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Culture, community, nationStuart HallPublished online: 23 Aug 2006.

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C U LT U R E C O M M U N I T YN AT I O N

h o u g h I w a s n e v e r t a u g h t b y R a y m o n d Wi ll ia m s , a n d w o r k e dT w i t h h i m o n l y i n a n i n f o r m a l c a p a c it y f r o m t im e t o t im e , h e h a d a

m a j o r i n f lu e n c e o n m y i n te l le c tu a l a n d p o l it ic a l f o r m a t i o n . 1 W em e t i n O x f o r d i n t h e m i d 1 9 5 0 s - h e a s a l e c t u r e r i n a d u l t

e d u c a t i o n w h i l e I w a s a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d , l a te r , a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t . A t ak e y m o m e n t in th e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f ir st N e w L e f t, so m e o f us r e a dCultureand Societyi n d r a f t; a n d i t h e l p e d t o g i v e a d e c is iv e s h a p e t o t h e c o n c e r n w i t hc u l t u r a l p o l it ic s w h i c h h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e t h i n k i n g a n d p r a c t i c e o f a n

i n d e p e n d e n t c r it ic a l N e w L e f t e v e r s in c e . T h e r e a f t e r , o u r p a t h s c r o s s e dc o n t i n u a l ly - o n t h e B o a r d o fN ew Left Revieww h i c h I e d i t e d f o r a ti m e ; i nt h e d r a f t i n g o f th eM ay Day M anifesto;e v e r y w h e r e i n th e d e v e l o p m e n t o fC u l t u r a l S t u d i es , w i t h w h i c h I w a s d i re c tl y c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h t h e B i rm i n g -h a m C e n t re f r o m 1 9 6 4 o n w a r d s ; a n d i n a n g u i s h e d c o n v e r sa t io n i n t h ee i g h ti e s, a s w e a ll tr i e d i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s t o m a k e s e n s e o f t h e d i s o r i e n t a t i o no f t h e l ef t u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f T h a t c h e r i s m a n d t h e f o r c e s it u n l e a sh e d , u n ti lh i s u n t i m e l y d e a t h i n 1 9 8 8 .

A s I h a v e t r i e d t o s a y e l s e w h e r e , th i s is t o p u t h i s f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e t o ow e a k l y. I d i d n o t , o f c o u r se , a lw a y s a g r ee w i t h h i m ; a n d n o t h i n g w a s m o r ef o r e i g n t o h i s d i a l o g i c m o d e o f t h i n k i n g t h a n a n y h i n t o f d i s c i p l e s h i p .N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s I p u t i t, t h e f a c t is t h a t , i n a b r o a d e r i n t e l l e c t u a l s e n s e , Io f t e n h a d , a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s in m y l if e, th e u n c a n n y e x p e r i e n c e o f h e s i t a n t l ya n d c o n f u s e d l y b e g i n n i n g a li n e o f t h o u g h t , o n l y t o f in d t h a t, a p p a r e n t l yc o i n c id e n t a ll y, R a y m o n d h a d n o t o n l y b e e n t ra v e l li n g m u c h t h e s a m e r o a d

b u t h a d g i v e n it a c l e ar e r , m o r e f o r c e f u l, c la r i fy i n g f o r m u l a t i o n t h a n I e v e rc o u l d ( H a l l, 1 9 9 3 : 3 0 5 ) .

T h e r e w a s a n o t h e r e l ec ti v e a f f in i t y w h i c h m a d e m e fe e l c l o se t o h i m ,d e s p i te o u r e n o r m o u s d i ff e re n c es in te m p e r a m e n t , c h a r a c te r , b a c k g r o u n d ,

4 9




a g es , g e n e r a t i o n a n d f o r m a t i o n : o u r r e s p o n s e s a s s c h o l a r s h ip b o y s f r o m t h ep e r i p h e r i e s o f E n g l i s h c u l t u r e t o o u r f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n sw h i c h w e r e a t i ts v e r y c e n t r e a s a d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l s y s t e m : O x b r i d g e . I s ti llr e ca ll t h e s h o c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n w h i c h I e x p e r i e n c e d o n r e a d i n g h is r e s p o n s et o h i s i n t e r v i e w e r s q u e s t i o n s i nPolitics and Letters a b o u t t h e im p a c t o fC a m b r i d g e o n h i m w h e n h e f ir st w e n t u p i n O c t o b e r 1 9 3 9 : I w a s , h e s a id ,w h o l l y u n p r e p a r e d f o r it . I k n e w n o t h i n g a b o u t i t ( 1 9 7 9 : 4 0 ). A s h e la t er

w r o t e i n M y C a m b r i d g e : I t w a s n o t m y C a m b r i d g e . T h a t w a s c le ar f r o mt h e b e g i n n i n g . . . I h a v e n o w s p e n t 1 8 y e a rs i n t h e u n i v e rs i ty i n t h re e d i s ti n c tp e r i o d s . I n e a c h o f t h e m I h a v e s t a r t e d b y b e i n g s u r p r i s e d t o b e t h e r e a n dt h e n , i n ti m e , m a d e s o m e k i n d o f s e tt l e m e n t . B u t th i s h a s a l w a y s , e v e n in t h el o n g es t p e r io d , fe lt t e m p o r a r y . . . C a m b r i d g e c an b r e a k y o u u p , t o n o g o o dp u r p o s e ; c o n f u s e y o u , s ic k e n y o u , w r i n g y o u d r y ( 1 9 8 9 b : 5 ) . H a v i n g s p e n ts ix y e a r s i n O x f o r d , I t h o u g h t I k n e w i m m e d i a t e l y w h a t h e m e a n t .

W h a t w a s e v e n m o r e S t ri kin g w a s t h e c o n f id e n c e w i t h w h i c h R a y m o n d

W i l li a m s w a s a b le to m e a s u r e t h e s o - ca ll e d c i v il iz a ti o n o f C a m b r i d g ea g a i n s t a n o t h e r c iv i li ty, a n o t h e r s e t o f s t a n d a r d s , d r a w n f r o m h i s e x p e r i e n c eo f a n al te r n a ti v e , a n d d i ff e re n t , k n o w a b l e c o m m u n i t y - h is W e l sh B o r d e rC o u n t r y - a g a in s t w h i c h h e f o u n d C a m b r i d g e s ad ly w a n t i n g :

I w a s r e m i n d e d o f a c o n v e r s a ti o n m y f a t h e r h a d r e p o r t e d t o m e f r o m h i sa d v a n c e v i s it [t o Tr i n i ty ] . T h e p o r t e r h a d a s k e d h i m , r a t h e r h a u g h t i ly,w h e t h e r m y n a m e w a s a l re a d y d o w n , Ye s, s in c e l as t a u t u m n . L a s ta u t u m n ? M a n y o f th e m , y o u k n o w, a re p u t d o w n a t b ir th . I tr y to b ec h a r i t a b l e a n d f i n d i t e a s ie r n o w . B u t I r e m e m b e r s i tt in g o n t h e b e n c h e s i nh a ll s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e se p e o p l e a n d w i s h i n g th e yhad b e e n p u t d o w n a tb i rt h . . . . T h e m y t h o f t h e w o r k i n g -c l as s b o y a r r i vi n g a t C a m b r i d g e . . . ist h a t h e is a n a w k w a r d m i s f it a n d h a s t o le a r n n e w m a n n e r s . I t m a y d e p e n do n w h e r e y o u c o m e f r o m . O u t o f r u r a l W a l es i t d i d n t f e el l ik e t h a t. T h ec la ss w h i c h h a s d o m i n a t e d C a m b r i d g e is g iv e n to d e s c r ib i n g it se lf a sw e l l - m a n n e r e d a n d p o l i te , s e n s it iv e . I t c o n t i n u a l l y c o n t r a s t s i ts e lf f a v o u r -a b l y w i t h t h e r o u g h e r a n d c o a r s e r o t h e r s . W h e n i t t u r n s t o t h e a r t s i tc o n g r a t u l a t e s i ts e l f o v e r t l y o n i ts t a s t e a n d i ts s e n s i b i li ty ; s p e a k s o f it sp o i s e a n d t o n e . If I t h e n s ay t h a t w h a t I f o u n d w a s a n e x t r a o r d in a r i ly

c o a r s e , p u s h i n g , n a m e - r i d d e n g r o u p , I s h a l l b e t o l d I a m s h o w i n gc l a ss - fe e l in g , c l a ss e n v y , c la s s r e s e n t m e n t . T h a t I s h o w e d c la s s fe e l in g isn o t i n a n y d o u b t . A l l I w o u l d i n si st o n is t h a t n o b o d y f o r t u n a t e e n o u g h t og r o w u p i n a g o o d h o m e in a g e n u i n e l y w e l l - m a n n e r e d a n d s en s it iv ec o m m u n i t y, c o u l d fo r a m o m e n t en v y th e s e l o u d , c o m p e t i t iv e , d e p r i v e dp e o p l e . A ll I d i d n o t k n o w t h e n w a s h o w c o l d t h a t c la ss is. T h a t c o m e sw i t h e x p e r i e n c e ( 1 9 8 9 b : 7 - 8 ) .

W h a t m a d e R a y m o n d Wi l li a m s c a p a b l e o f, a s h e p u t it l at er , h i t ti n gC a m b r i d g e a n d b e i n g e x t ra o r d i n a r i l y u n a f r a i d o f i t ? I t w a s h is p l a c in g

w i t h i n a n o t h e r c u l tu r e ; h i s a cc es s t o a d i ff e re n t , k n o w a b l e c o m m u n i t y,i n d e e d a n o t h e r n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e , a d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e o f f ee l in g . T h o u g hs u b o r d i n a t e d t o a n d d i s p la c e d in its p e r i p h e r a l r e l a t io n s h i p t o t h e d o m i n a n tE n g l is h c u lt u r e , a n d w i t h t h e c u l t u re o f t h e e d u c a t e d , m e t r o p o l i t a n , u p p e r

3 5 C U LT U R A L S T U D IE S




m i d d l e c la ss es , th is o t h e r k n o w a b l e c o m m u n i t y p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h ce r ta i nc u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , w h i c h e n a b l e d h i m t o l iv e a n d f ee l, a n d l a te r t o w r i t e a n dt h i n k , a c c o r d i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t g r a i n f r o m t h a t o f C a m b r i d g e . I t w a s t h i s, i nt u r n , w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d t h e w a y h e t h o u g h t a b o u t , a n d g a v e a n e x p e r ie n ti a l,l iv e d , d i m e n s i o n t o , s u c h k e y i d ea s a s c u l t u re a n d c o m m u n i t y , a n d

i n d e e d W a l e s as a n a t i o n a n d b e i n g W e l s h a s a c u l t u r a l id e n t i t y, w h e n la t e rh e c a m e t o r e f l e c t o n t h i s c l u s t e r o f c o n c e p t s . I t i s t h e s t r e n g t h s a n dl i m i t a t i o n s o f h is i d e as o n t h e s e s u b je c t s , a n d t h e i r v a l u e i n h e l p i n g u s t ot h i n k t h r o u g h t h e c o m p l e x i t ie s o f t h e se f o r m a t i o n s n o w , i n t h e v e r y a lt e re dc o n t e x t o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s a n d b e y o n d , w h i c h f o r m s t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h es er e f le c t io n s . B u t t h e s to r y p r o p e r l y s t a rt s h e r e , w i t h t h e i d e a o f a k n o w a b l ec o m m u n i t y i n t h e W e l s h b o r d e r c o u n t r y o f h is e a rl y y e a r s, a n d h o w it g a v er is e t o a n d i n f o r m e d h i s t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k . A s h e s a id , r e c a l li n g th e w a y t h eW e l sh w r it er , E m y r H u m p h r e y s , o n c e i n t ro d u c e d a r e a d in g f r o m W i ll ia m sn o v e l : n o tBorder Countryb y R a y m o n d Wi l li am s , b u tRaym ond Williamsb y B o r d e r C o u n t r y .

I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f c u l t u r e , i n t h e f a m o u s c h a p t e r o n T h e a n a ly s i s o fc u l t u r e i nThe Long Revolutionh is p a t h b r e a k i n g a t t e m p t t o b r e a k w i t h t h el i te r a r y - m o r a l d i s c o u r s e o fCulture and Societyi n t o a m o r e s u s t a i n e d e f f o r to f g en e r a l th e o r iz i n g , th e k e y c o n c e p t u a l m o v e h e m a k e s i s f r o m a n a b s t r a c td e f i n i t i o n o f c u l t u r e - a st a te o r p r o c e s s o f h u m a n p e r f e c t i o n - t o c u l t u r e a sa d e s c r i p t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f l if e w h i c h e x p r e s s e s c e rt a in m e a n i n g s

a n d v a l u e s , n o t o n l y i n a r t a n d l e a r n i n g , b u t i n i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d o r d i n a r yb e h a v i o u r. C u l t u r e , h e in s i st e d , w i t h h i s c h a r a c t e r is t ic i n f le c t io n o n o u r

c o m m o n l if e , is o r d i n a r y . T h e a n a l y si s o f c u l t u r e , f r o m s u c h a d e f in i t io n ,h e a rg u e d , i s t h e c la r i fi c a ti o n o f t h e m e a n i n g s a n d v a l u e s im p l i ci t a n de x p l i c i t i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f li fe , a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c h e r e i sn o t o n l y t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m a b s t ra c t i d e a l t o c o n c r e t e , f r o m t e x t s to t h e irc o n t e x t s o f i n s t i tu t i o n a l lif e a n d o r d i n a r y b e h a v i o u r ; b u t a ls o th e b r e a k i n gd o w n o f a rt if ic i al d i s t in c t i o n s b e t w e e n a r t a n d l i te r a t u r e - t h e s ig n i fi e rs o fc u l t u r e i n t h e f ir st , a s i t w e r e C a m b r i d g e s e n se - a n d w h a t h e c a ll e d t h e

g e n e r a l s o c i a l o rg a n i z a t i o n . T h e a r t is t h e r e , a s a n a c ti v it y, w i t h t h ep r o d u c t i o n , t h e t r a d i n g , t h e p o l i t i c s , t h e r a i s i n g o f f a m i l i e s . To s t u d y t h er e l a t io n s a d e q u a t e l y w e m u s t s t u d y t h e m a c ti v e ly, s e e in g a ll t h e a c ti v it ie s a sp a r t i c u l a r a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y f o r m s o f h u m a n e n e r g y ( 1 9 6 1 : 6 1 ).

L a t e r h e w a s t o i n s is t t h a t t h e m o r e s p e c i a li z e d fo r m s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s o fw h a t C a m b r i d g e k n e w a s l it er a tu r e w e r e m o s t v a l u ab l y to b e u n d e r s t o o d a sd i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f w r i t i n g , a ll r e l a te d i n d i f f e re n t w a y s a n d f o r m s to w i d e rs t r u c tu r e s o f f e el in g , th e w a y m e a n i n g s a n d v a lu e s w e r elivedin rea l l ives , in

a c t u a l c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e m o s t d i ff ic u l t t h i n g t o g e t h o l d o f , i n st u d y i n g a n yp a s t p e r i o d is th i s fe lt se n s e o f t h e q u a l i ty o f l if e a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e a n dt i m e ; a se n s e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e p a r t i c u l a r a c t iv i ti e s c o m b i n e d i n t o aw a y o f t h i n k i n g a n d l i v i n g . . . I t h i n k w e c a n b e s t u n d e r s t a n d t h is if w e t h i n k

o f a n y s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s o f a w a y o f l if e t h a t w e o u r s e l v e s s h a r e . ( 1 9 6 1 : 8 0 )H e c a ll e d t h is m o s t d e li c a te a n d le a s t t a n g i b l e o f s t r u c t u r e s t h e s t r u c t u r e o ff e e li n g o f a p e r i o d . E d w a r d S a id , t h e 1 9 8 9 W i l li a m s M e m o r i a l le c t u r e r,t h o u g h t th i s c o n c e p t , w h i c h e n a b l e d h i m t o m o v e b e y o n d t h e t h e id e o l o g ic a l

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c a p t u r e o f t h e t e x t in t o t h e li fe o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s b e y o n d it , h is m o s t f a m o u scon t r ibu t io n to l i t e r a ry s tudy (1990).

I n c i d en t a l ly, f e w p e o p l e k n o w t h a t o n e o f th e f i rs t, c o n s i d e r e d f o r m u l a t i o n so f th i s cen t r a l i dea in Wi l l i ams s w or k f i rs t app ea re d in a l it tl e bo ok en t i t l edPreface To Film w h i c h h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d ( in 1 9 5 4) w i t h M i c h a e lO r r o m , a fil m d i re c t or w h o w o r k e d w i t h P au l R o t h a a n d w h o m R a y m o n dm e t a t C a m b r i d g e :

A l l t h e p ro d u c t s o f a c o m m u n i t y in a g i ve n p e r i o d a r e, w e n o w c o m m o n l ybe l ieve , e s sen t i a lly r e l a ted , a l th ou gh in p rac t i ce a nd in de ta i l th i s i s no ta l w a y s e a s y t o s e e. I n t h e s t u d y o f a p e r io d , w e m a y b e a b le t o r e c o n s t r u c tw i th m ore o r l es s acc u ra cy the m a te r i a l l i fe , t he gene ra l soc ia l o rga n iza t ionand , t o a l a rge r ex ten t , t he d om ina n t i deas . I t is no t n ecessa ry to d i scuss he rew h i c h , i f a n y, o f th e s e a s p ec t s is , i n t h e w h o l e c o m p l e x , d e t e r m i n i n g . . .B u t w h i l e w e m a y, i n t h e s tu d y o f a p a s t p e r i o d , s e p a r a t e o u t p a r t i c u l a ra spec t s o f l if e, and t r ea t t hem as i f t hey w ere se l f - con ta ined , it is obv ious th a tt h i s i s o n l y h o w t h e y m a y b e s t u d i e d , n o t h o w t h e y a r e e x p e r i e n c e d(1954: 9) .

E v e n w h e n , i nThe L ong Revolutionh i s r a the r o rga n ic i s t s t re s s on cu l tu rea s a w h o l e w a y o f l if e m o v e s i n a m o r e d i a lo g i c d i r e c ti o n , t o a n e m p h a s i s o nthe g iv ing and t ak ing o f mean ings wi th in a se t o f l i ved r e l a t ions , t h i s newe m p h a s i s o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n is i m m e d i a t e l y l in k e d b a c k t o a n d in f o r m s t h ei d ea o f c o m m u n i t y :

H u m a n c o m m u n i t y g r ow s b y t h e d is c o ve ry o f c o m m o n m e a n in g s a n dc o m m o n m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t io n . . . T h u s o u r d e sc ri pt io n s o f o u re x p e r i e n c e c o m e to c o m p o s e a n e t w o r k o f re l a t io n s h i p s , a n d a l l o u rc o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g th e a r ts , a r e l i te r a ll y p a r ts o f o u r s o c ia lo rg a n i z a t i o n . T h e s e l e c t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e d i n o u r d e s c r i p -t io n s e m b o d y o u r a t t it u d e s , n e e d s a n d i n te r es t s, w h i c h w e s e e k t o v a l i d a t eb y m a k i n g t h e m c l e a r t o o t h e r s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s w er e c ei v e f r o m o t h e r s e m b o d y t h e i r a t ti t u d e s, n e e d s a n d i n te r e st s , a n d t h elong p rocess o f compar i son and in t e rac t ion i s ou r v i t a l a s soc ia t ive l i f e .S ince ou r w ay o f s ee ing th ings is l i te r a l ly ou r w ays o f l iv ing, t he p rocess o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s i n f a c t t h e p r o c e s s o f c o m m u n i t y : t h e s h a r i n g o fc o m m o n m e a n i n g s , a n d t h e n c e c o m m o n a c t i v i t i e s a n d p u r p o s e s ; t h eo f f e r i n g , r e c e p t i o n a n d c o m p a r i s o n o f n e w m e a n i n g s , l e a d i n g t o t h et e n s io n s a n d a c h i e v e m e n t s o f g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e ( 1 9 6 1 : 1 0).

T h e o r e t i c a l ly, W i l li a m s s f o r m u l a t i o n s g r e w o v e r t h e y e a r s in b o t h c o m -p l e x it y a n d c o n f i d e n c e -M arxism and Literatureis a p o w e r f u l l y c o n d e n s e ds t a t e m e n t o f h is m o r e m a t u r e r e f le c t io n s o n t h e s e to p i cs . B u t th e e m p h a s e sw e h a v e i d e n t i fi e d i n t h e e a r ly w o r k r e m a i n a c t i v e t o t h e e n d .

W h a t d o e s h i s d i ff i c u lt w r e s t l i n g w i t h t h e s e q u e s t i o n s o f c u lt u r e ,

c o m m u n i t y , s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e a n d n a t i o n a l i d e n t it y h a v e to t e ll u s n o w i nt h e m o r e h i g h l y c h a rg e d e r a o f r e v i v e d n a t i o n a l i s m s i n b i g a n d s m a l ls o c ie t ie s , a n d t h e a s p i r a t io n s o f m a rg i n a l i z e d p e o p le s t o n a t i o n h o o d , w h i c hh a v e b e c o m e s o u n e x p e c t e d l y a f e a t u r e o f t h e l a t e - m o d e r n w o r l d o f t h e





1990s a nd a re tr ans form ing the cu l tu ra l li fe o f mo dern i ty? H o w usefu l a rethey in he lp ing us to dec iph er the unpred ic ted re tu rn o f na t iona l i sm as amajor h i s to r ica l fo rce , and the e ffo r t s to res to re na t iona l cu l tu res as thepr imord ia l source o f cu l tu ra l iden t i ty as these t endenc ies a re mani fes t ingthemse lves today , we l l bey ond the l imi t s o f the na t iona l - l ibe ra t ion s trugg lestha t m a rked t he deco l on i z ing m om en t o f t he imm ed ia t e pos t -wa r decades?H o w m uch can we l e a rn f r om h im in nego t ia t i ng t he shoa ls and cu r r en ts o ft he se con fu s ing and dang e ro us wa t e r s ?

We have , f i r s t , to se t the con tex t by t ry ing , however ske tch i ly, tocharac te r ize th is ne w s i tua t ion . Th e g rea t d i scourses o f m ode rn i ty - in th isrespec t Marx i sm no less than l ibe ra l i sm, bo th in the i r d i ffe ren t ways ,Enl igh tenm ent g ra nd nar ra t ives - l ed us to expec t , no t the rev iva l bu t thegradua l d i sappearance o f the na t iona l i s t pass ion . At tachments to na t ion ,l ike those to t r ibe , r eg ion , p lace , r e l ig ion , were thought to be a rcha icpar t i cu la r i sms which cap i ta l i s t modern i ty would , g radua l ly o r v io len t ly,d i s so lve o r supercede . Soc ia li sm, the cou nte r-cu l tu re o f m ode rn i ty inZy gm un t B au m a n s p h ra s e, w as equa l l y p r ed i ca t ed on t he subsump t ion o fthese par t i cu la ri sms in to a m ore cosm opo l i t an o r in te rna t iona l i s t consc ious -ne ss . G loba li z a ti on , d r a win g m ore and m ore o f t he g lobe i n to t he ne t o f t heg loba l cap ita li s t mark e t , i s, o f course , no recen t , pos t- B ig Bang phe nom -eno n . I t has been g o ing on s ince the Span ish an d the Por tuguese in i ti a ted theW es t s enc oun te r w i th the Res t a t the end o f the f i ft een th cen tury. Th erecen t in tegra t ion o f f inanc ia l systems , the in te rna t iona l iza t ion o f p rodu c-t i on an d c o n sum p t io n , the s p r ead o f g lobal comm un ica t i ons ne tworks , is

on ly the la te s t - a lbei t d is t inct ive - ph ase in a long, h is tor ica l process .However, th i s l a tes t phase o f cap i ta l i s t g loba l iza t ion , wi th i t s b ru ta lcompress ions and reorder ings ac ross t ime and space , has no t necessa r i lyresu l ted in the des t ruc t ion o f those speci fi c st ruc tu res and par t i cu la r i s ti ca t t a chmen t s a n d i de n ti fi c a ti o ns wh ich go w i th t he m ore l oca l iz ed com m un i -t ie s wh ich a hom oge niz ing m ode rn i ty wa s supp osed to rep lace . Of course ,the fo rces o f cap i ta li s t m ode rn i ty, in the i r com bine d an d uneven deve lop-ment , have rad ica l ly d i s loca ted the soc ie t i es in to which they pene t ra ted( though th is d is t inct ive his tory of capi ta l i s t development has , c lass ica l ly,been subo rd ina ted in it s na r ra t iv iza t ion to the qu i te d i ffe ren t s to ry o f ho wcapi ta li sm peacefu lly evo lved f rom the w om b of feuda l Europe) . But theso-ca ll ed log ic o f cap i ta l has opera ted as m ucht h r o u g h difference -p rese rv ing and t rans form ing d i ffe rence ( inc lud ing sexua l d i ffe rence) - no tby unde rm i n i n g i t.

The eng ine o f th i s expans ion i s t h i s to ry was the European na t ion-s ta te ,w i th i ts we l l -de f ined t e r r i to r ia l bou ndar ies , na t iona l eco nom ies and inc reas -ing ly na t iona l cu l tu res . Of course , s ide by s ide wi th th i s , were the f lows - o fc a p it al , g o od s , l a b o u r -be tween nd c rossna t ion a l f ron tie r s. As Im m anu e lW a l le r st e in ha s ob se rv e d , A t t he ve ry m om en t t ha t one ha s been c r ea ti ng

na t iona l cu l tu res , each d i s t inc t f rom the o ther, these f lows have beenbreak ing do w n na t ion a l d i st inc tions (1991: 19). Th is t ens ion be tw een thetende ncy of cap i ta li sm to deve lop the na t ion-s ta te an d na t iona l cu l tu res andi t s t r ansna t iona l impera t ives i s a con t rad ic t ion a t the hear t o f modern i ty





w h i c h h a s t e n d e d t o g i v e n a t i o n a l i s m a n d i t s p a r t i c u l a r i s m s a p e c u l i a rs ign i fi cance an d fo rce a t the he a r t o f the so -ca l led new t ra nsn a t iona l g loba lo r d e r. N e g o t i a t i n g t h is t e n s i o n w a s o n e o f th e k e y c o n j u r i n g tr ic k s o fTh a tch er i sm ; an d i t w as i ts f a ilu re to r e so lve th is t ens ion - the i llus ion tha tB r i ta i n c o u l d s n a t c h t h e g o o d i e s o f a s in g l e m a r k e t w i t h o u t s a c ri fi ci n g a ninch o f na t io na l sovere ign ty o r Eng t i shness a s a cu l tu ra l iden t i ty to theE u r o p e a n i d e a - w h i c h f in a lly d e s tr o y e d M r s T h a t c h e r a n d w h i c h h a sb r o u g h t h e r s u c c e s s o r s , M r M a j o r a n d M r L a m o n t , t o t h e b r i n k o f t h ep o s t - M a a s t r i c h t a b y s s.

N e v e r t h e l e ss , th e p r e s e n t i n t e n s if ie d p h a s e o f g l o b a l i z a t io n h a s f a v o u r e dt h e t e n d e n c i e s p u s h i n g n a t i o n - s t a t e s t o w a r d s s u p r a n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n -e c o n o m i c , a n d m o r e r e l u c t an t ly, p o li ti c a l a n d c u l tu r a l: w e a k e n i n g w i t h o u td e s t r o y i n g t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e a n d t h e r e b y o p e n i n g u p l o c al a n d r e g i o n a le c o n o m i e s b o t h t o n e w d i s lo c a t io n s a n d t o n e w r e l at io n s h i p s . P a r a d o x ic a l ly,g loba l i za t ion seems a l so to have l ed to a s t r eng the n ing o f loca l a l leg iancesan d iden t it i esw i t i n na t ion-s t a t e s ; th ou gh th i s ma y be decep t ive , s ince thes t reng then in g o f the loca l is p ro bab ly l es s the r ev iva l o f the s t ab le iden t it ie so f l o c al ly se t tl e d c o m m u n i t i e s o f th e p a s t , a n d m o r e t h a t t r ic k y v e r si o n o ft h e lo c a l w h i c h o p e r a t e s w i t h i n , a n d h a s b e e n t h o r o u g h l y r e s h a p e d b y t h e

g loba l and opera tes l a rge ly wi th in i t s log ic .O n e r e su l t h a s b e e n a sl o w, if u n e v e n , e r o s i o n o f t h e c e n t r e d n a t i o n a l i s m s

o f t h e W e s te r n E u r o p e a n n a t io n - s t a te a n d t h e s t re n g t h e n i n g o f b o t ht rans na t io na l r e l a t ions and loca l iden t i ti e s - a s i t were , s im ul taneo us lya b o v e a n d b e l o w t h e le v el o f t h e n a ti o n - s ta t e . Tw o f e a t u r e s o f t h is v e r y

u n e v e n p r o c e s s h a v e b e e n t h e r e - v a l o r i z a t i o n o f s m a l l e r, s u b o r d i n a t en a t io n a l is m s a n d m o v e m e n t s f o r n a t io n a l a n d r e g io n a l a u t o n o m y b yp r e ci se ly t h o s e g r o u p s w h o s e i d e n t it ie s w e r e s w a l l o w e d u p b y o r s u b s u m e dun de r w ha t Ernes t Ge l lne r ca ll s the po l i t ica l roo f o f the b ig na t ion-s t a t e s ,a n d t h e p a r a ll e l g r o w t h o f a d e f e n s iv e re a c t io n b y t h o s e n a t i o n a l c u l tu r e sw hich see themse lves th rea te ned f ro m the i r pe r ipher i e s . W e can see th is no to n l y i n t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f r e g io n a l a n d n a t i o n a l i d e n t it ie s w i t h i n t h e U K( o r, a s R a y m o n d Wi l li a m s c alls it , t h e Y o o k a y ) b u t a l s o in t h e g r o w i n geffo r t s o f loca l cen t res a t t em pt in g to b y-pass b lock ages o f va r ious k ind s a tt h e n a t i o n a l l ev el - S c o t l a n d s d r e a m o f b r e a k i n g t h e E n g l is h c o n n e c t i o n a n dr e s t o r in g i ts E n l i g h t e n m e n t li n k s w i t h E u r o p e ; t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f s u b s u m i n gN o r t h e r n I r e l a n d s in t r a c ta b l e p r o b l e m s in so m e s o r t o f E u r o p e a n s o l u t io n .Wi l l i a m s h i m s e l f r e f l e c t s t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o d u c e d b ythese tw o t endenc ies wh en he re fe r red to h im se l f a s f ee ling l ike aW e l s h - E u r o p e a n . B u t t h e r e a r e s i m i la r s ig n s e ls e w h e r e i n E u r o p e , t h e

g r o w t h o f t h e N o r t h e r n L e a g u e in I t al y, as a w a y o f d i s so c i a ti n g t h ei n d u s t r ia l (a n d , a s i t t u r n s o u t , c o r r u p t ) M i l a n f r o m t h e b a c k w a r d ( a n d , o fc o u r s e , e q u a ll y c o r r u p t ) S o u t h , b e i n g o n l y t h e m o s t r e c e n t e x a m p l e .

A t t h e s a m e t i m e a s th i s h a s b e e n g o i n g o n i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e , w e h a v e

s e en t h e b r e a k - u p o f t h e S o v ie t U n i o n a n d E a s te r n E u r o p e a n d t h e re v iv a l o fe t h n i c n a t i o n a l i s m s a m o n g s t p e o p l e s s u b m e rg e d f o r d e c a d e s w i t h i n t h esup erna t iona l i sm of the Sov ie t sphere o f in f luence . Th i s seems to r e f lec t ac o m p l i c a t e d d o u b l e - m o v e m e n t - t h e a t t e m p t t o r e c o n s t i tu t e th e m s e l v e s a s a





n a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g b o t h t h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t a n d s t a t e - s o c i a l i s tp a s t a n d t h e h o p e f o r th e f u t u r e - w h i c h m a y t u r n o u t t o b e i ll u so r y - t h a tn a t i o n h o o d is t h e o n l y p a s s p o r t o r e n t r y - ti c k e t l ef t f o r b a c k w a r d E a s t

E u r o p e a n s t o th e n e w W e s te r n E u r o p e a n p r o s p e r it y .H e n c e t h e c o n f u s i n g s p ec ta c le o f w h a t w e m a y c all a sc e n d i n g a n d

d e s c e n d i n g n a t io n a l i s m s , l o c k e d in a so r t o f c o m b i n e d - a n d - u n e v e n d o u b l eh e l i x . I t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e o f t e n o v e r - r a t i o n a l i s t e x p e c t a t i o n sf a v o u r e d b y t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t iv e s o f t h e l e ft , n a t i o n a l i s m is n o to n l yno t a s p e n t f o r c e ; i t i s n tnecessarilye i th e r a r e a c t i o n a r y o r a p r o g r e s s i v ef o r c e , p o l i t ic a l l y. W e h a v e s e e n p l e n t y o f b o t h v a r i e t i e s in r e c e n t y e a r s - e v e ns u p p o s i n g t h a t i t is e a sy t o e s t a b l is h t h e c r i te r ia b y w h i c h t h e y c a n b e e as il yd i s t i n g u i s h e d (is I r a q i n a t i o n a l i s m p r o g r e s s i v e b e c a u s e i t o p p o s e s t h e W e s t o rr e a c t i o n a r y b e c a u s e i t h o l d s it s p e o p l e i n a c r u d e a n d v i o l e n t d i c t a t o r i a l g r i p ?).To c o i n o n e o f E r n e s t o L a c l a u s p h r a s e s , n a t i o n a l i s m h a s n o n e c e ss a ryp o l i ti c a l b e l o n g i n g n e s s . I t is c a p a b l e o f b e i n g i n f l e c te d t o v e r y d i f fe r e n t

p o l i ti c a l p o s i t i o n s , a t d i f fe r e n t h i s t o r ic a l m o m e n t s a n d i ts c h a r a c t e r d e p e n d sv e r y m u c h o n t h e o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s , d i s c o u r s e s a n d f o r c e s w i t h w h i c h i t i sa r t i c u l a te d . T h e n a t i o n a l i s m s o f , s a y, T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e e r a o fd e c o l o n i z a t i o n , w h i c h w e r e p r o d u c e d a s t h e c o u n t e r - d i s c o u r s e s t o e x p l o i -t a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d l i n k e d w i t h c r it ic a l c u lt u r e s a n d p o l it ic a lt r a d i t i o n s , h a d a v e r y d i f fe r e n t p o l i t ic a l m e a n i n g a n d t r a j e c t o r y f r o m t h o s ew h i c h h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d a s t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t i m p o s e d s t a t es o c i a li s m b u t w h i c h h a v e r e a p p e a r e d i n p o l i ti c a l c u l t u r e s w i t h s t r o n g e t h n i ca n d r e li g io u s a b s o l u t i s t t r a d i t io n s .

T h e n a t i o n - s t a t e w a s n e v e r s i m p l y a p o l i ti c a l e n ti ty. I t w a s a l w a y s a ls o as y m b o l i c f o r m a t i o n - a s y s te m o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n - w h i c h p r o d u c e d a ni d ea o f t he n a t io n a s a n i m a g i n e d c o m m u n i t y , w i t h w h o s e m e a n i n g s w e

c o u l d i d e n t if y a n d w h i c h , t h r o u g h t h is i m a g i n a r y i d e n t if ic a t io n , c o n s t i tu t e di ts c i ti z e n s a s s u b j e c t s ( in b o t h o f F o u c a u l t s se n s e o f s u b j e c t i o n - s u b j e c to f a n d s u b j e c t e d t o t h e n a t i o n ) . T h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n , t h e n , t h a t t h e r e l a ti v ed e c l in e o f t h e c e n t r a l iz e d n a t i o n - s t a t e s , w i t h t h e i r i n c o r p o r a t i n g c u l t u r e s a n dn a t i o n a l i d e n t i t i e s , i m p l a n t e d a n d s e c u r e d b y s t r o n g c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ,w h i c h c l a i m e d t o b e a b l e to s u b s u m e a ll d i f fe r e n c e s a n d d i v e r s it y i n t o t h e i ri m a g i n e d u n i t y, o p e n s u p p r o f o u n d a m b i v a l e n c e s a n d f i s s u r e s w i t h i n t h ed i s co u r s e o f t h e n a t io n - s t a t e a n d t h u s p r e s e n ts u n p r e c e d e n t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e sf o r s m a l l e r n a t i o n a l i s m s t o r e a l i z e t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s f o r a u t o n o m y i n n e w,m o r e e f fe c ti v el y s e l f -g o v e r n i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h i s i s t h e p e r s p e c t iv e w h i c hR a y m o n d W i ll ia m s a d d r e s s ed , w i t h i n c re a s in g f r e q u e n c y a n d u r g e n c y, i n h isw r i t i n g a b o u t W a l e s a n d o t h e r s t r u g g l e s f o r a c t u a l s o c ia l i d e n t it ie s ,e spec ia l ly inTowa rds 2000 b u t o f c o u r s e a l s o , in a d i f f e r e n t r e g i st e r, in h i sf i c t ion .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e d r i v e t o n a t i o n -h o o d i n m a n y o f t h e a s c e n d i n g s m a l l n a t i o n a l is m s c a n o f t en ta k e t h e f o r m

o f t r y i n g t o c o n s t r u c t e t h n i c a l l y ( o r c u l t u r a l l y, r e l i g i o u s l y o r r ac i a ll y ) c l o s e do r p u r e f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e p l a c e o f t h e o l d e r , c o r p o r a t e n a t i o n - s t a t e s o ri m p e r i a l f o r m a t i o n s ; a c lo s u r e w h i c h c o m e s , in G e l l n e r s t e r m s , f r o m t ry i n gt o r e a l iz e t h e a s p i r a t i o n , w h i c h t h e y s e e as th e s e c r e t o f s u c c e ss o f t h e g r e a t ,

C U LT UR E C O M M U N I T Y N A T I O N 3 55




mo dern i z in g na ti on - st a te s o f Wes t e rn m ode rn i t y, o f ga the r i ngo n people ,o n e thn ic i ty, ga thered u nd ero n pol i t ica l roof .

But the h i s to ry o f the na t ion-s ta tes o f the Wes t hasn v r been of th i se thn ica l ly pure k ind . W i tho u t excep t ion , a s Daffyd E llis Tho m as , the fo rm erP l ayd Cw m ry M P, p o in t e d o u t aga in r ecen tl y, t hey a re w i th ou t excep ti one thn ica l ly hyb r id - the p rod uc t o f conqu es t s , absorb t ions o f one peop les byanother. I t has been the main func t ion o f na t iona l cu l tu res which , a s weargued , a re sys tems of represen ta t ion , tor p r s n t w ha t i s in fac t the e thn icho t ch -po t c h o f m o de r n n a t i o n a l it y a s t he p r imord i a l un i t y o f one peop l e ;and o f the i r i n ven t e d t r ad i ti ons t o p ro j ec t the rup tu re s and conques ts , wh i cha re t he ir r e a l h i st o ry, back w a rds i n an app a ren t l y s eamle s s and unb roke ncon t i nu i t y t o wa rd s pu re , my th i c t ime . W ha t s m ore , t h is hyb r id i t y o f t hemodern na t ion-s ta te i s now, in the p resen t phase o f g loba l iza t ion , be ingcom pou n de d by on e o f t h e la rge st fo r ced and un fo rced mass mig ra t ions o frecen t t imes . So tha t , one a f te r ano ther, Wes te rn na t ion-s ta tes , a l ready

diaspora - ized bey ond repa i r, a re bec om ing inex t r icab ly m ul t i cu l tu ra l -m ixe d e thnical ly, re l ig iously, cul tura l ly, l inguis t ica l ly, e tc .

Desp i te th is , ma ny of the n ew na t iona l i sms a re busy t ry ing , o f ten on th ebas i s o f ex t remely dub ious myths o f o r ig in and o ther spur ious c la ims , top rodu ce a pu r if ie d fo l k a nd t o p lay t he h igh ly dange rous game o f e t hn i cc l eansing - t o u s e t he c ha r m in g ph ra se wh ich t he Serbs have r e tu rned t o t hepos tmodern European vocabula ry. Here , r ea l d i s loca ted h i s to r ies andhyb r id i ze d e th n ic i ti es o f E u r ope , wh ich have been m ade and r emade ac ro s sthe t o r t u r ed a nd v io l en t h is t o ry o f E u rope s m a rch t o mo de rn i t y, a r e

subsumed by some essen t ia l i s t concep t ion o f na t iona l iden t i ty, by thesur rep t i t ious re tu rn to t r ad i t ion - o f ten o f the inve n ted k ind , a sHo bsb aw m a nd Ran ge r d e f i ne it - wh i ch r ecas ts cu l t u ra l iden t it y a s anun fo ld ing e ssence, m ov i ng a pp a ren t l y w i thou t change , f rom pas t t o f u tu re .

Les t we th ink tha t th i s k ind o f e thn ic abso lu t i sm i s res t r i c ted to theBa lkans - wh ich Wes t e r n Eu r opeans have a lways t hou gh t un f i t t o gove rnthemse lves we mu s t rem em ber tha t ve rs ions o f i t a re a live and wel l in theo ld m od ern na t ion-s ta tes , e spec ia l ly in the w ake o f the mul t i cu l tu ra ld iversi ty which the d i s loca t ions o f g loba l iza t ion a re push ing a long . W e canno w see Tha tcher i sm s ques t ion - Are yo u one o f us ? - a s no t on ly a sea rchfor t rue con ver t s to the Gospe l o f Ma rke t Forces , bu t as on ly the l a test e ffo r t,s t i l l cont inuing, to resurrect that rapidly vanishing species , the la te-twen t ie th -cen tury t rue born En gl i shm an ( the gend ered fo rm is de l ibe ra te )an d to red i scover, by a v i ru len t fo rm of regress ive m od ern iza t ion (ana t t emp t t o c ap t u r e t he fu tu r e by a de t e rm ined l ong de tou r t h rough t he pa s t)t hose d is cu rs ive fo rms o f m a n l y and en t r ep reneu r i a l g r ea tne s s wh ich cou ldres to re Engl i shness as a be leagured na t iona l iden t i ty : tha t cu l tu ra l iden t i tyinto which a l l the other d iverse cul tures of the Bri t i sh Is les and, a t i t spe r ipher ies , the co lon ized soc iet ies , we re so o f ten and so b ru ta l ly co l lapsed .

In the face o f the p ro l i fe ra t ion o f cu l tu ra l d i ffe rence a t h om e , and themu l t ie t hn i c c ha r ac t e r o f t h e n ew B r it a in , and t h r ea t ened on t he o the r si deby the enc r oach i ng t r au m a o f an emerg ing Eu ro pean i den ti ty, we have s eenin Br it a in , over the pas t decad e , the cons t ruc t ion o f a pa r t i cu la r ly de fens ive ,

56 CULTURAL STUDIES




c losed and exc lus ive de f in i t ion o f Eng l i shness be ing adva nce d as a w ay o fw a r d i n g o f f o r r e f u s in g to l iv e w i t h d i ff e re n c e - a r e t r e a t f r o m m o d e r n i t yw h i c h n o e x er c is e i n m a n a g e r i a l n e w s p e a k o r t h e n e w e n t r e p r e n e u r ia l i smc a n d i s g u is e o r d e fl ec t. O n e s lip o f t h e D a n i s h p e n , a n d i t h a s c o m e p o u r i n g o u t- i n d i f fe r e n t f o r m s , a s m u c h f r o m t h e l ef t a s t h e r ig h t . C o n f r o n t e d b y a nope n ly rac i s t f a r- r igh t in F rance o r G erm any , the Br i ti sh a re ap t to be sm oo th lys u p e r i o r a n d c o m p l a c e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s o f c u l t u r a lr a ci sm w h i c h h a v e g r o w n u p u n d e r T h a t c h e r i sm s s h a d o w b r in g to g e t h e r a n dcon den se in to a s ing le d i scourse ques t ions o f r ace and e thn ic i ty w i th qu es t ionso f n a t i o n , n a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l b e l o n g i n g : C u l t u r a l b e l o n g i n g n e s s( rede f ined as an o ld , exc lus ive fo rm of e thn ic ity ) has r ep laced gene t i c pur i tya n d f u n c t i o n s a s th e c o d e d l a n g u a g e f o r r a c e a n d c o l o u r. A s P a u l G i l ro yo b s e r v e d i nT h e r e A i n t N o B l a c k i n t h e U n i o n J a c k:

A f o r m o f c u l tu r a l r a ci sm w h i c h h a s t a k e n a n e c e s sa r y d i s ta n c e f r o m c r u d eideas o f b io log ica l in fe r io r ity n o w seeks to p resen t an im ag ina ry d e f in i t ionof the na t ion as a un i f iedc u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t y. It c o n s t ru c t s a n d d e f e n d s a ni m a g e o f n a ti o n a l - c u l tu r e , h o m o g e n e o u s n it s w h i t e n e s s y e t p r e c a r i o u s a n dp e r p e t u a l ly v u ln e r a b l e to a t t a c k f r o m e n e m i e s w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t( 1 9 8 7 : 4 9 - 5 0 ) .

So m eth ing o f the sam e fea r o f d i ff e rence and d ive r s i ty can be seen , in d i ff e ren tf o r m s , ev e r y w h e r e i n th e N e w E u r o p e , as th e m o s t h e t e r o g e n e o u s p e o p l e shas t ily cobb le toge the r som e ne w u n i t a ry cu l tu ra l iden t i ty a s a sh ie ld , no t on lya g a i n s t n e i g h b o u r s w i t h w h o m t h e y h a v e p e a c e f u ll y d w e l le d f o r c e n tu r ie s , b u t

a ls o a g a in s t M u s l i m , N o r t h A f r ic a n , Tu r k i s h a n d o t h e r m i g r a n t s d r a w n t oEu rop e f ro m i ts pe r ipher i e s . W e can see it r e fl ec ted in the consc iou s ly L i t tl eE n g l a n d s c h e m e s d r a w n u p f o r t e a c h i n g l i te r a t u r e a n d h i s t o r y - t h e k e yd i scourses in the co ns t ru c t ion o f na t iona l iden t i ty - in the new Engl i shN at iona l Cu r r i cu lum fo r schoo l s . W e can a l so see i t i n the v io len t back lashaga ins t m ul t i cu l tu ra l i sm in schoo l s an d un ive r s i ti e s in the US. Thesetendenc ies have the i r r e spec tab le a ll ie s and sup po r te r s in Br i ta in an d the i rn o t - s o - re s p e c t a b le s h o c k - t r o o p s e l se w h e r e in E u r o p e , a s t h o s e d i s p l a ce d b yt h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s e c o n o m i e s , t h e p r i c i n g o u t o f c r o p s a n d t h ec r i p p li n g w e i g h t o f d e b t a s w e l l as b y p o v e r t y, d r o u g h t a n d w a r f a r e , p u r s u e dw i t h t h e h e lp o f t h e i n t e rn a t i o n a l a r m s t r a d e , b u y a o n e - w a y t ic k e t a n d h e a da c ro s s b o r d e r s t o P a r a d i s e o r T h e A m e r i c a n W a y . R a y m o n d W i ll ia m s h a s ,in f ac t , wr i t t en e loquen t ly abou t th i s t r end in an ea r l i e r h i s to r i ca l fo rm,par t i cu la r ly as i t a ffec ted ru ra l W ales :

A s p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a d in g a d v a n t a g es s h if te d , v a s t n u m b e r s h a d t o m o v ea g a i n o r b e l ef t s t r a n d e d i n t h e d e b r is o f a w o r k e d - o u t e c o n o m y. M a s s iv em o v e m e n t s o f th i s k i n d a r e s till o c c u r r in g i n t h o u s a n d s o f a u t h o r i z e d a n du n a u t h o r i z e d e m i g r a t i o n s a n d i m m i g r a t i o n s a n d i n t h e d e s p e r a t e t r a i l sf r o m l a n d d i s p o ss e s se d b y a g ri -b u s in e s s t o t h e s h a n t y - t o w n s o n t h e e d g e s o fdense ly po pu la ted c i ti es (1983 : 186) .

T h e r e sp o n s es t o t h e se m a s s iv e u n p l a n n e d m o v e m e n t s o f p o p u l a t io n s f r o mt h e d e c l i n i n g S o u t h t o t h e o v e r f e d N o r t h u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f g l o b a l iz a t io n ,





po w ere d as they a re by po l i te and o the r fo rms of e thn ic abso lu t i sm , a re aspecies offund ment lismevery b i t a s backward- look ing as those to befound in som e sect ions o f the I s lamic wo r ld . These have rep laced Co m m un -i sm in the d em ono logy of the Wes t an d a re super f ic ia lly po r t raye d as the s igno f a r e t r e a t f r o m mo de rn i t y by backward peop l e s , when t hey a r e o f t enam biguo us responses by those e i the r l e ft ou t o f m od ern i ty o r amb iguous lyand par t i a l ly incorpora ted in one o f i t s many fo rms , whereas the funda-m enta l i sms wh ich a re aff li c ting m od ern na t iona l cu l tu res a re no t on lyar is ing f rom the very hear t o f mo dern i ty bu t a re a con t inu in g reminder o f theda rk shado w wh ich ha s p e r s i s t en t l y a ccompan i ed mode rn i t y and t heEuro pean E n l i g h t en m e n t fr o m its i ncep t i on .

In the face o f these d i s loca t ions , i t is easy to und ers tan d w hy R ay m on dW il li ams aga in a nd aga in a ff irms wh a t he ca ll s the roo ted se t t l ements ,l ived , wo rke d and p laceab le soc ia l iden t i ti e s , to se t o ff aga ins t wh a t he

pers i st en t ly charac te r izes as the abs t rac t ions o f m od ern na t iona l cu l tu ra l

iden ti ti e s. Wi th uner r ing accu racy, he p laces wh o o r w ha t i s r espons ib le fo rthese d i s loca tions , aga ins t which n a t iona l iden t i ty has so f requen t ly in thepas t been summoned as a re l i ab le de fence : I t i s , in the modern epoch ,cap it a li sm wh i c h ha s d i s rup t e d a nd ove r- r idden na tu r a l com mu n i t ie s andim po sed ar t i f ic ia l orders . I t is then a sav age i ron y that capi ta l i s t s ta tes ha veaga in a nd aga in succeed ed in m obi l iz ing pa t r io t i c fee lings in the i r ow n fo rmsan d in teres ts (1983: 184).

Th e pers i s ten t emph as i s in W i l li ams on ac tua l l ives in kn ow ablecommuni t i es i s sa lu ta ry in the cur ren t pos t -Maas t r i ch t confus ion . For,

much as one may suppor t the sh i f t f rom a nar row l i t t l e England ism to abroa der Eu rope an perspec t ive , w e lco m ing th is en la rg ing and d ivers if i ca tionof Engl i sh perspec tives , one has a lso to a ckno wled ge tha t the idea tha t ,overn igh t , som eth ing ca l led a Eu ropea n iden t i ty o r cu l tu re cou ld be wi l l edin to be ing a t the behes t o f a s ing le marke t o r the requ i rements o f theEuropean bank ing sys tem, represen t s a concep t ion o f cu l tu re and anunders tand ing o f the mechan isms of soc ia l iden t i f i ca t ion so sha l low andabs t r ac t , i n R a y m on d Wi l l iams s te rms , t ha t i t de se rve s t he c om euppan ce

wh ich t he Dan i sh have so t e ll ing ly del ive r ed t o t he Eu rope an Co m m un i ty i nthe i r r e fe rendum . The m ore one be l ieves in Eu rope o r, to pu t it m oreaccura te ly, the more the ques t ion o f Europe appears to be a con tes tedconcep t w or th s t r u gg l i ng o ve r and a round , t he more impor t an t a r e t heques t ions o f wh ich Eu ro pe? , and o f w ha t is Eu ropean cu l tu r e? and wh oseEurop ean iden t it y? a nd wh ich ve r si on o f Eu rop ean mode rn i t y? and ind eedof ho w a nd w he th er it migh t ever be poss ib le to be bo th BlackndE u r o p e a n .

Wi l l i ams ce r ta in ly apprec ia ted the complex i t i e s o f t ry ing to res to re ana l ready un i f i ed Welsh iden t i ty a round any s ing le no t ion o f Wales as ana t i ona l co m m u n i ty. D e sp it e the w onde r fu l wo rk he d id i n h is nove ls i n

imag ina ti v e ly rec r ea ti n g i t a s an imag ined com m un i ty , h e o ft en acknow -ledged h is p rob lem at ic re la t ionsh ip to W ales . His fami ly, a f te r a ll , we re no tWelsh-speak ing , though they l ea rned Welsh poems and songs fo r spec ia loccas ions. His ea r ly hos t i l ity to the norm s of W elsh nonco nform is t





c o m m u n i t y r e s u l t e d i n it ia l ly in a r e je c t io n o f m y We l s h n e s s w h i c h I d i d n o tw o r k t h r o u g h u n t il w e ll i n t o m y t h ir ti es , w h e n I b e g a n t o r e a d t h e h i s t o rya n d u n d e r s t a n d i t . A g a i n a n d a g a i n , a s w e m i g h t e x p e c t , h e i n s is ts t h a t Ih a v e t o e m p h a s i z e g re a t c o m p l e x i t y i n W a l e s a n d E n g l a n d . W e l s h m e n a r ea l w a y s a sk i n g w h a t W a l es a c t u a ll y w a s , T h e p r o b l e m a t i c e le m e n t isc h a r a c t e r i s t ic ( 1 9 8 9 c : 6 8 ) .

H e f ul ly u n d e r s t o o d t h e e s se n ti a ll y m y t h i c a n d c o n s t r u c t e d d i sc o u r se o fe s se n ti a l c u l t u ra l c o n t i n u i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e We l s h s o m e t i m e s c o n s o let h e m s e l v e s f o r w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o t h e m . H e k n o w s f r o m t h e in s id e t h ec o m p l e x i t y o f t h e e t h n ic h i st o r y o f w h a t i s n o w W a l es f r o m e a r li es t ti m e s .H e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f th e l i n g u is ti c h e r it a g e w h e r e t h e a lr e ad yc o m p l i c a t e d We l s h / E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e d i f f e r e n t i a l i s c r o s s - c u t b y a n o t h e rs i g n i fi c a n t d i f f e re n t i a l - h o w t h a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e We l s h w h o h a v e l o st t h e irn a t iv e l a n g u a g e n o w s p e a k a n d w r i te E n g l is h . H e se es b o t h t h e d a n g e r s o fr e c o n s t r u c t i n g a s p u r i o u s l y u n i f i e d c u l t u r a l id e n t i t y a n d a f a ls e ly c o n t i n u o u s

n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y w h e n t h e re a l h i s t o r y is o n e o f r u p t u r e s a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s -i n d u s t r ia l c o n f l ic t w i t h i n r a p i d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a g r a r ia nc o n f li c t w i t h i n i m p o v e r i s h m e n t , d e p o p u l a t i o n a n d m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n - a n de v e n t h e r e s i s ta n c e t o c u l t u r a l c o l o n i z a t i o n w a s i t se l f a d e e p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e dr e s p o n s e, g o v e r n e d a s m u c h b y w h a t i t w a s r e s p o n d i n g t o a s w h a t i t w a s i ni ts el f. T h e W e l s h n a t i o n a l c u l t u r a l r ev i v al , h e i n s is ts , r e q u i r e s t h e w o r k i n gt h r o u g h o f a h i s t o r y a m o n g n o w r a d i c a l l y d i s l o c a t e d a n d s u b o r d i n a t e dp e o p l e , r a t h e r t h a n t h e f o r t u n a t e r e s u r g e n c e o f a s u b d u e d e s s e n c e( 1 9 8 9 c : 6 8 ) .

N e v e r t h e le s s , t h e e m p h a s i s o n a c t u a l a n d s u s t a i n e d s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p sa s t h e p r i n c i p a l b as is o f i d e n t i f i c a t io n a n d c u l t u r a l b e l o n g i n g n e s s p r e s e n tsm a n y r e a l d i ff ic u l ti e s w h i c h t a k e u s b a c k t o t h a t o r i g i n a l s tr e ss , i n W i l li a m s sw o r k , o n c u l tu r e a n d c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e w a y o f l i fe . W h o s eway?W h i c h life?O n e w a y o r s e v e ra l ? I s n t it t h e c a s e t h a t , i n th e m o d e r n w o r l d ,t h e m o r e w e e x a m i n e w h o l e w a y s o f l if e t h e m o r e i n t e r n a l l y d i v e rs if ie d , t h em o r e c u t th r o u g h b y c o m p l e x p a t t e r n s o f s im i l a ri ty a n d d i ff e re n c e , t h e ya p p e a r t o b e ? M o d e r n p e o p l e o f all s o r ts a n d c o n d i t i o n s , it s e e m s , h a v e h a d ,i n c r ea s i n g ly, a s a c o n d i t i o n o f s u rv i v a l, t o b e m e m b e r s , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y, o fs ev e ra l, o v e r l a p p i n g i m a g i n e d c o m m u n i t i e s ; a n d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s b e tw e e na n d a c r o s s t h e s e c o m p l e x b o r d e r l i n e s a r e c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f m o d e r n i t y i ts elf .L e s t o n e t h i n k t h a t th i s c a p a c i t y to l iv e i n a n d n e g o t i a t e s e v e ra l w o r l d s a to n c e i s a s ig n o f th e m o d e r n a l ie n a t e d c o n d i t i o n , a b u r d e n l a id o n t h ep o s t m o d e r n , W e s t e r n n o m a d i c s u b je c t al o n e , it is w o r t h r e c al li n g t h a t th eb u r d e n o f d o u b l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h W. E . B . D u B o i s i d e n ti fi e d , w a s th eb u r d e n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , n o t o f t h e M a s t e r b u t t h e S l a v e , a n d h i s / h e rd e s c e n d a n t s , w h o - a s C . L . R . J a m e s o b s e r v e d - a r e i n w e s t e r n c i v il iz a t io n ,w h o h a v e g r o w n u p i n it b u t y e t a re n o t c o m p l e t e ly a p a r t o f i t . 2

In Towards 2000W i ll i a m s d i s c u s se s th e r e s p o n s e o f t h e w h i t e w o r k i n g -

c la ss m a n t o w h a t h e c alls - t o o e u p h e m i s ti c a ll y b y h a lf - t h e m o s t r e c e n ti m m i g r a t io n s o f m o r e v is ib ly d i ff e r en t p e o p l e s a n d t h e a n g r y c o n f u s i o n sa n d p r e j u d i c e s w h i c h a r e tr i g g e r e d w h e n , a s h e p u t s it, t h e b l a c k s ( f or it ist h e m - u s - w h o a r e t h e v i s ib l y d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s ) i n t e rs e c t w i t h t h e m o s t





se lec t ive fo rms of iden t i ty ' . He acknowledges tha t the reac t ion to thepresen ce of fore igne rs eas ily sl ides in to speci fying th is 'o th erne ss ' as b lack.But he ob jec ts to th i s a lways be ing l abe l l ed ' r ac i sm ' and espec ial ly to w ha t hecal ls the ' s t an da rd l ibera l reply ' , 'But they are as Br it i sh as you are ' , wh ich, heargues , i s to em plo y 'a m erely legal def in i t ion of w ha t i t is to be Bri t i sh '.

I t is a se r ious m isunde rs tand ing w he n ful l soc ia l r e la tions a re in ques t ionto suppose tha t the p rob lems of soc ia l iden t i ty a re reso lved by fo rmaldef in i t ions . For uneven ly and a t t imes p recar ious ly bu t a lways th roughlong exper ience subs tan t ia lly, a n e ffec tive awaren ess o f soc ia l iden t i tydepends on ac tua l and sus ta ined soc ia l r e la t ionsh ips . To reduce soc ia lident i ty to form al legal def in i t ions a t the level of the s ta te , i s to col ludewi th t he a l i en a te d s upe rf ic ia li ti es o f 't h e n a t i o n ' . . , wh i ch a r e t he lim i tedfunc t iona l t e rm s of the m od ern ru l ing c lass (1983: 195).

Th is passage seems to me to con ta in a se r ies o f power fu l t runca t ions ande ll ipses and i t is the re fore no surpr i se tha t , in a n ow famo us e xchang e inThere Ain t N o Black in the Union Jack ,Paul Gi l roy, qui te correct ly,fas tened on i t as represen t ing in it s im pl icat ions a rac ia l ly exclus ive form o fsoc ia l iden t i ty, an d a s ign o f the de gree to w hich W i l li ams ' s wo rk , l ike som uch o ther th ink ing on the l e f t, rem ains bo th b l ind to ques t ions o f race andf r amed by c e r ta i n un e xa m i ned ' n a t i on a l ' cu l t u r a l a s sump t ions. As G i l royasked , H o w ' fu l l ' mus t ' fu ll soc ia l r e la t ions ' be? H o w ' ac tua l ' a re the soc ia lre la t ionsh ips be tween b lacks and whi tes in many inner-c i ty communi t i esand ho w ' sus ta ined ' do they have to be to inc lude equa l i ty o f respec t? I t is

t rue th a t soc ia l iden t i ty can no t be reduce d to fo rm al l ega l de f in i t ions . But i ti s a ser ious mis jud gem ent to ascr ibe i t exclus ively to ' the a l ien atedsuperf ic ia li ti e s o f the na t ion and the func t iona l t e rms of the m od ern ru l ingc lass .' I f you a re a b lack w om an t ry ing to secure r igh t s o f c i ti zensh ip f rom theloca l DHS off ice o r an As ian fami ly wi th Br i t i sh res idence runn ing thegaunt le t o f the immigra t ion au thor i t i e s a t Hea throw, ' fo rmal l ega l de f i -n i ti ons ' ma t t e r p r o fou nd ly. T hey c anno t be m ade c ond i t i ona l on cu l tu r a lass imila t ion.

I t shou ld n o t be necessa ry to look , w a lk , f ee l, th ink , sp eak exac t ly l ike apa id -up member o f the bu t toned-up , s t i ff -upper- l ipped , fu l ly corse t t ed' f ree -born Engl i shman 'cultural ly to be accorded e i the r the in formalcour tesy and respect of c iv i l ized socia l in tercourse or the r ights ofent i t lem ent an d c i t izenship . This i s to a pply the T ebbi t - tes t cr ick et test ( i.e .,wh i ch c r i cke t t e am do A f r o -Ca r ibbeans sup po r t w hen t he Wes t I nd ie s istour ing Br i ta in?) wi th a vengea nce - subsum ing cu l tu ra l a l leg iance to thevagar ies o f the ba t t ing fo rm of the England c r icke t t eam (a s l ender reedindeed) , a s the p r ice o f d rawing the fami ly a l lowance . In the mat te r o fc i t izenship , of course , there are m inim al responsibi l i t ies to those others w i thw ho m one shares a po l i t ica l com m uni ty , jus t a s the re a re 'r igh t s '. Bu t , f a r

f rom co l laps ing the complex ques t ions o f cu l tu ra l iden t i ty and i s sues o fsoc ia l an d po l i t i ca l r igh t s, w ha t w e need n ow i sgreater d is tance betweenthem. We need to be ab le to ins i s t tha t r igh t s o f c i t i zensh ip and theincom m ensurab i l i ti e s o f cu l tu ra l d i ffe rence a re respec ted an d tha tthe o ne is

36 CULTURAL STUDIES




n o t m a d e a c o n d i t i o n o f th e o t h e r.In th is sense , unless the universa l is t iclanguage o f c i t i zensh ip , de r ived f rom the Enl igh tenment and the FrenchRevo lu t i o n (b u t l ong d e n i ed bo th women i n Eu rope and b l ack s l ave s i nHispan io la ) i s t r ans formed in the l igh t o f the p ro l i fe ra t ion o f cu l tu ra ld i ffe rence , the idea cannot and does no t dese rve to su rv ive in thet rans fo rm ed c ondi t ions o f l a te -mod ern i ty in which i t is r equ i red to b ecom esubs tan t ive ly operab le .

S ince cu l tu ra l d iversi ty is, inc reas ing ly, the fa te o f the m od ern wo r ld , a nde thn ic ab so lu t ism a regress ive fea tu re o f l a te -mod ern i ty, the g rea tes t dang ern o w a ris es fr o m f o r m s o f n a t io n a l a n d c u l t u ra l i d e n t i t y - n e w o r o l d - w h i c ha t t emp t t o s ecu rethe i r iden t i ty by adopt ing c losed vers ions o f cu l tu re o rcom m un i ty a nd by t he re fusa l t o en ga ge - in the nam e o f an opp re s sed wh i t em i n o r i t y sic) - with the d i ff icu l t p rob lem s th a t a r ise f rom t ry ing to l ive wi thd i ffe rence . The capac i ty tol i ve w i th d i f f e r encei s, in my v iew, the co m ingques t ion o f the twenty- f ir s t cen tury. Ne w n a t iona l mo vem ents tha t , in the i rs t rugg le aga ins t o ld c losures , reach fo r too c losed , un i ta ry, ho m oge neo usand e s sen t ia li st a r e a d ing o f c u l t u r e and com m un i ty w i ll have succeeded i nove rcom ing one t e r r ib le h i s to rica l hurd le on ly to fal l a t the second . Th is isa l so the cha l l enge con f ron t ing the d i ff icu l t ques t ion fo r the l e f t, o f ho w toadap t and t rans form the l anguage o f c i t i zensh ip to new h i s to r ica lc i rcum stanes - I m ean , o f course , a subs tan t ive co ncep t ion o f c i ti zensh ip fo rou r t imes , no t t h a t pho ney, a c t ive one be ing p rom o ted by M r M a jo r sCi t i zen s Ch ar te r, wh ich redef ines c i ti zens as cus tom ers and con sum ers -abou t which , see the devas ta t ing c r i t ique advanced by Wi l l i ams in the

Cu l tu r e o f na t i on s C hap t e r inTo w a r d s 2 0 0 0 . For no w f rom the o the r s ideof i t s mouth i t speaks of the consumer: the sa t is f ied , ever s tuffed, thesovere ign con sum er ( 1983: 32) .

I began b y s peak i ng o f h ow Ra ym on d Wi l li ams and m ysel f, coming fromsuch very d i ffe ren t backgrounds and fo rmat ions , o f ten found ourse lves inthe s ame p l ace s , mak i ng so me o f t he s ame k inds o f r e sponse f rom them arg in s t o t h e en c o u n t e r w i th t he exc lus ive and exc lud ing r edoub t s o f t hedo m inan t na t i ona l cu l t u re , t h e s eed -bed and nu r se ry o f Eng li sh na t i ona lcu l tu ra l iden t ity. I have been p ro foun dly in f luenced by the s tubbo rness w i thwh ich , t h rou g h ou t h i s lif e and wr i t ing , Wi l li ams he ld to and hon ou re d t hoseac tua l , l iv ed r e la t ionsh ip s o f p lace , cu l tu r e and com m un i ty wh ich d id no tf igure in an ex a l t ed way in the h ie ra rchy of conv en t iona l ly va lue d Engl ishth ings . I ho no ure d the sym pathy he ex pressed fo r the s t rugg les o f the peop lesand cu l tu r e s - I st re ss th e p l u r a l s - o f Wa le s and h i s de t e rm ina t i on to h o ld onto h i s two em phases : the cu l tu ra l s t rugg le fo r ac tua l soc ia l iden t it ie s and thepol i t ica l redef in i t ion o f effect ive se l f -governing socie t ies .

But , in ho no ur in g h im - in o rd er to hon ou r h im - I feel com pel led to c lose ,as i t were , f rom ano ther p lace . F rom the p lace o f the mi l l ions o f d i sp lacedpeoples and d i s loca ted cu ltu res and f rac tu red com m uni t i es o f the South ,

w ho have b e e n mov e d f rom the i r s e tt led comm un i t i e s , t h e ir a c tua l li vedre la t ions , the i r p laceab le fee l ings , the i r ,wh ole ways o f l if e . Th ey have h adto l ea rn o ther sk i l l s , o the r l e ssons . They a re the p roduc t s o f the newdiasporas w hich a re fo rm ing ac ross the wor ld . Th ey a re ob l iged to inhab i t a t

CULTURE CO MM UN ITY NA TION 361




l eas t tw o iden t it ie s , t o speak a t l eas t tw o cu l tu ra l l anguages , to neg o t i a t e andt r a n s la t e b e t w e e n t h e m . I n t h is w a y, t h o u g h t h e y a r e s t ru g g l i n g i n o n e s e ns ea t t h e m a rg i n s o f m o d e r n i t y, t h e y a r e a t t h e l e a d i n g e d g e o f w h a t i s d e s ti n e dt o b e c o m e t h e t r u ly r e p r e s e n ta t iv e l a t e - m o d e r n e x p e r ie n c e . T h e y a r e t h ep r o d u c t s o f t h e c u l t u r e s o f h y b r i d i t y. T h i s n o t i o n o f h y b r i d i t y i s v e r yd i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o l d i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t g r a n d n a r r a t i v e , f r o m t h e s u p e r-f ic i al ity o f o ld sty le p lu ra l i sm w her e no bo un dar ies a re c rossed , and f r om thet r e n d y n o m a d i c v o y a g i n g o f th e p o s t m o d e r n o r s i m p l i st ic v e r si o n s o f g lo b a lh o m o g e n i z a t i o n - o n e d a m n t h i n g a f te r a n o t h e r o r t h e d i ff e re n c e t h a td o e s n t m a k e a d if fe r en c e . T h e s e h y b r i d s r e t ai n s t r o n g l i n k s t o a n diden t i f i ca tions w i th the t r ad i t ions a nd p laces o f the i r o r ig in . Bu t they a rew i tho u t the i llus ion o f any ac tua l r e tu rn to the pas t . E i the r they wi l l never,in any l it e ra l sense , r e tu rn o r the p laces to w hich th ey re tu rn w i ll have beent r a n s f o r m e d o u t o f a ll r e c o g n i t io n b y t h e r e m o r s e le s s p r o c es s e s o f m o d e r nt r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I n t h a t se n s e, t h e r e is n o g o i n g h o m e a g a in . T h a t is w h y

t h e y s p e a k a n d s i n g a n d w r i t e s o e l o q u e n t l y w i t h i n t h e m e t a p h o r i c a ll a n g u a g e s o f v o y a g i n g , t ra v e ll in g a n d r e t u r n .

Th ey be a r the t r aces o f pa r t i cu la r cu l tu res , tr ad i t ions , l anguag es , sys temsof be l i e f , t ex t s and h i s to r i e s which have shaped them. Bu t they a re a l soo b l i g e d t o c o m e to t e r m s w i t h a n d t o m a k e s o m e t h i n g n e w o f t h e c u l tu r e st h e y in h a b i t , w i t h o u t s i m p l y a s s im i l a ti n g t o t h e m . T h e y a r e n o t a n d w i llnever be unif ied cu l tu ra l ly in the o ld sense , because they a re inev i tab ly thepro du c t s o f seve ra l in t e r lock ing h i s to r i e s and cu l tu res , be long ing a t the sam et im e to s ev e ra l h o m e s - a n d t h u s to n o o n e p a r ti c u l a r h o m e . A s S a l m a n

R u s h d i e , w h o s h o u l d k n o w , h a s re m a r k e d , h a v i n g b ee n b o u r n e a c r os s t h ew o r l d . . , t h e y a re tr a n s la t ed m e n [ a n d w o m e n ] . T h e y a re th e p r o d u c t o f ad i a s p o r ic c o n s c i o u s n e ss . T h e y h a v e c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h emodern wor ld , and I be l i eve i r r evocab ly, iden t i ty i s a lways an open ,c o m p l e x , u n f i n i s h e d g a m e - a l w a y s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . A s I r e m a r k e de l s e w h e r e , i t a l w a y s m o v e s i n t o t h e f u t u r e t h r o u g h a s y m b o l i c d e t o u rt h r o u g h t h e p a s t ( H a l l, 1 9 9 0 ). I t p r o d u c e s n e w s u b j ec t s w h o b e a r t h e t ra c eso f t h e s p ec if ic d i s co u r s e s w h i c h n o t o n l y f o r m e d t h e m b u t e n a b l e t h e m t oproduce themselves anew and di fferent ly.I s o m e t i m e s t h i n k R a y m o n dW i ll ia m s m a y h a v e s e en t h e m a s l o s t s o u ls . B u t I w a n t t o e n d w i t h ad i f f er e n t r e a d i n g o f t h e i r c o n d i t i o n , f r o m R u s h d i e sImaginary Homelands :

The Satanic Versesce lebra tes hybr id i ty, impur i ty, in t e rming l ing , thet r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t c o m e s o f n e w a n d u n e x p e c t e d c o m b i n a t i o n s o fhuman be ings , cu l tu res , ideas , po l i t i c s , movies , songs . I t r e jo ices inm o n g r e l i z a t i o n a n d f e a r s t h e a b s o l u t i s m o f t h e P u r e .Mdlange b o t c h -p o r c h , a b i t o f th i s a n d t h a t , is h o wnew ness enters the world .I t is the g rea tposs ib i li ty tha t m ass mig ra t ion g ives the wo r ld a nd I have t r i ed to em braceit. Th e Satanic Versesis fo r chang e-by- fus ion , chan ge-by-co- jo in ing . I t is al o v e - s o n g t o o u r m o n g r e l s el ve s ( 1 9 9 2 ).

3 6 C U LT U R A L S T U D I E S




N o t e s

1 Versions of this paper were given in Cardiff ( 'The 1992 Raymond WilliamsLecture' , The Welsh Open University and the National Insti tute for Adult andCon tinuing Education); in Birmingham ( 'The Ray m ond Williams Lecture' , TheCe ntre for Cu ltural Studies and the Birmingham Interna tional Film and Tele-vision Festival); and in Ox for d ( 'Cultural Th eo ry at the Fin-de-Si le C onference' ,The R. Williams M em orial Trust) .

2 The idea of 'D ou bl e consciousness ' is from W . E. B. DuB ois (1989).

R e f e r e n c e s

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editor, Identity. London: Lawrence W ishart .- - (1993) 'The Ra ym on d Williams interviews' ,Screen Edu cation34. R eprinted in

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