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Cultural Responses to Climate Change: Lessons from the Holocene
Peter deMenocal (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University)
Climate - Society Theories
“Cultural Determinism”– Culture alone determines culture.– Prevalent throughout 18th-19th century Europe
“Environmental determinism” – Human culture is determined by the environment.
• Charles Darwin “Origin of Species”, 1870’s
“Possiblism”– Compromise: The natural environment influences
the range of available (possible) human choices.
Overview
• Natural climate variability: – The present is NOT the key to the past.
• Climate of the last 10,000 years (Holocene):– Punctuated by large and persistent climate
changes every ~1000-2000 years.
• Cultural responses to past climate change: – The Classic Maya and Akkadian empires.
• We can learn about our future by studying the past.
Introduction
• Water availability is the critical factor regulating life in semiarid environments.
• Cultures can and do adapt to interannual to decadal changes in climate.
• How have cultures responded to longer-term (decade to century-scale) changes?
Combine detailed and well-dated paleoclimate and archeological records.
What do we know about the climate of the last 1,000 years?
• Instrumental climate records are too short (100-200 years).
• Longer records of past climate change (paleoclimate):– Glaciers– tree rings – corals – lake and ocean sediments
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The 1930s Dust Bowl
• Six year drought (1933-1938), well-documented.
• Due to wanton farming practices and over-capitalization.
• Cost over $1 billion in 1930’s dollars, federal relief programs.
• US was better prepared for a longer drought in 1950s.
Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly 1932-1939
OBSERVED
Contour interval = 0.2°C
A cold, La Nina-like, tropical Pacific Ocean
The Dust Bowl Precipitation Anomaly (1932-1939)
GOGA MODEL
GOGA MODEL = Global Sea Surface Temperature Specified
Contour interval = 2 mm/month
OBSERVED
What about BEFORE the instrumental record?
Tree ring evidence for drought
Thickness of tree rings in some species is sensitive to rainfall.
Narrow band = dry climate
0
20
40
60
80
100
1150 1253936 1034
1321 1829
YEAR
1915
LONG-TERM CHANGES IN DROUGHT AREA IN THE 'WEST'
THE CENTRAL DATES OF THESIGNIFICANT (p<0.05) EPOCHSARE INDICATED WITH ARROWS
DRIER
WETTER
1613
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Cook et al., Science(2004)
A Longer Perspective on Drought:Tree Ring Reconstructions
Past droughts have been longer and more severe
Medieval Droughts
Similar pattern as modern drought.
Conditions persisted MUCH longer (20-40yrs)
‘Mega-droughts’
40 years
30 years
25 years
22 years
Drought and the Anasazi (ancestral Pueblo)
Classic example of cultural impacts of climate change.
Studies of the Four Corners region show population crashes related to megadroughts
Benson et al. (2006)
Nu
mb
er
of h
ab
itatio
n s
ites
Anasazi depopulation of the SW US
The “Great Drought” spanned 1272-1298 AD (~26 years).
Other factors: Warfare, balkanization, religion.
Mesa Verde, CO
Interannual-Decadal Variability
– Severe droughts lasting decades are common (many per millennium).
– This mode of climate variability is present in the instrumental record (that is, expected).
– Cultures can and do readily adapt to these variations.
Is this the full range of natural climate variability at socially-relevant timescales?
Holocene Climate
The Holocene represents the present warm period (last ca. 12,000 years).
It’s “Our Time”, spanning the emergence of agriculture and civilizations.
– How stable was it?– What factors influenced Holocene climate
change?
Mechanisms of Holocene Climate Change
– Long-term: Earth orbital variations (millennia)– Shorter-term: Solar variability, volcanic eruptions
and greenhouse gases (century-scale)
– Ocean-atmosphere interactions (El-Niño, NAO…)– Natural, unforced variability (random)
The Little Ice Age and Medieval Warm Period were the most recent of these events...
-32.0 -31.0
Greenland Temp. (°C)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Bermuda Rise SST(°C)
West African SST(°C, anomaly)
Age (yr BP)
21 22 23 24 25
Medieval Warm Period
Mid-Neoglacial
Little Ice Agea
b
-6 -4 -2 0 2
Most of the variability over the past 1000 years due to solar variability and volcanism.
Cultural Responses to Holocene Climate Change
• Paleoclimate records document large climate changes which persisted for many centuries to millennia.
• Climate transitions can be very abrupt.• Regional to global (?) extent.
• What impact did these climate perturbations have on complex societies living at the time?
• Examples:– Akkadian Empire (ca. 4200 yrs BP)– Classic Maya Empire (ca. 1200 yrs BP)
Akkadian Imperial Collapse (4200 yrs BP)
• First empire imperialized Mesopotamia between 4300-4200 yr BP.
• Imperialization linked productive rainfed (semiarid) agriculture of northern Mesopotamia (Sumer) with south.
• Collapse occurred near 4170±150 yr BP (Weiss et al., 1993).
• Collapse was previously attributed to political disintegration.
Sargon of Akkad
Tell Leilan, NE Syria
• Weiss et al. (1993) excavated this former Akkadian imperial town.
• Their results suggested rapid abandonment due to onset of aridity.
• At right, a ~600m2 excavated residential occupation with roadway.
Deep-Sea Sediment Record of Mesopotamian Climate
Cullen et al. (2000) tested the Weiss et al. (1993) claim using the deep-sea sediment record to reconstruct changes in Mesopotamian climate.
– Late Holocene aridity record should be preserved in deep-sea sediments.
Euphrates
Tigris
Nile
30 40 50 6040
30
20
10
Dust source areas Summer surface winds &dust transport vectors
M5-422
Tell Leilan
QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressorare needed to see this picture.Dr. Heidi CullenThe Weather Channel !
Mesopotamian Dust
Dust storm over Mesopotamia (May, 2000)
Same dust storm, 10 days later, over the Gulf of Oman
Akkadian Collapse
• Onset of ~300 year period of greatly increased aridity near 4025±125 yr BP coincides with Akkadian collapse at 4170±150 yr BP (within dating uncertainty). – How widespread was the collapse?
• Enhanced aridity at this time also reported for Turkey, Israel, and Egypt.
• Nd and Sr isotopes confirm dust is from a Mesopotamian source similar to Tell Leilan.
• Volcanic glass shards found at Tell Leilan and in the deep-sea are geochemically correlative.
Classic Maya Culture (300-900 AD)
Classic Maya culture ruled Mesoamerica from 250 to 850 AD.
Late Classic culture (550-850 AD) known for highly stratified society, vast trade networks, and widespread construction of urban centers and monumental stellae.
8-15 million people across Yucatan Peninsula
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Tikal (Guatemala)
Classic Maya Collapse (800 AD)
Classic Maya empire collapsed at peak intellectual and cultural development at 900 AD.
Lowland urban abandonment
End of monument construction
Cultural disintegration
Factors cited: Deforestation, overpopulation, warfare, religious and social upheaval.
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Largest urban center: Palenque
Cariaco Basin (Venezuela)
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Annual laminations
Cariaco Basin laminated sediments
Mayan collapse occurred during a 150-year drought!
wet
dry
Climate Change and Classic Maya
Collapse
0 1 2
What can be learned from these examples?
Complex societies are sensitive to climate change.
Paleoclimate records document changes in climate which surpassed modern variability.
Other social factors in each case may have contributed to observed collapse.
Collapse occurred despite evidence that these cultures had large buffering capacities.
Conclusions
Modern and ancient cultures:- Thrive in marginal environments.- Plan for the future based on recent past (regrettably)- Learn and adapt (fortunately).
Only ancient cultures experienced century-scale drought.
Their past can be a guide to our future.
Lessons from the past
Complex societies are both adaptive and vulnerable to climate change.
Past climate changes far surpassed modern variability.
Collapse occurred despite large buffering capacities.