toenails, 62-63flu symptoms, causes of, 105gastroesophageal reflux disease, 131glottis, 160hair

gray hair, 184-185hair standing on end, 85-86

headaches, 143-144heart attacks, nausea during, 144heart rate, 88hiccups

cause of, 129cures for, 130

hot flashes, 147-148human growth, 84-85immune system, 125-126itchiness and scratching, 87joints

cracking, 66-67joint pain, effects of weather on,

132-133lupus, 145-146metabolic rate, 186-187muscle cramps, 142-143nerve impulse speed, 83normal body temperature, 81organ donation, 72

index 199

out-of-body experiences, 168-169puncta, 64relationship between creativity and

mental illness, 166-167retrieval-induced forgetting, 96-97reward circuitry in brain, 165-166scars

coloration, 70treatment with vitamin E, 71

sensation of lump in throat, 131, 160sensation of seeing stars, 146-147sense of smell, 94-95skin infections and synthetic turf,

108-109sleep, 90-91sneezing

and heart rate, 88photic sneeze reflex, 89sneeze reflex, 88

stem cells, 68-69susceptibility to disease, 107sweating

gustatory sweating, 82sweat rates, 80-81, 188

toes, relative lengths of, 59-60twitches/muscle spasms, 79voice, age-related changes of, 75-76wisdom teeth, 73-74wrinkling of skin in water, 76-77yawning, 92-93

human evolutioncontinuing evolution of homo

sapiens, 153-154Homo species, 157-158karyotypes, 158-159transition from trees to ground,

156-157human growth, 84-85humidity, gas mileage and, 9hydrogen as fuel, 40-41hydrogen bombs, 44hygiene hypothesis (allergies), 129hyponatremia, 191hypothalamus, 79, 147, 164

IIgE antibodies, 128immune system, 125-126indium, 183-184influenza viruses

causes of flu symptoms, 105mutation of, 102-103

instinctive swimming behavior, 151internal combustion engines, 9International Space Station, 16-19inverter, 27iodine sensitivity and acne, 127irradiation, 114-115itchiness and scratching, 87

J-Kjoints

cracking, 66-67joint pain, effects of weather on,

132-133

Kaku, Michio, 2karyotype, 158-159keratin, 62keratinocytes, 138kerosene, deriving from crude

oil, 37-38Killmar, Karen, 151kitchen germs, 120knuckles, cracking, 66-67Komlos, John, 84

LLabradoodle, 30-31lactase, 153laminated safety glass, 6larynx, 75lasers

gamma-ray lasers, 3lightsabers, 2

LED lights, 24length of toes, 59-60licorice root (Glycyrrhizin), clinical

trial as treatment for hepatitis C, 113life, creating, 117ligaments, 66-67lightsabers, 2lipases, 57long-distance running, male/female

performance in, 178-179loss of consciousness following blow to

head, 135lump in throat sensation, 131, 160lupus, 145-146Lyme disease, 118

200 index

Mmad cow disease

cause of, 122-123testing for, 120-121

Magdalenian Girl, 74Malassezia fungus, 141-142manned versus unmanned space

exploration, 18-19marathons, male/female performance

in, 178-179Mars, monitoring with Hubble Space

Telescope, 15medicine expiration dates, 53melanin, 185melanocytes, 138melanoma, 138memory, retrieval-induced forgetting,

96-97mental illness, relationship with

creativity, 166-167mercury in fish, 193-194meridian, 11metabolic rate, 186-187methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), 38-39Meyer, Stanley, 42micro machines, 23-24Middleton, W. E. Knowles, 14migraines, 143migration of early humans out of

Africa, 154-155milk thistle (Silybum marianum),

clinical trial as treatment for hepatitisC, 113

mineral deposits on windows, 5mononucleosis, 119monovision, 7Morton, Dudley, 59MRSA (Staphylococcus aureus), 108MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether), 38-39multivitamin supplements, 185-186muscle cramps, 142-143muscle spasms, 79musical hallucinations, 169myoglobin, 189

Nnails (finger/toe)

growth of, 62purpose of, 62-63

nano machines, 23-24

National Institute of Allergies andInfectious Diseases, 128

nausea during heart attacks, 144Neanderthals, 157nerve impulse speed, 83neurotransmitters, 165neutralizing odors with baking soda, 51non-exercise activity thermo-

genesis, 187normal body temperature, 81nuclear bombs, 44nutrition

antioxidants, 182-183caloric content of food, determining,

171-172carbohydrates, 172-173chocolate, health benefits of, 176-177dissociated diets versus eating foods

in combination, 174-175eggs, 190-191indium, 183-184mercury in fish, 193-194para-amino benzoic acid (PABA),

184-185pork, 188-189salt, 191-192vitamin supplements, 185-186water, recommended amount to

drink, 175-176

Oodors, neutralizing with baking

soda, 51olfactory receptors, 94Oliver (chimpanzee), 158-159optic vesicles, 65organ donation, 72Osborne, Charles, 130osmostat, 176out-of-body experiences, 168-169outlet designs, 25-26oxygen concentrations during dinosaur

era, 152-153

PPABA (para-amino benzoic acid),

184-185parasympathetic nervous system, 160Parkinson’s disease, 78

index 201

pathogensbacteriophages, 104-105cold viruses


99-100commensal bacteria, 104difference between viruses and

bacteria, 100-101EBV (Epstein-Barr virus), 119growth on synthetic turf, 108-109HIV, 110-111HVC (hepatitis C), 112-113influenza viruses


killing with irradiation, 114-115kitchen germs, 120Lyme disease, 118prions, 122-123synthetic viruses, 116

PAX6 gene, 64phantom limb syndrome, 170photic sneeze reflex, 89Physics of the Impossible (Kaku), 2pilomotor reflex, 85-86plasma (ionized gas), 2polyvinyl acetate latex, 35pons, 90pork, 188-189presbylarynx, 75-76prions as causes of disease, 122-123proteases, 57Prusiner, Stanley, 121-122puncta, 64Pyramids, construction of, 20-22

Q-RQuetzalcóatl Pyramid (Mexico), 22

radio interference, 4radiofrequency fields, exposure to, 163rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 90recycling wastewater, 47-48refrigerators, 2regulating body temperature, 79-81REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 90retina, injury to, 146retrieval-induced forgetting, 96-97retrovirus, 110reward circuitry in brain, 165-166

RNAHIV, 110synthetic viruses, 116-117virus mutations, 102viruses, 101

Roman architecture, 33-34Rømer, Ole, 14rubber tires, 49-50running

continuous versus split exercisesessions, 179-180

male/female performance in long-distance events, 178-179

running surfaces and injuries, 180-181

Ssalt, 191-192satellites, Hipparcos astrometric

satellite, 15-16savannah-dwelling hypothesis (human

evolution), 156Savery, Thomas, 29scars

coloration, 70treatment with vitamin E, 71

Scherger, Joseph, 147, 182Schroeder, Henry, 183scratching and itchiness, 87seawater, desalinating, 47-48sebum, 141secondhand smoke, 50seeing stars, sensation of, 146-147selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

(SSRIs), 166sense of smell, 94-95serotonin, 165setae (in geckos), 36shelf life of medicines, 53Silybum marianum (milk thistle),

clinical trial as treatment for hepatitisC, 113

simultaneous-vision lenses, 7skin

skin cancer, 138wrinkling in water, 76-77

sleep, 90-91slow-wave sleep, 90smell, sense of, 94-95smoke, detecting secondhand

smoke, 50

202 index

sneezingand heart rate, 88photic sneeze reflex, 89sneeze reflex, 88

soap-making, 55-56sodium, 191-192soil, terra preta, 51-52solar electrical power, 27-28spatulae (in geckos), 36species, Homo species, 157-158split exercise sessions, 179-180spots on windows, 5squamous cell carcinoma, 138SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake

inhibitors), 166Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), 108static interference (radio), 4steam engines, measuring horsepower

of, 29-30stem cells, 68-69Step Pyramid of Djoser, construction

of, 20sticky notes, 36stratum corneum, 76sugarcane, producing ethanol

with, 41-42sundials, 11SureBeam, 114surfactants, 57sweating

gustatory sweating, 82sweat rates, 80-81, 188

swimming, 151Swiss Water decaffeination, 45sympathetic nervous system, 160synovial fluid, 67synesthesia, 97synthetic cells, research into, 117synthetic turf

skin infections and, 108-109turf burns, 108

synthetic viruses, 116

TTaylor, Charles, 31-32tear film, 78tectonic hypothesis (human

evolution), 157teeth, wisdom teeth, 73-74temperature

Fahrenheit scale, 14gas mileage and, 9

tempered glass, 6tendons, 66-67terra preta, 51-52tetraethyl lead, 38thermonuclear bombs, 44throttling engines, 9tick-borne Lyme disease, 118tickle response, 87time zones, 10tinnitus, 169tire chains, 28tires, 49-50toes

relative lengths of, 59-60toenails, 62-63

Torriani, Francesca, 139Tourette’s syndrome, 78turbines, 27turf burns, 108twitches/muscle spasms, 792008 Physical Activity Guidelines for

Americans, 180

UU.S. Department of Agriculture,

120-121, 172, 189U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services, 2008 PhysicalActivity Guidelines for Americans, 180

U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, 193

U.S. Food and Drug Administration,114, 120, 177, 186, 193

U.S. Naval Observatory, 10ultra marathons, male/female

performance in, 178-179Uniform Time Act of 1966, 13

Vvaccines, 102Valtin, Heinz, 175van der Waals forces, 36vCJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease), 122ventral tegmental area of brain, 165vestigial organs, 61da Vinci, Leonardo, 59vinegar, removing mineral deposits

with, 5

index 203

virusesbacteriophages, 104-105cold viruses


99-100difference between viruses and

bacteria, 100-101EBV (Epstein-Barr virus), 119growth on synthetic turf, 108-109HIV, 110-111HVC (hepatitis C), 112-113influenza viruses


synthetic viruses, 116vitamins

expiration dates, 53manufacture of, 54-55supplements, 185-186vitamin B12, 54vitamin C, 54vitamin E, treating scars with, 71

vitellogenin, 190vitreous fluid, 146-147voice, age-related changes to, 75-76voltage standards, 25-26vulcanized rubber, 49

W-Xwashing dishes, 120washing machines

cold-water laundering, 56-57hot-water laundering, 57

watercold-water laundering, 56-57as fuel, 42-43hot-water laundering, 57recommended amount to drink,

175-176recycling wastewater, 47-48seawater, desalinating, 47-48wrinkling of skin in, 76-77

Watt, James, 29-30weather, effects on joint pain, 132-133western fence lizards, ability to destroy

Lyme bacteria, 118wind electrical power, 27-28

windowscircular spots on, 5laminated safety glass, 6tempered glass, 6

wisdom teeth, 73-74women, performance in long-distance

running events, 178-179World Health Organization, 137, 142,

162-163Wright Flyer engine, 31-32wrinkling of skin in water, 76-77

Yyawning, 92-93yolks of eggs, 190-191

Zzoonotic diseases, 155zoopharmacognosy, 149-150

204 index

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