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CULTURE IN MANAGEMENT: THE MEASUREMENT OF DIFFERENCES
Dony Eko Prasetyo, S.IP.
CULTURE????
• A way of life of a group of people• That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society
• Everything that people have, think, and do as members of society
• Social heritage of a person• Way of life of a society, consisting of prescribed ways of
behaving or norms of conduct, beliefs, values, and skills• Sum total of life patterns passed on from generation to
generation within a group
Cont’d• SUATU SISTEM PEMAKNAAN YANG DIMILIKI OLEH SEKELOMPOK
ORANG, YANG TERCERMIN DALAM BAGAIMANA MEREKA MEMPERSEPSIKAN SESUATU, BERPIKIR DAN BERTINDAK.
• BERSIFAT RELATIF, ORANG DALAM BUDAYA YANG BERBEDA MEMPERSEPSIKAN DUNIA SECARA BERBEDA, DAN MEMPUNYAI CARA BERTINDAK YANG BERBEDA.
• BUDAYA DIPELAJARI MELALUI PENGALAMAN ORANG DALAM LINGKUNGAN SOSIAL DI MANA IA DIBESARKAN, (TIDAK DITURUNKAN).
• BUDAYA ADALAH FENOMENA KELOMPOK, BUKAN FENOMENA INDIVIDUAL.
• Budaya merupakan cara pemecahan masalah berkenaan dengan problem external adaptation dan internal integration.
Cont’d• (broadly) learned norms, values,
knowledge, artifacts, language and symbols
• (more specifically) facial expressions, religious beliefs, religious rituals, importance of time, paintings, values, literature, child-raising beliefs, ideas about leadership, gestures, ideas about fairness, ideas about friendship, ideas about modesty, eating habits, understanding of the natural world, concept of self, the importance of work, concept of beauty, general world view, concept of personal space, rules of social etiquette, housing
The Iceberg Metaphor
• The metaphor of culture as an “iceberg” is extremely helpful in that it identifies aspects of culture that are:
• Immediately visible= explicit, visible, taught (above the water line). Only about one-eighth of an iceberg is visible above the water. The rest is below.
• Part of the iceberg that emerges & submerges with the tides= “now you see it, now you don’t” (at the water line)
• Deep beneath the surface= “hidden culture” (below the water line)
“The Cultural Iceberg”
CULTURALLY COMPETENT PRACTICE
DEFINING CULTURAL COMPETENCE
• Refers to a set of academic and interpersonal skills that allow individuals to increase their understanding and appreciation of cultural differences and similarities within, among, and between groups
CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL
• Competency One: (Sue, 2006)Becoming aware of one’s own assumptions, values, and biases about human behaviors
9 THINGS WE NOTICE ABOUT PEOPLE
• Skin color
• Gender
• Age
• Appearance
• Facial expressions
• Eye contact
• Movement
• Personal space
• Touch
CULTURAL IDENTITY EXERCISE
• What is your culture? How important is your culture to you? What are beliefs/values of your culture? What are your cultural biases?
CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL
• Competency Two:Understanding the worldview of culturally diverse clients
RESPECTFUL APPROACH
• Refrain from judgments or assumptions• Practice respectful curiosity• Help me to understand you better• Take a “tell me more” approach• Respect diversity and differences• Seek out cultural brokers• Promote cultural competence
CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL
• Competency Three:Developing appropriate interventionstrategies and techniques
CULTURAL BRIDGING EXERCISE
• Discuss a time when you were able to effectively bridge across cultures with a student? How did you practice cultural competence? What strategies did you use?
CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL
• Competency Four:Understanding organizational and institutional forces that enhance or negate cultural competence
SYSTEM CHALLENGES EXERCISE
• Discuss a time when your system enhanced or negated your efforts towards cultural competence? What was this like for you?
Classifications of culture• Broad classifications: Hall’s High-Context and
Low-Context Cultural Framework• Detailed classifications:
– Tonnies and Loomis’s amplification – Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values
Orientations– Hofstede’s definition of culture & Bond’s addition– Schwartz's classification– Trompenaars’ 7 Dimensions of Culture
Hall’s High-Context and Low-Context Cultural Framework
High-Context Low-Context
China AustriaEgypt CanadaFrance DenmarkItaly EnglandJapan FinlandLebanon GermanySaudi Arabia NorwaySpain SwitzerlandSyria United States
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values Orientations
• Framework to describe how different societies cope with various issues or problems
• Includes 6 Values Orientations• A culture is defined by one or more
variations of a values orientation
Kluckhohn & Strodbeck definition of national culture
Type of national culture
Traditional-high context
Mixed Modern—Low context
•Relation to nature
Subjugation Harmony Mastery
•Time view Past Present Future
•Human nature Evil (theory X) Mixed Good (theory Y)
•Activity Being Containing Doing
•Relationships Hierarchical Group Individualistic
•Spatial Public Mixed Private
Kluckhohn dan StrodtbeckAsumsi Dasar
Relationship with nature
Hidup itu buruk Hidup itu baik Hidup itu buruk, tetapi manusia wajib berikhtiar spy hidup menjadi baik
Human activity
Karya itu untuk nafkah hidup
Karya itu untuk kedudukan dan kehormatan
Karya itu untuk menambah karya
Human nature Manusia tunduk kepada alam yang dahsyat
Manusia berusaha menjaga keselarasan dengan alam
Manusia berhasrat menaklukkan alam
Relationship with people
Orientasi kolateral, rasa ketergantungan dengan sesamanya(mis. Jiwa gotong royong)
Orientasi vertikal, rasa ketrgantungan kepada tokoh atasan dan berpangkat
Individualisme, menilai tinggi usaha atas kekuatan sendiri
Time Orientasi ke masa kini
Orientasi ke masa lalu
Orientasi ke masa depan
Relation to Nature
• SubjugationAccept nature; don’t try to change it
• HarmonyCoexist with nature (feng shui)
• MasteryChange nature through technology when necessary
or desirable
Time Orientation
• PastEmphasizes tradition
• PresentFocuses on short-term
• FutureEmphasizes long-term
Basic Human Nature
• GoodPeople trust each other
• Mixed-NeutralGenerally trusting but need to be cautious and
protect self• Evil
Lack of trust•
Activity Orientation
• DoingEmphasis on action, achievement, learning
• Containing/ControllingEmphasis on rationality and logic
• BeingEmphasis on enjoying life and working for the
moment
Relationships among People
• IndividualisticPeople define themselves through personal
characteristics and achievement
• Group-orientedPeople relate to and take responsibility for members of
the family, network, or community
• HierarchicalPeople value group relationships but also within the
society emphasize relative ranking of groups
Space Orientation
• PublicSpace belongs to all
• MixedThere is a combination of public and private space
• PrivatePeople consider it important to have their own
space
Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Values
• Focuses specifically on work-related values
• Developed in 1980 with data over 116,000 employees in 72 countries
• Average scores for each country used to develop national profiles to explain differences in work behaviors
Hofstede’s definition of culture & Bond’s addition
– individualism-collectivism– uncertainty avoidance– power distance– masculinity/femininity– Confucian work dynamism (time orientation)
Hofstede’s definition of culture & Bond’s addition
Type of culture
Traditional-High context
Mixed Modern- Low context
•Relationships Collectivism Combination Individualism
•Uncertainty avoidance
Extensive Combination Limited
•Power distance
High Combination Low
•Activity Femininity Combination Masculinity
•Time orientation
Long term Combination Short term
Individualism/Collectivism
• CollectivisticPeople value the overall good of the group
• IndividualisticPeople have concern for themselves and their
immediate families
Power Distance
• The extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is unequally distributed
• Large– Differences among people with different ranks are
acceptable
• Small– Less comfortable with power differences
•
Uncertainty Avoidance
• Indicates preferred amount of structure • Weak
– People prefer unstructured situations
• Strong– People prefer more structure
Masculinity/Femininity
• Extent to which people prefer traditional male or female values
• Feminine– “Tender” values dominant - personal
relationships, care for others, quality of life, service
• Masculine– “Tough” values dominant - success, money,
status, competition
The Chinese Value Survey
• Reaction to the Hofstede study• Developed in Chinese based on traditional
Chinese values• Translated and administered to students in
23 countries• 4 dimensions, 3 match Hofstede (PD, I/C,
and M/F) plus Confucian Work Dynamism
Long-term/Short-term Orientation
• High Confucian work dynamism/Long-term orientedConcern with future, value thrift and
persistence• Low Confucian work dynamism/Short-
term orientedOriented toward past and present, respect for
tradition but here and now is most important
Schwartz's classification
• Focuses on universal aspects of individual value content and structure
• Based on issues that confront all societies – The nature of boundaries between the individual
and the group.– How to support responsible behavior.– How to regulate the relation of people to the
social and natural world.
Embeddedness Versus Autonomy • Embeddedness
– People view others as inherently part of collectives. Meaning in life comes from social relationships & shared way of life & goals.
• Autonomy– Individuals seen as autonomous, bounded entities who
find meaning in their own uniqueness• Intellectual autonomy - people follow their own ideas
and value curiosity, creativity, and open-mindedness• Affective autonomy - individuals independently pursue
positive experiences that make them feel good
Hierarchy Versus Egalitarianism
• HierarchyThe social system has clearly defined roles to
identify obligations & rules of behavior • Egalitarianism
Think of each other as equals sharing basic human interests that values equality, justice, honesty & responsbility
Mastery Versus Harmony
• HarmonyEmphasizes understanding and fitting in with the
environment, rather than trying to change it • Mastery
Encourages people to master, change, and exploit the natural and social environment for personal or group goals
Trompenaars’ Dimensions of Culture
• Dimensions represent how societies develop approaches to managing problems and difficult situations
• Over a 14 year period, data collected from over 46,000 managers representing more than 40 national cultures
Trompenaars’ 7 Dimensions of Culture
• Particularism vs. Universalism• Collectivism vs. Individualism • Affective vs. Neutral Relationships• Diffuse vs. Specific Relationships• Ascription vs. Achievement• Relationship to Time• Relationship to Nature
Global Strategic Options : creating synergy amongst diverse cultures
Cultural Dominance(fight)
Cultural Synergy (fit and develop new solutions)
Cultural Compromise(combination of dominance and accomodation)
Cultural Avoidance (flight)
Cultural Accomodation (follow)
“their culture’s way”
“my
cultu
re’s
way
”
Management Implications of Power DistanceManagement Processes
Low PowerDistance
High PowerDistance
HRM Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration
Leadership styles
Motivational Assumptions
Decision making/Organizational DesignStrategy Issues
Educational achievementFor autonomyPerformance
Small wage difference between management and workerParticipative; less direct supervisionPeople like work; extrinsic and intrinsic rewardsDecentralized; flat pyramids; small proportion of supervisorsVaried
Social class; elite education.For conformity/obedienceCompliance; trustworthinessLarge wage difference between management and workerTheory X. authoritarian, with close supervision.Assume people dislike work coercion.Tall pyramids; large proportion of supervisors.
Crafted to support the power elite or government.
Management Implications of UAIManagement Processes
High UAI Low UAI
HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/ Promotion Remuneration
Leadership styles
Motivational Assumptions
Decision making/Organizational Design
Strategy Issues
Seniority; expected loyalty
SpecializedSeniority; expertise; loyalty
Based on seniority or expertiseTask-oriented
People seek security, avoid competition.
Larger organization; tall hierarchy; formalized, many standardized proceduresAverse to risk
Past job performance; educationTraining to adaptObjective individual performance data; job switching for performance
Based on performanceNon directive; person-oriented; flexible.
People are self-motivated, competitive.Small organizations; flat hierarchy, less formalized, with fewer written rules and standardized proceduresRisk Taking
Management Implications of IndividualismManagement Processes
Low Individualism (Collectivism)
High Individualism
HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration
Leadership styles
Motivational Assumptions
Decision making/Organizational DesignStrategy Issues
Group membership; school or universityFocus on company-based skillsSlow, with group; seniority
Based on group membership/organizational paternalismAppeals to duty and commitment
More involvement
Group; slow; preference for larger organizationIncremental changes with periodic revolutions
Universalistic based on individual traitsGeneral skills for individual achievementBased on individual performanceExtrinsic rewards (money, promotion) based on market valueIndividual rewards and punishments based on performanceCalculative; individual cost/benefitIndividual responsibility; preference for smaller organizationsAggressive
Management Implications of Masculinity/FemininityManagement Processes Low Masculinity High Masculinity
HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration
Leadership styles
Motivational Assumptions
Decision making/Organizational Design
Strategy Issues
Independent of gender;school ties less important; androgyny.Job-orientedJob performance, with less gender-based assignments.Less salary difference between levels; more time off.More participativeEmphasis on quality of life, time off, vacations, work not central.
Intuitive/group; smaller organizations
Preference for consistent growth
Jobs gender identified; school performance and ties importantCareer orientedContinues gender-tracking
More salary preferred to fewer hoursMore Theory X; authoritarianEmphasis on performance and growth; excelling to be best; work central to life; job recognition important.
Decisive/individual; larger organization preferred.
Aggressive
Management Implications of Long-Term OrientationManagement Processes
Short-Term Orientation Long-Term Orientation
HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration
Leadership styles
Motivational Assumptions
Decision making/Organizational DesignStrategy Issues
Objective skill assessment for immediate use to companyLimited to immediate company needsFast; based on skill contributions
Pay, promotionsUse incentives for economic advancement
Immediate rewards necessary
Logical analysis of problems; design for logic of company situationFast; measurable payback
Fit of personal and background characteristicsInvestment in long-term employment skillsSlow; develop skills and loyalty
SecurityBuild social obligations
Subordinate immediate gratification for long-term individual and company goalsSynthesis to reach consensus; design for social relationshipsLong-term profits and growth; incrementalism.