Dance Forms:o the entire Himalayan region, from Kashmir to Darjeeling, folk dancers link arms and

sway gracefully in undulating movements, celebrate the sowing of the wheat cropo Dholak – South asean two-headed hand drum

have traditional cotton rope lacing, screw-turnbuckle tensioning or both combined

a folk instrument, lacking the exact tuning and playing techniques of the tabla or the pakhawaj

o Women perform the Giddha, also characterised by its spontaneous energyo Rajasthani women, their faces covered with flowing veils, are swirls of colour as they

pirouette in the Ghoomar danceo In Gujarat women perform the famous Garba, dancing in a circle with batons and

rhythmic clapping It popularly performed during Navratri Garbha Deep - light in the inner sanctum of the temple or lamp inside a

perforated earthen pot Their men perform the Dandiya Ras, a more vigorous version of the same

dance, leaping and crouching in twirling patterno Lavani Dance – combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed

to the beats of Dholki noted for its powerful rhythm and erotic sentiment In the fishing communities of Maharashtra by women is notable for its

unabashed sensualityo Nautanki – Rajasthan, UP, Biharo Bhavai – Gujaratho Tamasha – Maharastrao Jatra – Bengalio Yakshgana – Karnatakao Theyyam – Keralao Kalaripayattu – Keralao Lazim – Maharastra o Chhau dance – Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar

Major Dance Forms (7):o the first references come from the Vedas where dance and music have their roots

classical Sanskrit drama which was an amalgam of the spoken word, gestures and mime, choreography, stylised movement and music

Excavations have brought to light a bronze statuette from Mohenjodaro and a broken torso from Harappa

o Dance is considered to be having three aspects : Natya, nritya, nritta Natya highlights the dramatic element

Nritya is essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea

Nritta is pure dance where body movements do not express any moodo Navarasas – shringara, hasya, karuna, veera, roudra, bhayanak, bibhatsa, adbuta,

shaantao Tandava - masculine, is heroic bold and vigorous’o Lasya the feminine is soft, lyrical and gracefulo Abhinaya (expression) is achieved through angika (body & limbs), vachika (song &

speech), aharya(costume & adornment), satvika(moods & emotion)o The two modes of presentation of Natya are:

Natyadharmi – Formalized presentation of theatre Lokadharmi – folk, realistic, naturalistic or regional

o Style or vrittis are classified into 3 types: Kaishiki - deft lyrical more suited to convey the lasya aspects Arbati - the energetic masculine Satvaki - used while depicting the rasas and the Bharati, the literary content

Bharatanatyam – Tamil Naduo The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual material,

for the study of the technique and grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Danceo It is known as Ekaharya(one dancer takes many roles in single performance)o The style was kept alive by the devadasis (young girls 'gifted' by their parents to the

temples and who were married to the gods)o Nattuvanar – the person who conducts the dance recitationo It follow a regular pattern of steps:

The first dance item is the alarippu (to adorn with flowers) Jatiswaram - short pure dance piece performed to the accompaniment of

musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance - the

nritya Shabdam follows the jatiswaram – the accompanying song is generally in

adoration of the Supreme Being varnam which is the most important composition of the Bharatnatyam

repertoire, encompasses both nritta and nritya and epitomises the essence of this classical dance form

After the strenuous varnam, the dancer performs a number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of moods

Bharatnatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music

a vibrant dance performed to the accompaniment of musical syllables with a few lines of sahitya

finale of the piece is a series of well designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax. The performance ends with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods

Kathakali – Keralao Only Kathakali give emphasis to the ‘Natya’ aspecto Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam – has influence on kathakali

in its form and techniqueo blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted from

the Indian epicso Four aspects of abhinaya (angika, aharya, vachika, satvika) – combined perfectlyo Codified hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses (padams) that

are sungo Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined

Types of characters based on Aharya (as per tenets laid down by natyashastra) –

o In pacha, green colour dominates and kirita (headgear) is worn by all Indra, Arjuna and devas – Pacha characters

o Kathi – anti-heroes; Ravana, Kamsa, Sisupala – kathi charaters (for ex) moustache and the small knob called chuttippu fixed on "the tip of the nose and

another in the centre of the forehead, is peculiar kathi charo Thadi (beard) – Chuvanna(red), vellathadi (white), Karutha (black)

Vellathadi – characters like hanumano Kari – make-up having a black base, black costume (hunter, dweller etc)o Minukku – women and sage characterso Make up of kathakali classified into three types –

Teppu – self done makeup Chuttikuthu – makeup done by experts Uduthukettu – wearing of huge bellowing skirts

o Tirasseela – curtain held on the stage before the performance of main dancerso No other dance style is the entire body used so completely as in Kathakalio Kalasams – pure dance sequences of actor to express himself and his skillso Begins with Kelikottu – calling audience for attention

Todayam – devotional no performed to invoke blessings of god Purappadu - nritta sequence following todayam Melappada – musicians and drummers hold stage entertaining audience Tiranokku – debut of all characters other than pacha or minukku Follows the particular scene choosen to play

o Music followed in kathakali – traditional ‘Sopana Sangeet’

o Ilakiattam - part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their excellence in ‘abhinaya’

o Most part of the performance dancers engage in chodiattam - acting in strict conformity to the words in the padams sung by musicians

Kuchipudi – Andhra Pradesho Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesho Yakshagana – andhra’s long tradition of dance dramao 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogio It is said that Siddhendra Yogi had a dream in which Lord Krishna asked him to compose

a dancedrama based on the myth of the bringing of paarijaata flower for Sathyabhaama –Bhaamakalaapam

o Taarangam – solo dancing inspired by Krishna-leela taranginio To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over

their bodies, techniques like dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head was introduced

o There are two forms of kuchipudi - traditional musical dance-drama and the solo danceo Steps of a kuchipudi dance –

recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as is done in some other classical dance styles (Earlier only ‘Ganesh Vandana’ now other gods also)

followed by nritta, that is, non-narrative and abstract dancing Usually jatiswaram is performed as the nritta number

Next is presented a narrative number called shabdam One of the favorite traditional shabdam is ‘Dashaavataara’

Shabdam is followed by a natya number called Kalaapam entry of Satyabhama from the traditional dance-drama

Bhaamaakalaapam Next in the sequence comes a pure nrityaabhinaya number based on literary-

cum musical forms like padam, jaavli, shlokam, etc Eeach of the sung words is delineated in space through dance (Drishya-

kavita) Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam

Excerpts of Krishna-leela-tarangini are sung with this number In this the dancer usually stands on brass plate locking feet in

shakatavadanam paada & moves plate rhythmically with great dexterity

Kathak – UPo Kathak – katha (a story) – kathakars (story-tellers)o It probably started as an oral tradition – mimea & gestures added later to make it effo Raslila – Important development of Kathak mainly in Braj region (Mathura, UP)

It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative Dance in Raslila is an extension of basic mimes and gestures of kathakars

o The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the ball of the

foot are used, their function is limited There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or

lower part of the bodyo Dance sequences –

Dancer commences with a sequence ‘That’ - soft gliding movements of the neck, eyebrows and the wrists, are introduced

Followed by conventional formal entry known as the Amad (entry) and the Salami (salutation)

Then follow the various combinations of rhythmic passages all punctuated with and culminating in a number of pirouettes

The nritta portion of Kathak is performed to the nagma In the mime portions (nritya or abhinaya), words are not used in simple

numbers called the gata, which is performed in a lyrical manner to gentle rhythm

These are short narrative pieces which portray a brief episode from Krishna's life

o The interpretative and the abstract dance techniques are interwoven into each other, and the dancer's greatness lies in his capacity for improvisation on the melodic and metric line on the one hand and the poetic line on the other

o Kathak is the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture representing the unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art

Odissi – Orissao In Natyashastra south-eastern style mentioned as ‘Odra Magadha’ – precursor of odissio Maharis – original temple dancers centuries agoo Gotipuas – a class of boys trained in the art, who danced in temples and also generalo Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain

feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasaso Two basic postures of odissi are – chowk and tribhanga

Chowk - position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced

Tribhanga - very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees

o Bhangis - units of movement ending in one particular stanceo Steps of dance sequence are –

Opening item is Mangalacharan where the dancer slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands and makes an offering to mother earth

followed by an invocation to the deity of the dancer's choice (gen. ganesha) Item ends with nritta seq with salutations to God, Guru & audience

next item is called Batu where the basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted bringing out the duality of the masculine and the feminine through the basic stance of the chauk and tribhanga

This is danced in praise of batukeshwar Bhairav or Shiva After this comes flowering and ornamentation of music and movements in

Pallavi followed by the rendering of abhinaya

Here dance of ‘Ashtapadis’(Jayadeva’s Gita govinda) was performed The concluding item of the repertoire, which may consist of more than one

pallavi and items based on abhinaya, is called moksha Manipuri – Manipur

o Manipur have been protected from outside influences, and this region has been able to retain its unique traditional culture

o It is performed as a ceremonial offering while Lai Haraoba (Merrymaking of gods) festival

o Popular forms of Manipur dance – Ras, Sankirtana and Thang-Tao Ras costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff skirt which extends to the feeto In Sankirtana, male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancingo In Thang-Ta, martial dances of Manipur (swords, spears and shields) is performedo Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasyao Manipuri abhinaya does not play up the mukhabhinaya very much – but there is use of

whole body to convey certain rasa – sarvangabhinayao Rhythmic complexities are usually overlooked as the dancers do not wear ankle bells to

stamp out the rhythms in a theatrical display, as this interferes with the delicate body movements

o Nat – Manipuri classical style of singing

Sattriya – Assamo This dance form was introduced by vaishnavite saint Mahapurusha Sankaradevao For centuries, nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras i.e.

Vaishnava maths or monasterieso Ojapali dances (folk dance) are still prevalent in Assam

Two forms – Sukanni(Maroi) Ojapali (Sakti cult) & Vyah Ojapali(Vaishnava cult) The dancers in a Oja paali chorus not only sing and dance but also explain the

narration by gestures and stylized movements

o As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number of rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clear indication of the influence of the Devadasi on Sattriya

o Other visible influences on Sattriya dance are those from Assamese folk dances namely Bihu, Bodos etc. Many hand gestures and rhythmic syllables are strikingly similar in these dance forms

o Sattriya dance is laid down with respect to hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music

Music of India:

Hindustani Classic Music –o Music of India was more or less uniform before the 13th century. Later it bifurcated into

the two musical systemso Two systems of classical music – Hindustani , Carnatic

Carnatic music is confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala The classical music of the rest of the country goes under the name, Hindustani

Classical Musico grama is itself perhaps derivable from the idea of group or sect: a village, for instance.

This probably lead to a set of svaras or notes being called grama There were two gramas prevalent – Shadja and Madhyama Grama

The difference between the two was only in one note, the panchama The panchama in madhyama grama was one sruti lower than the

panchama in shadja gramao sruti thus is the unit of measure or small difference between the various consecutive

pitches within a grama or a scale For all practical purposes they are said to be 22 in number

o The subsidiary scales derived from each grama are called moorcchanas There are seven basic notes in a scale, hence there can be seven moorcchanas

o In the Natya Shastra of Bharata are found descriptions of melodic forms called jati Every one of these jatis could be put in some moorcchana or the other They were distinguished by chars like graha(starting pt) nyasa(note on which

phrase stops), range of notes – from low to high pitch and so ono Tala is a cyclic arrangement of time units

The basic units of time division are laghu, guru, and pluta Laghu comprises one syllable,guru two, and pluta three

o A theka is the definition of a tala by the stroke of a table Each stroke on the drum has a name called a bol or syllable. For instance, dha,

ta, ghe. Etc

o Anibaddha sangeeta is one which is not restricted by meaningful words and tala. It is a free improvisation

Alaap is the finest form of Anibaddha sangeetao Nibaddha Sangeeta – closed or bound form of music

prabandha is often used as a generic term to indicate any nibaddha song They were set to definite ragas and talas

o Dhrupad – Form of Nibaddha Sangeet It is believed to be an elaboration of prabandha structure Its name is derived from ‘Dhruv’ and ‘pada’(verse) It denotes both verse form of poetry and the style in which it is sung In structure dhrupad has two parts, the anibaddha section and the sanchari

dhrupad proper The first is a free alap The dhrupad proper is a song in four parts: the asthayee, the antara,

the Sanchari and the abhoga The instruments Been and Pakhawaj were closely associated with the dhrupad

o Present day place in Hindustani music is occupied by Khyal (imagination) Scholars believe its roots in ancient Indian roopaka alaps Two types – Vilambit (slow) and Drut (fast) khyal Comparable to the vanis of the dhrupads, we have gharanas, in the khyal.

o Thumri – It is a love song and hence the textual beauty is very important Very lyrical in its structure and presentation Two styles of thumri singing – Poorab or Banaras (slow), Punjab style

o Tappa – It consists of songs uttered in fast note patterns It is a difficult composition and needs much practice

Musical Instruments of India –o In Natyashastra (by Bharata muni) divided musical instruments into four types –

Tata vadya or chordophones – stringed instruments Sushira vadya or aerophones – wind instruments Avanaddha vadya or membranophones – percussion instruments Ghana vadya or Idiophones – solid instruments which don’t require tuning

o Tata vadya – Veena types – Ekatantri and sata-tantri etc. and Chitra (seven strings),

Vipanchi(9 strings) Santoor – stringed instrument similar to Sata-tantri veena – famous in J&K Bowed instruments are usually used as an accompaniment to vocal music –

Geetaguna Divided into two categories – upright and inverted Upright - fingerboard is held straight up as in the case of Sarangi

Inverted - he board or resonator is held towards the shoulder and the fingerboard dandi is held across the arm of the player as in the case of the Ravanhastaveena, the Banam, the Violin

Kamaicha – bowed lute played by the manganiars of west Rajasthan Whole instrument is one piece of wood, the spherical bowl extending

into a neck and fingerboard Resonator is covered with leather and the upper portion with wood

with four main strings & no of subsidiary ones passing through thin bridge

Different parts of stringed instruments – resonator- Toomba of most stringed instruments is either made of

wood or from a specially grown gourd Over toomba there is a wooden plate known as Tabli The resonator is attached to the fingerboard-Danda at the top end of

which are inserted the pegs – Khoontis, for tuning the instrument On the Tabli there is a bridge made of ivory or bone The main strings pass over the bridge, some instruments also have a

number of sympathetic strings below the main strings (Tarab) Some stringed instruments are plucked with the fingers or by using a

small plectrum called the Konao Sushira Vadya –

Sound is produced by blowing air into an hollow column – flutes, Reed Instr. There is reference in the Vedas to an instrument-the Venu Used as an accompaniment to chanting and recitation

Flutes – Single or double flutes with only one hollow tube with finger holes for

controlling the pitch of the note are very common Long horizontal flutes with a larger diameter are used to play slow

passages such as Alap of the lower registers Smaller and shorter flutes, sometimes held vertically, are used for

Taans, the faster passages, and also for producing higher pitches of sound

The double flutes are mostly played by musicians of the tribal and rural areas and are rarely found on the concert platform

Reed Instruments (Shehnai, nadaswaram)– have one or two reeds inserted in the hollow beak or tube of the

instrument, these vibrate when air is blown into them Shehnai is a reed instrument in which there are seven holes along the

tube which are used for playing the melodyo Ustad Bismillah Khan is credited for popularizing this instr.

o Avanaddha Vadya – Sound is produced by striking the animal skin which has been stretched across

an earthern or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame Types of these drum family - Oordhwaka, Ankya, Alingya and the waisted or the

Damaru Oordhwaka - drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is

produced by striking them with sticks or the fingers Tabla pair or chenda

Tabla – right side is called the Tabla and the left, the Bayan or Dagga Tabla has a wooden body with a covering of animal skin, this is held

together with leather straps Between straps and wooden body, oblong wooden blocks are placed There is a syahi paste applied in the centre of the animal skin The tabla can be tuned accurately by striking the rims with a hammer

Ankya – Ankya drums are held horizontally before the musician and usually both

sides are covered with animal hide Sound is produced by striking both sides with sticks or fingers

o Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc Alingya –

These drums have the animal hide fixed to a wooden round frame and are embraced or held close to the body with one hand while the other hand is used for playing on the instrument

o Duff, Dufflies, etc Damaru (waist drum) –

It ranges from small Huddaka of Himachal Pradesh to the larger instrument known as Timila of the southern region

o Ghana Vadya – earliest instruments invented by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya Once constructed, this variety of instrument do not need special tuning prior to

playing pots and pans, jhanj, falams, etc

Theatre Forms of India:

Traditional theatre forms of India –o Traditional theatre forms incorporate not only the common man’s interests but there is

also a classical element in themo In traditional theatre forms there are special styles of dance portraying the entry on to

the stage or platform, narrative and descriptive roles

o In traditional theatre forms there are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing according to the form and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations

No formal setup governing entry and exit of actors Depending on the situation or context, the actors enter into the stage and enact

their role without being formally introduced After a particular event or incident is over, all the artists make an exit

o Traditional theatre forms have definitely been influenced by industrial civilization, industrialization, and urbanization

o Characters keep changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and to give the situation a greater significance

o Nautanki – Traditional theatre centre in Kanpur Different forms of Traditional Theatre –

o Bidapat Naach – emphasis is not on beauty but on acting itself and narrative and descriptive skills Bhand Jashn – The art of making the entry by dancing has been perfected in this J&K theatre

form The way each character walks and enters the platform, identifies him

o Bhand Pather – Traditional theatre form of Kashmir; combination of dance, music & acting Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter

o Swang – Mainly music based, gradually prose too The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development

of character can be seen in this theatre form Two styles – Rohtak(lang – Haryanvi) and Haathras(lang – Brajbhasha)

o Nautanki – Popular traditional centre in UP in Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras Meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel Previously only men acted, but now-a-days women also started

o Raasleela – Based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna

o Bhavai – Traditional theatre form of Gujarat(Kutch and Kathiawar) Instr used in Bhavai – bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi,

manjeera Rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments

o Jatra (Bengal)– Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence

Earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stageo Maach (MP) –

Maach is used for the stage itself as also for the play In this theatre form songs are given prominence in between the dialogues Term for dialogue – bol; rhyme in narration – vanag; tunes of theatre – rangat

o Bhaona (Assam) – Presentation of Ankia Naat; cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura

and Brindavan can be seen Sutradhaar – narrator of story (Begins in Sanskrit then Brajboli or Assamese)

o Tamaasha (Maharastra) – Traditional folk evolved from Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan In tamaasha, female actress (Murki) is the chief exponent of dance movements Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible

to portray all the emotions through danceo Dashavatar (Goa and Konkan regions) –

performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood

and papier macheo Krishnattam (Kerala) –

Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha,

Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana The episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna - his birth, childhood

pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evilo Mudiyettu (Kerala) –

celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December) performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika

o Theyyam (Kerala) – God’s dance; tradition of worshipping of spirits of ancestors, folk heroes, and

deities of various diseases and ailments can be traced back to ancient times in South India

o Koodiayaattam (Kerala) – The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor, Naambiyaar, the

instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists Only Vidushak delivers the dialogues

o Yakshagana (Karnataka) – Theatrical arts based on mythological stories

The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati

o Therukoothu (TN) – Means Street play; Mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of

Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara of the Therukoothu performance, gives the gist of

the play to the audience; Komali entertains the audience with his buffoonery

Puppet Forms of India:

Puppet Forms –o Silappadikaaram - earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classico Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in traditional entertainmento Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically

handicapped students to develop their mental and physical faculties String Puppets –

o String puppets or Marionettes - jointed limbs controlled by strings allow flexibilityo Kathputli (Rajasthan) –

accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips are some of the distinct

facial features of these string puppets These puppets wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs

o Kundhei (Orissa) – Orissa puppets have no legs but wear long flowing skirts They have more joints - more versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are

attached for manipulationo Gombeyatta (Karnataka) –

They are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana Gombeyatta puppet figures are highly stylized and have joints at the legs,

shoulders, elbows, hips and knees These puppets are manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop

o Bommalattam (TN) – Bommalattam combine the techniques of both rod and string puppets They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring

which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head Bommalattam puppets are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all

traditional Indian marionettes Shadow Puppets –

o Shadow puppets are flat figures

o They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucento They are pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind ito Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka) –

These puppets are mostly small in size he puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance,

large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants

o Tholu Bommalata (AP) – puppets are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees Colored on both sides – hence throw colored shadows on the screen music is dominantly influenced by the classical music of the region themes are drawn from Mahabharata and Ramayana and Puranas

o Ravanachhaya (Orissa) – puppets are in one piece and have no joints They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen manipulation requires great dexterity, since there are no joints puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses

Rod Puppets –o Putul Nautch (WB) –

Rod-puppets used to be of human size like the Bunraku puppets of Japan These puppets have mostly three joints (Head & hands joined to rod at neck)

o Yampuri (Bihar) – These puppets are made of wood these puppets are in one piece and have no joints

Glove Puppets –o head is made of either papier mache, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just

below the necko the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb are the two

arms of the puppeto In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet

with the othero Pavakoothu (Kerala) –

influence of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala The manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of

the puppet The musical instruments used during the performance are Chenda, Chengiloa,

Ilathalam and Shankha the conch

Indian Literature:

Ancient Indian Literature:

o Vedas – Are essentially archetypal poetry of high literary value. They are mythical in nature and of symbolic language

Yajna – means worship of divine, co-ordination and giving (sacrifice) Division of contexts of vedas are twofold – ritualistic injunction and discussions

on meaning of vedic ritual and all that is related of ito Purana (that which renews the old) – illustrates and expound truth of the vedas

No of puranas – 18 Classical Sanskrit Language –

o Kavya – more care on form, such as the style, figure of speech, conceits, descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the background

Pali Literature –o Pali is the archaic Sanskrit – combination of various dialectso Buddha gave sermons in Pali and the ‘Tripitakas’ were written in Pali language

Vinaya Pitaka – monastic rules of the Order of Buddhist monks Sutta Pitaka – collection of speeches and dialogues of Buddha Abhidamma Pitaka – deals with ethics, psychology or theory of knowledge

Dravidian Literature –o Indian languages speak four different speech families – Austric, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan

and Indo-European Austric - Dravidian Literature – Telugu, Tamil (oldest), Malayalam, Kannada Sino-Tibetan – Indo-European –

Medieval Literature –o The powerful trend of medieval indian literature (1000 to 1800CE) is devotional (Bhakti)o Basavanna, Allam Prabhu are bhakti poets of Kannada languageo Gyaneswar (Dhyaneswar) – first and foremost bhakti poet in Marathi o Eknath, Tukaram are other poets who cast their spell all over Maharashtrao Kabir(Hindi), Namdev(Marathi), Guru Nanak(Punjabi) – other famous poetso Tulsidas, Surdas, Meera bhai belong to same period – 15th to 16th century

o Women poets of Bhakti – Ghosha, Lopamudra, Viswawara, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha – wrote few

texts in vedas – called as ‘Brahmavadini’ (expounder of veda) Medieval Lit. by women -

Songs of Buddhist Nuns – Mutta, Ubiri, Mettika (Pali Lang) Alwar like Andal – gave expression to their love for divine Lal ded (Muslim Poetess, Kashmiri) – represented sant tradition of bakti They all wrote small lyrics or poems of devotional fervour, metaphysical

depth, and with a spirit of dedication and utmost sincerity

o Other Trends – Heroic poetry in Punjabi known as – Kissa and Var

Najabat’s Var – Nadir Shah Love ballads – Hir Ranjha – Warris Shah (Muslim poet, Punjabi) Amir Khusro – Sufi Poet – exp. with Persian & Hindi (Hindavi) mix. poetry – Urdu

Modern Indian Literature –o Emergence of Nationalism –

Bankim Chandra chatterjee – Durgesh Nandini, Anand Math

Revivalism and reformism were natural corollaries of the newly emerging idea of nationalism

Tagore made Federalism as important part of his concept of national ideology Mod Indian pluralism is multi-lingual, multi-cultural, secular, national-state conc

o Literature of Nationalism, Revivalism, Reformism – Rangalal in Bengali, Mirza Ghalib in Urdu and Bharatendu Harishchandra in

Hindi expressed themselves as the patriotic voice of that era MM Dutt wrote first modern epic in Indian language, and naturalized blank

verse in Bengali First Tamil Novel(Pratap Mudaliyar Charitam – Samuel Pillai), Telugu(Sri

Rangaraja Charitra – Krishnama Chetty), Malayalam(Indulekha – Chandu menono Progressive Literature –

Chhayavad was challenged by a progressive school that came to be known as Pragativad (progressivism)

Nagarjun was undisputedly the most powerful and noted Hindi poet of the progressive group

The critical norms of progressive literature were established by the pioneer of this phase in Punjabi by Sant Singh Sekhon

The progressive writers’ movement attracted the attention of eminent poets of Urdu, like Josh Malihabadi and Faiz Ahmad Faiz

o Dalit Literature – Dalit movement was started in literature by Marathi, Gujarati and Kannada

writes under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar It came into the limelight because of progressive literature moving nearer to the

downtrodden literature of militant protest against upper caste literature upholding

Brahmanical values It challenges the tone and context of existing literary canons and decentralises

the whole process of a literary movement It creates an alternative aesthetics and extends the linguistic and generic

possibilities of literatureo The present-day crisis in India is the conflict between expediency and universality, and as a

result, a large number of writers are in the process of identifying a pattern of problem-

solving within the traditional system, vigorous enough to generate and sustain an indigenous process of modernization, which does not need readymade external solutions, and is in accord with indigenous needs and attitudes

Some famous books:o Natyashastra – Bharata Muni (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD)

the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C.E Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda he has evolved this veda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the

Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvavedao Sangeeta Ratnakara – SarangaDeva (13th century AD)o Kamasutra – Vatsayanao Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvasiam, Abhigyana Shakuntalam – Kalidasao Mricchakatika – Sudrakao Uttara-Ramacharitam – Bhavabhutio Gitagovida – Jayadevao Panchatantra – Vishnu Sharmao Hitopadesha – Narayan Pandito Buddhacharita – Aswagoshao Gathasaptasathi – Halao Ramcharitamanas – Tulsidaso Naurasnama – Ibrahim IIo Advent of Printing Press in India – William Carey – at Serampore, Bengal

Indian Architecture:

Indus Civilization –o Building activity during Indus valley Civilization –

Town planning was excellent, burnt bricks used, roads were wide and at right angles, city drains were laid out, corbelled arch and baths were constructed

o Two important remains of the oldest times are fortifications of the old Rajagriha town, in Bihar and the fortified capital of Sisupalgarh

o Lomas Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills of Bihar – Ajivika sect during Asokha period Buddhist Architecture –

o Chaitya – Prayer hall; Vihara – dwelling place for monkso The Buddhist Stupa is another form of architecture, comprising a hemispherical dome, a

solid structure into which one cannot enter

The stupa is a glorified, beautified, enlarged funerary mound (once the resting place of the bones and ashes of a holy man)

o The railing and gateways at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodh Gaya are the most famous in the north and at Amravati and Nagarjunakonda in the South

o On these surfaces are carved the favourite symbols of Buddhism, the lotus, elephant, bull, lion and horse and some of the Jataka stories of the previous births of Buddha, depicted in low relief with such exuberant details that they are considered a land-mark in the story of Indian art

Temple Architecture –o Earliest structural temple still standing in its original condition is the one constructed at

Aihole in Karnataka little structure built of huge almost boulder-like blocks of stones temple consists of a simple square cell (garbhagriha) or sanctum sanctorum, in

front of which there is a covered verandah, a portico, which consists of four heavy pillars supporting a stone roof

The entire structure is heavy, bulky and clumsy this was constructed near about 300 to 350 A.D

o The Ladkhan temple of Aihole belongs to about 5th century A.D Here the architect has tried to give attention to the circumambulation path

which is enclosed by means of a wall allowing devotees to have pradakshanao The Durga temple at Aihole is an apsidal temple of about 550 A.D. in which the architect

has made immense improvements upon his previous attempts To make this construction doubly strong, he hit upon the 'idea of making

brackets, an essential element in Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and used much earlier in China; a slanting piece of stone emerging as it were from the pillars or posts, reaching out like an arm to hold the lintel or beam steadily

This kind of construction is known by the architectural term, trabeate, as distinct from accurate which was later made use of by the Muslims

o Rock cut temples are found at Mahabalipuram known as Ratha (or Chariots)o Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed University

town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars Nalanda was an important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also

yielded seals and sealings of great historical significanceo Vimana – The temple tower over the main shrine in Orissa is one of the most glorious

inventions of architecture in India and is functionally a much finer conception than the south Indian Gopuram

chhatra or the crown on top of the spire or tower The round stone at the pinnacle of the horizontal slabs is amlaka

o The early Indian temple was provided with a flat roof and there was a problem of letting out accumulated rain water

In the Aihole temples of Ladkhan and Durga, the roof slabs have been given a slant and these slabs of large stones which were used in the early Orissan temples

Sun temple at Konark which was constructed by the eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Varman (1250)

vast & wonderful struct, magnificently conceived as a gigantic charioto Dravidian style of temple architecture –

from the 8th century to about the 13-14 century A.D Natamandaps – dance halls Bhogamandapas – hall of offerings Brihadesvara temple which was erected about 1000 A.D. is a contemporary of

the Rajarani temple of Bhubaneswar structure is adorned with beautiful sculpture and paintings Dedicated to Shiva - consists of the sanctum sanctorum

Kailasa temple at Ellora is in a class by itself because it is a rock-cut temple complex, which in many respects resembles the various rathas at Mahabalipuram

constructed during the reign of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna gopuram, is the tower, an oblong quadrangle, sometimes a square, with a

passage through the centre and is situated on the entrance gateway unlike in the north

o Khajuraho, twenty five miles North of Panna and twenty seven miles of Chhatarpur in Madhya Pradesh is an important place because of the exquisite temples built there by the Chandellas

They are cruciform in plan with the long axis from East to West these temples have a soft texture and a most pleasing colour he temples at Khajuraho have a circumambulatory passage also Panchayatana - a temple that has a central shrine surrounded by four other

shrineso Chaunsat Yogini Temple – the only temple made entirely of granite and dedicated to

sixty four yoginiso The Style/Shapes of temple architectures in India are –

Nagara - The tower/shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped Earliest Nagara temples are in Karnataka Galaganath at Pattadakal

Dravida - The tower/shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior

Vesara – Once common in Karnataka, which is a combination of two styles Classic Hindu temples of India and Southeast Asia, such as Angkor Wat,

Brihadisvara, Khajuraho, Mukteshvara, and Prambanan

Indo-Islamic Architecture:o The most important factors common to both forms of architecture, especially in respect

of mosques and temples, were that to both styles, ornamental decoration was very vital and that the open court in many cases was surrounded by colonnades

o The prayer chamber of the mosque was spacious, whereas the shrine of the temple was comparatively small

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque - Qutub-ud-din Aibak Qutub Minar of Mehrauli – started by Qutubuddin 1199 & compl by Iltumish Alai Darwaja – Allauddin Khilji Din-i-illahi – New eclectic religion created by Akbar Agra Fort – Akbar (1565-74) Panch mahal (fatehpur sikri, Agra) – trabeate structure – Akbar Foundation of Shahzanabad – Shahjahan Red Fort – irregular octagon – 1639-48 – Shahjahan Hawa Mahal – Jaipur, Rajasthan – Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh

Indian Sculpture

Indus Civilization –o urban culture is the bust portrait of a bearded nobleman or high priest, from

Mohenjodaro, weaving a shawl with trefoil pattern

It bears a close resemblance to a similar figure discovered in the Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa

o The figure of a male dancer belonging to the same period and discovered at Harappa almost 5000 years ago

The bronze dancing girl of the same period discovered at Mohenjodaro is perhaps the greatest surviving achievement of the metal work of the Harappan age

The art is of bronze casting in the cire perdue or lost-wax processo The terracotta figure representing a bull is a forceful representation, eloquently

proclaiming the special study of the anatomy of the animal by the modeller who fashioned the figure

The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and there is a cord around the neck

o Large number of seals made of steatite, terracotta and copper are found in excavations Seal of Pashupati - a seated figure of a Yogi, probably Shiva Pashupati,

surrounded by four animals - a rhino, a buffalo, an elephant and a tiger Buddhist Sculpture –

o Ashoka’s work – Lion-capital at Sarnath – It represents four roaring lions back to back facing the four cardinal directions The round abacus is decorated with four dharmachakras or wheels of law,

alternating with an elephant, a bull, a horse and a lion, all carved with masterly skill

The abacus is supported by a bell-shaped base consisting of a lotus with dharmachakra

o Buddha is never represented in human form in Buddhist art before the Christian era, as his spirituality was considered too abstract for the purpose

The adherents of the Buddhist faith followed the Hinayana path as a means of attaining salvation

Buddha's presence in early Indian art is, therefore, suggested by symbols like the Bodhi tree under which he attained enlightenment, the wheel of law, his foot prints, the royal umbrella, the stupa and an empty throne, etc

o Sanchi stupa - It is a solid structural dome raised on a terrace and surmounted by a railed pavilion from which rises the shaft of the crowning umbrella

The stupa was originally a mud funerary mound enshrining in its core the sacred relics of the Buddha or his disciples, such as hair, bits of bones, etc

The present stupa at Sanchi was originally constructed during Ashoka's reign but was considerably enlarged and the circum- ambulatory enclosure as well as the outer enclosures was added in the 1st century B.C

o relief medallion from Amravati belonging to the second century A.D. is a masterly representation of a scene showing the subjugation or taming of Nalagiri, a mad elephant let loose on the Buddha in the streets of Rajagriha by his wicked cousin, Devadatta

o After alexander invasion (326BC), a distinct style of sculpture Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art emerged

It was a product of the combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements

Buddha who was hitherto designated only by a symbol, was conceived in human form

The Gandhara image might seem to resemble Apollo in some extraneous forms and does look characteristically Greco-Roman in drapery

o Buddha is one who has attained the enlightenment of supreme knowledge, while the Bodhisattava is still a candidate for it

Gupta Sculpture –o Red sandstone image of the Buddha from Mathura

remarkable example of Gupta workmanship datable to the 5th century A.D Right hand in Abhayamudra(assuring protection) & left holding the hem of

garment o The image of the standing Buddha is an excellent example of Gupta art in its maturity

from Sarnatho Dharmachakrapravartana Mudra – The gesture of preachingo A magnificient repr. Of Vishnu belongs by Guptas like –

The typical gown – vanamala the charming string of pearls twirled round the neck, the long and elegant –

yagnopavita Medieval Sculpture –

o The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical form. The thin and elongated limbs emphasise the tallness of the figure

The female figures are much lighter in appearance, with their slender waists, narrow chests and shoulders, smaller breasts, sparse ornaments and garments and generally submissive attitude

The figure sculpture of the Pallavas is natural in pose and modeling The front of the torso is almost flat, and the ornamentations simple in high relief

o Later Pallava sculpture shows greater details of workmanship, lighter anatomy and more developed artistic finishing

o Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration

Their sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick set and heavier in their general proportions of limbs than those from Bengal

The Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in Hindu-Javanese sculpture, and painting of Nepal, Kashmir, Burma and Thailand

o Traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the profusion of intricately carved sculptures which decorate the Jain temples at Mount Abu, Girnar and Palitana

o Hoysala art – The temples they built at Halebid and Belur look like lace work in stone The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than

movement or the grace of the human body Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost

over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold Modern Indian Sculpture –

o the story of contemporary Indian sculpture is the story of a transition from academism to well-defined non-objectivism

o Contemporary Indian sculpture has not shown either the speed or variety of paintingo Nandalal Bose, Kshitindranath Majumdar are renowned pupils of Abanindranath Tagore

Nandalal - n the painting of a woman in the act of doing 'Pranam' one sees both simplicity and directness of his pictorialism as also the significant impact on his work of the vitality of folk art

Kshitindranath - known for his soft palette and the grace and lyrical quality of his drawing. He is almost unique in this respect

o Jamini Roy – His images and ideas as in this painting of 'Pujarinis' are direct, singularly stylised, and conceived in emphatic flat spaces and strong lines

o K Sreenivasulu - greatly moved by folk art and rural life like Jamini Roy He drew much inspiration from the art heritage of South India, particularly from

the mural tradition of Tanjavur and Lepakshio DP Roy Chowdhury – renowned sculptor – work ‘Triumph of Labour’

Paintings of India:

Wall Paintings –o Primitive records of painting in India was dated to Neolithic man where records of wild

animals, war processions and hunting scenes were picturesqueo Early mural paintings may be assumed to be the prototypes of the carved and painted

picture galleries of the subsequent periods of the Buddhist art, such as in the painted cave temples of Ajanta situated in Maharashtra State near Aurangabad

o paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and the Deccan at its best

o Paintings of Sittannavasal – connected with Jain themes and symbologyo Ellora –

composition of the paintings at Ellora is measured out in rectangular panels with thick borders

The classical tradition of modelling of the mass and rounded soft outline as well as the illusion of the coming forward from the depth is not altogether ignored

Sharp twist of the head, painted angular bents of the arms, the concave curve of the close limbs, the sharp projected nose and the long drawn open eyes – characteristic feature

o Paintings at Lepakshi, Hindupur - paintings are pressed within broad friezes and illustrate Saivaite and secular themes

o Technique – In Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore painting is done in a true fresco method

over the surface of the rock Most of the colours were locally available Brushes were made up from the hair of animals, such as goat, camel, mongoose,

etc The ground was coated with an exceedingly thin layer of lime plaster over which

paintings were drawn in water colours In true fresco method the paintings are done when the surface wall is still wet

so that the pigments go deep inside the wall surface Tempora or Fresco-secco method –

It is a method of painting on the lime plastered surface which has been allowed to dry first and then drenched with fresh lime water

On surface thus obtained artist proceeds to sketch out his composition

Miniature Paintings –o It has the flavor of Persian but has the inborn charm of Indian traditiono The practice of signing pictures was started in miniature paintings from this periodo Pala Paintings –

Pala painting is characterised by sinuous line and subdued tones of colour Naturalistic style – resembles contemporary bronze and stone sculpture –

reflects the feeling of classical art of Ajantao Western Indian Schools (15th century) –

motivating force for the artistic activity in Western India was Jainism The illustrations on these manuscripts are in a style of vigorous distortion This is an art of primitive vitality vigorous line and forceful colours

o Kulhadar Group – This group includes illustrations of the 'Chaurapanchasika’, Gita Govinda, the

Bhagavata Purana and Ragamala style of these miniatures is marked by the use of brilliant contrasting colours,

vigorous and angular drawing, transparent drapery conical caps 'Kulha' on which turbans are worn by the male figures

o Mughal paintings – Babur-Nama, Akbar-Nama, Hamza-Nama, Razm-Nama are beautifully illustrated

manuscripts of this period

Mughal paintings are aristocratic, individualistic, strong in their character of portraiture, being forstered by and for nobility

Mughal art peeped into the inner revelry of harem, court, wild bouts, depiction of elephant and camel fights appealed to emperor, scenes of hunting etc

Modern Indian Paintings –o There was only some minor artistic expression in the intervening period by way of the

'Bazar' and 'Company' styles of painting apart from the more substantial folk forms which were alive in many parts of

the countryo Raja Ravi Varma –

most remembered for his paintings of sari-clad women portrayed as shapely and graceful

o Renaissance or Revivalist school – Bengal school by Abanindranath tagore

Old NCERT:

Ancient India Literature –o Vedanga –

Siksha(phonetics), Kalpa(rituals), Vyakarna(grammar), Nirukta(etymology), Chhanda(metrics), Jyotisha(astronomy)

o Sutra – precise and exact form of exp in prose which was dev by ancient Indians Ex – Panini’s Ashtadhyayi

o Later vedic literature – Brahmanas – elaborate on vedic rituals Aranyakas, Upanishads – give discourse on diff spiritual & philo probs Sulvasutra – presc measurements for sacrificial altars – geometry, maths Srautasutra – account of royal coronation ceremonies Grihyasutra – domestic rituals with birth, naming, marriage, funeral etc

Jain and Buddhist Lit –o Jain – Prakrit (form of Sanskrit language)o Buddhism – Pali (Provides det of Contemporary Magadha kings, Ashokan edicts)

Jataka stories – Buddhist books – 550 stories – throws light on socio-economic conditions b/w 5BC – 2BC

Limitations of literary sources –o Printing was not known – everything written on bark, palm leaf, paper etco Old manus fragile – new copies manually copied – errors, additions, mistakes

Sangam Literature –o Tamil text – kings and chiefs patronized poets

o These poets assemble in collages & compiled poems over 3-4 cent – Sanga lit. Describe many kings and dynasties of South India Generally describes events upto 4th Century AD

o Poems written in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They represent a heroic age of warriors and battles

o Songs are not primitive, show high quality of grammaro It talked about how Yavans came in their own vessels, purchased pepper with gold,

supplied wine and women to Indian rulers. Greek writers –

o Megasthenese – Greek ambassador (in CG Maurya court) – Indika Indika provide valuable inf on Maurya Admin, social classes & eco activities Limitations of Indika –

Indika is not free from credulity and exaggerations Megasthenese had little understanding of Indian society and social sys Discrepancies because he didnt know any Ind lang, not part of society

o Herodotus - in his “Histories” gives us much information about Indo-Persian relationso Arrian - det acc of inv of Ind by Alexander on basis of inf frm those who accompd campo Anonymous – ‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ – gave valuable inf about Indian coastso Ptolemy – wrote geographical treatise on India in 2nd Cent ADo Limitations –

Most of Greek writings based on secondary sources resulted in no of errors Except for Megasthe all others touched Ind hist in true sense very marginally They were ignorant of lang & customs of country & inf is full of unbelive facts Works of Mega & others are lost and available only in fragments

Chinese travelers –o Fa-hien – 5th Cent AD – desc soc-religious & eco cond of India in time of Guptaso Hiuen-Tsang – 7th Cent – Age of Harshavardhana & some other contemp kings of N Indiao I-tsing – 7th Cento Limitations –

Hiuen-Tsang depicts Harsha as a follower of Buddhism but in his epigraphic records Harsha mentions himself as a devotee of Siva.

Counter - Indian rulers always have, like their subjects, been multi-religious people, it is not difficult for a foreigner to be confused

Arab Historian (Al-Beruni) –o Abu-Rihan – Central Asia 973AD – Contemporary of Mohd. Ghaznio Al-Beruni studied Sanskrit lang & tried to gain a precise knowledge of Indian sourceso His observations range from philo, rel, cult, society to science, lit, art and medicineo does not give any political information of his timeso comparatively free from religious or racial biases

Archaeological Sources –

o Mound – elevated portion of land, covering remains of old habitations Vertical excavation – helps uncover periodwise uncover of culture Horizontal – Digging mound as a whole – getting complete data of a site

Very expensive, done at only few places Impact of climate on Mounds –

Dry Arid climate(Raj, West UP) – better preserved Humid-Moist climate(Gangetic, Deltas) – Iron tools suffer corrosion

o Only burnt brick structures can be detectedo Megaliths – South Ind people buried their dead with tools, weapons, potteries etc. Such

graves were encircled by a big piece of stone, called Megaliths.o Carbon dating – measure of decaying of C14 to C12 and identify no of years elapsed

Inscriptions –o Ashokan inscriptions (in Brahmi script) are considered to be the earliest (3rd AD)o Four scripts used in edicts – Aramic, Greek (Afghan), Kharosthi(Pak), Brahmi(India)o James Prinsep – Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837o Sanskrit –

Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy They took the opp to give an acc of their conquests and achievements of their

predecessor including mythology of their origins Sanskrit came to occupy a prune place since the Gupta period

o Imp Inscriptions – Junagarh Rock – Rudradaman considered early ex of chaste Sanskrit, 2nd Cen AD Allahabad Pillar – enumerates achievements of Samudragupta Aihole inscription – Chalukya king Pulkeshin II gives a dynastic genealogy Gwalior inscr (Bhoja) – gives full account of his predecessors & his achievements

Acc to it Learned Brahmins are granted with land free of tax(Agraharas) Numismatics –

o Punch marked – Earliest coins, bear only symbols, don’t bear inscription Found throughout the country from Taxila to Magadha to Mysore Made from silver and copper, some with gold(rare, authenticity doubtful)

o Indo-Greek – Silver & copper, show beautiful artistic features, portrait of king appears real On the reverse side some deity is depicted From these coins we know that 40 Indo-Greek rulers ruled in NW region of India

o Kushanas – Mostly gold and numerous copper, coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Siva standing beside a bull Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins

o Guptas – Gold, indianised their coinage

Kings depicted activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding bow or battle-axes, playing musical instr. Or performing ashwamedh yajna

by Gali Vinod Simha