LAIMUN XXII December 3-4, 2016

Topics: Rural Electrification; Access to Nuclear Medical Technology

Chaired by: Hira Shah and Matthew Gutierrez

CSTD

ECOSOC

CONTENTS

Letter from the Secretariat

Introduction to the Dais

Topic A: Rural Electrification

1

2

4

Topic B: Access to Nuclear Medical Technology 14

3Committee Description

Letter from the Secretariat1

Incoming Delegates:

Welcome to LAIMUN XXII! We are thrilled to put on our twenty-second conference--now with both Advanced and Novice committees.

Our chairs intend to hold all delegates, novice and advanced, to high standards of research, substance, speech, and diplomacy.

With regard to resolutions and amendments, we have a strict no pre-written policy. All of your work must be original, created following the start of the first committee session.

We hope that you will get as much out of this experience as possible. While we do wish to run a professional conference, that should not hold you back from enjoying spirited debate in each committee.

If you have any questions, procedural or otherwise, you may direct them to ecosoc@mchsmun.org. Please do not hesitate to contact us with any inquiries or concerns. We wish you all the best of luck and look forward to seeing you in December!

All the best,

Eliza Davis and Matthew Dumont Beau StasoSecretaries-General USG

1

Introduction to the Dias2

Hi Everyone!Welcome to LAIMUN XXII! I’m Hira Shah and I will be co-chairing with Matthew

Gutierrez in the UN Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD). I am a senior here at Mira Costa High School and have been in Costa’s Model United Nations Program for the past four years. This year, I am a teacher assistant for our freshman Introduction to Model United Nations Class. Chairing for LAIMUN these past years was a highlight of my Model UN experience, and I am so excited to see how this year’s conference turns out. Outside of Model UN, I participate in our school’s band program, playing the clarinet in the marching band. I am also president of the Mira Costa chapter of Young Philosophers’ Society. Prior to attending Mira Costa, I lived in France and spent four years at the Lycée International de Saint Germain-en-Laye. I am fluent in French and am currently studying Mandarin Chinese. I have a true passion for languages. Without any further adieu, I wish you all the best of luck in research. Please feel free to contact us with any questions. I can’t wait to see all your hard work and dedication pay off!

Hello Delegates!My name is Matthew Gutierrez, and I will be co-chairing the Commission on Science

and Technology for Development (CSTD) with Hira Shah at LAIMUN XXII. I am a junior at Mira Costa High School, and this will be my third year in Model UN but my first year chairing. Model UN has allowed me to debate at local conferences and travel conferences too like the Regional High School Model United Nations Conference in San Francisco. Aside from debate, itself Model UN has allowed me to develop better speaking and social skills. When I’m not doing schoolwork most of my free time is spent playing soccer, hanging out with friends or browsing through the internet. I can’t wait to see all of you and hear your ideas in committee!

Kind Regards,Matthew Gutierrez

Committee Description3

The Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) is an

organ of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The CSTD was

established in 1992 in an attempt to reorganize and improve the ECOSOC committees.

Although it is a faction of ECOSOC, the CSTD is run by the secretariat of the United

Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Since its first meeting in 1993, the CSTD

has been responsible for increasing understanding of technology and science in the

underdeveloped world, regulating the implementation of actions outlined in United

Nations resolutions, and examining crucial questions regarding science and technology.

Currently, CSTD has 43 member states which are elected into four year terms by the

United Nation’s Economic and Social Council. The division of the member countries is as

follows: eleven members from Africa, nine from Asia, eight from Latin America and the

Caribbean, and fifteen from Europe and North America.

Topic A: Rural Electrification 4

I. Background

In the 138 years since Thomas Edison’s landmark discovery of artificial electric

light, electrical energy has become indispensable to life in modern civilization. Electricity

powers both technological development and the activities of daily life. Despite the

necessity of electricity in the modern era, the distribution of electric energy across the

globe is disparate and stratified. According to the Internal Energy Agency (IEA), 17% of

the global population – an estimated 1.2 billion people – remain without access to

electricity. In the world’s fifty poorest nations, 79% of people have no access to

electricity. While urban areas display average electrification rates over 90%, rural regions

fall below 33%. About 2.5 billion people worldwide rely on expensive and

environmentally detrimental sources of energy including firewood, charcoal, and

disposable batteries. Indoor air pollution from the burning of biomass for energy causes

over 4.3 million premature deaths annually, according to the World Health Organization

(WHO.)

The countries with the lowest rates of access to electricity are concentrated in the

chiefly rural nations of Sub-Saharan Africa. South Sudan falls at the bottom of the World

Bank’s Global Electrification Ranking with 5.1% of the population with access to

electricity, followed by Chad with 6.4%, Burundi with 6.5%, Liberia with 9.8%, Malawi

with 9.8%, and the Central African Republic with 10.8%.

5The IEA Outlook predicts that the number of people without access to electricity will fall

to 800 million by 2030. This growing rate of electrification is largely a result of

urbanization - the trend of population migration toward city centers. This means that

individuals from rural areas are migrating to electricity rather than electricity being brought

to rural regions. This reality has major ramifications; without electricity, rural regions are

deprived of a plethora of benefits.

There is a strong correlation between access to electricity and quality of life.

Electric lighting provides increased study time for rural scholars, greater community

security, and extended hours for business and industry. Electrification of the agricultural

sector boosts output, leading to revitalization of revitalizing stagnant agricultural

economies, increased familial incomes, and reduced poverty. For many, access to

electricity represents an opening to the outside world. Rural regions, previously

sequestered away from modernized civilization, are allowed by electrically powered radios

and televisions to access crucial health and safety information. Increases in electrification

are correlated with reduced premature death rates as well as reduced birth rates.

Historically, the funding for successful rural electrification projects has been

primarily provided by the central government. However, in many developing nations, like

those found in Sub-Saharan Africa, the central governments lack the infrastructure and

capital to carry out these initiatives. Due to this lack of central funding, many developing

nations have turned to private investment to finance electrical infrastructure expansion

projects.

6II. United Nations Involvement

At the September 2000 United Nations Millennium Summit, the UN released a set

of eight initiatives to reduce extreme poverty called the Millennium Development Goals,

expected to be completed before the year 2015. The United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP), the body charged with overseeing the accomplishment of the eight

MDGs, has recognized that the expansion of global energy access contributes directly to

the achievement of all of the goals in rural regions. The first MDG, to eradicate world

hunger, is accomplished by the increased familial incomes and farming output generated

through agricultural mechanization. The expansion of educational opportunities, the focus

of the second MDG, is supported by electricity’s power to light schools and extend study

time. Rural electrification allows the mechanization of domestic tasks. With the

traditionally female task of gathering biomass-based fuel made obsolete, women are free to

attend school or pursue employment, contributing to the third MDG of increased gender

equality. The fourth, fifth, and sixth MDGs all relate to healthcare pertaining to child

mortality, maternal health, and infectious diseases, respectively. Electricity powers health

clinics and allows the refrigeration of medicines and vaccines - massively increasing the

effectiveness of delivery of health services to remote rural areas. The use of sustainable,

renewable energy advances the seventh MDG of environmental sustainability by slowing

deforestation and air pollution resulting from the use of wood and coal for traditional fuel.

Finally, the eighth MDG relates to the creation of a global partnership for development.

Global communication and collaboration can more effectively occur when rural and urban

areas are electrically connected, allowing for ample inter-regional information exchange.

7 The World Bank is the UN body at the forefront of rural electrification initiatives. Since

2009, the World Bank Group has allotted over 20 percent of its annual loans to electricity

infrastructure projects, most of which concentrate on disadvantaged rural areas. Funding

from the World Bank contributes to electrical power generation, transmission, and

distribution projects. The World Bank Group has supported major rural electrification

projects in India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Brazil. The Climate Investment

Funds (CSF), founded by the World Bank Group in 2008, is another major subsidizer of

rural electrification projects. The World Bank’s Independent Evaluation Group (IEG)

evaluates the effectiveness of World Bank-funded rural electrification initiatives and offers

insights into possible improvements. In 2008, the IEG released a comprehensive report on

the impact of rural electrification entitled “The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A

Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits,” evaluating the effectiveness of World Bank

loans, accessibility to key target regions, and feasibility of electricity methods. The

Alliance for Rural Electrification, a European non-governmental organization, works to

coordinate private business investment in rural electrification.

A major force in the expansion of rural electrification has been the United Nations

Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The UNCTAD and the Commission

on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) are closely related, as the secretariat

of UNCTAD oversees the work of the CSTD to provide expert advice on the feasibility of

scientific and technological policy recommendations. In 2010, UNCTAD released a report

on “Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Development.” The paper defined

renewable energy technologies (RETs) as electricity generated from renewable sources

such as wind, solar, water, and geothermal. Through the use of case studies in countries

such as Nepal, Eritrea, Guatemala, China, Namibia, and Lao People’s Democratic

Republic, the paper analyzes the relative impact of various forms of RETs.

8 III. Topics to Consider

Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

During the first decade after gaining independence from colonial rule in the 1960s,

Africa’s growth outpaced that any of the world’s other developing regions. In the 1970s a

major setback was experienced due in part to the huge influx of funds and a destabilization

of the economies, a phenomenon recognised today as Dutch Disease. Growth in the

continent throughout the 1980’s and 1990’s stagnated and even regressed. Decades of

poverty have left Sub-Saharan central governments lacking the funds to subsidize electrical

public works programs, as has been done in most modern examples of successful

nationwide electrification.

Foreign direct investment and domestic economic development initiatives could both

present possible avenues for stimulation of the government’s financial sector - a necessary

step before major rural electrification projects are undertaken.

Incentivizing Private Investment in Rural Electrification

Aside from relying upon Sub-Saharan African governments to invest in rural

electrification, private equity investors can be made aware of straightforward incentives to

invest in renewable sources of electrification. For example, investors in IHS Towers, a

major African operator of telecommunications towers, found that it could cut the $3,000-

4,000 average monthly cost of operating towers by nearly 33% by updating their diesel

generators or replacing them with solar panels. The manufacturing and distribution

systems that are developed to make conversions such as these possible provide

infrastructure by which similar conversions from outmoded, unsustainable sources of

electrification may be accomplished throughout outlying regions for a profit. Incentivizing

the private sector to contribute to electrification projects in developing nations could be the

solution to acute funding shortages on the federal level.

Renewable Energy Sources

9 Currently, power plants fired by coal fuel 41% of global electricity. Although fossil fuels

presently dominate the world’s energy sector, concerns about long term sustainability have

come to rise within the international community. As the effects of carbon emissions

become apparent in environmental change, demand increases for clean renewable energy

sources. Solar energy can be harnessed with solar panels costing roughly USD 0.17-0.3

per kWh. Wind turbines convert air currents to electricity. The force of the downhill flow

of water can be captured with hydroelectric power. Heat from the Earth’s core is utilized

as a geothermal power source. Depending on the geography of remote rural regions, one

or more of these alternative electricity sources may be cost-effective and advantageous.

IV. Case Study: Senegal

Senegal, a country located in West Africa, is a Sub-Saharan rural electrification

success story. Prior to 1998, Senegal’s electrification sector was a public monopoly

controlled by only one sponsor, the central government. The electrification rate in 1997

was only 5% in rural areas. To reform this ineffective energy system, the 98-29 bill was

passed on April 14, 1998. This bill liberalized the energy sector, splitting the control of

electricity between three organizations: the Agence Sénégalaise d’Electrification Rurale

(ASER), the Senegalese Agency for Rural Electrification and the Commission de

Régulation du Secteur de l’Electricité (CRSE.) In 2002, Senegal launched the Senegalese

Rural Electrification Action Plan to increase private sector involvement in electricity

infrastructure development. By partially privatizing rural electrification, Senegal opened

up access to funds from international donors. Senegal’s 2002 program was “technology-

neutral,” allowing electricity providers to determine the most cost-effective solution. This

program was exceptionally successful in attracting private finance; between 2002 and

2012, it generated an average of 49% private sector investment, over twice the 22% global

average for rural electrification initiatives.

10 V. Guiding Questions

1. How can we better equip governments of developing nations to reform their energy

sectors? What role should developed nations play in rural electrification? What

role should domestic private companies play? What role should foreign private

companies play?

2. Which electricity-generating technologies are the most cost-effective? Which are

easiest to implement in rural regions? Which are the most environmentally

sustainable? As a whole, what is the most logical investment?

3. How can we ensure return-on-investment for rural electrification initiatives?

4. Which rural areas should be prioritized to maximize on benefits of electrification?

What geographic, social, and political factor could facilitate or hinder

electrification?

11Works Cited

"About the Millennium Development Goals." UN Millennium Project. Ban Ki Moon, n.d.

Web. 23 May 2016.

"Access to Electricity (% of Population)." World Bank. The World Bank, n.d. Web. 22

May 2016.

The Alliance for Rural Electrification. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2016.

"Coal & Electricity." World Coal Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.

"Energy Access Across The World | BERC." Berkeley Energy & Resources Collaborative.

University of California Berkeley, 03 Feb. 2015. Web. 22 May 2016.

Gronewold, Nathanial. "One-Quarter of World's Population Lacks Electricity."Scientific

American. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.

"Home Page." National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May

2016.

"Institutional Barriers to a ‘perfect’ Policy: A Case Study of the Senegalese Rural

Electrification Plan." Science Direct. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.

Niang, Aliou. "Rural Electrification in Senegal Case Study." Economic and Political

Weekly (n.d.): n. pag. Rural Electrification Workshop, Nairobi. UNEP. Web. 22 May

2016.

Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Development. New York: United Nations,

2010. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. UNCTAD Current

Studies on Science, Technology, and Innovation. Web. 22 May 2016.

Rose, Amy. "Solar Power in Developing Countries: Big Opportunities for Unique

Markets." The Energy Collective. Energy Post Productions, n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.

"The Senegalese Rural Electrification Action Plan: A 'good Practice' Model for Increasing

Private Sector Participation in Sub-Saharan Rural Electrification?" Academia.edu. N.

p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.

12"A Sub-Saharan Scramble." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 24 Jan. 2015.

Web. 22 May 2016.

"The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification." Independent Evaluation Group (2008): n.

pag. World Bank, 2008. Web. 22 May 2016.

"What Dutch Disease Is, and Why It's Bad." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper,

05 Nov. 2014. Web. 22 May 2016.

The World Energy Outlook 2015. N.p.: International Energy Agency, 2015. International

Energy Agency. Web.

7Topic B: Access to Nuclear Medical Technology

13

I. Background

Nuclear medicine is a form of treatment that uses small amounts of radiation for

diagnosis or therapy for certain diseases that cannot be improved through surgery or regular

forms of medication. The main diagnostic procedure that uses nuclear medicine is the

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan. Although X-rays, Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(MRI), Chemotherapy and Mammograms are commonly associated with PET Scans, these

methods do not use radioactive material. The usage of radioactive materials requires the

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to oversee the usage of PET scans in the United

States and the countries it works with. In addition, PET scans have been responsible for more

accurate diagnosis of abnormalities in the function and size of organs, cancers, and internal

infections. The main risks that come from PET scans, or any other diagnostic measures using

radioactive materials, are allergic reactions and radiation affecting babies that are still in the

womb. In order to prevent any lasting contamination during the diagnostic procedures, the

radioisotope technetium-99 is used. technetium-99 is convenient since its half-life, the time

required for half of the radioactive atoms to deteriorate, is about six hours, meaning that it

will die soon after entering the body.

Treatment through nuclear medicine is done through the usage of a pharmaceutical

that is placed on a small radioisotope or radioactive material; together they are known as a

radiopharmaceutical. Radioisotopes are also commonly referred to as radionuclides in the

medical field. New developments in nuclear medicine has allowed for the direct treatment of

cancer with radionuclides.

14Specifically, Yttrium-90, which sends Cytotoxic amounts of radiation to areas affected

by Cancer. Subsequently, benign and malignant tumors become suppressed by the increasing

amount of radiation. When it comes to treatment of subsidiaries of Cancer , the most commonly

used radionuclides are Strontium-89, Lutetium-177 and Samarium-153. Both Strontium-89 and

Samarium are used to treat metastasis, the development of secondary malignant tumors away

from the primary site of cancer. Lutetium-177 however, is used to treat neuroendocrine tumors.

The usage of nuclear medicine has become preferable to chemotherapy for tumor treatment due

to its reduced costs and minute pain. Even though the half-life of Radionuclides in the

diagnostic field tend to be short, the opposite is true for therapeutic radionuclides. The longer

half-life of these Radioisotopes allows them to treat diseases such as cancer, hyperthyroidism

and lymphoma. Although both of these uses for Nuclear medicine are effective their costs make

them difficult to access. Currently, only well-developed countries that are members of the

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), like the United States and Japan, have prominent

markets for nuclear medicine. The inability for developing countries to quickly implement these

new forms nuclear medical technology comes from their lack of resources in a field where

materials are already being depleted.

II. UN Involvement

At the forefront of increasing access to nuclear medical technology is the International

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Since 1985, the IAEA has held a yearly symposium on nuclear

medicine within underdeveloped countries as a forum to review new ways to increase access of

nuclear Medicine. In addition to the annual symposium, the IAEA has started a technical

cooperation (TC) to help with the implementation of nuclear medical technology in developing

countries. The TC has helped countries project the costs of nuclear medical facilities, train local

doctors on how to use nuclear medical technologies, and fund their ventures with $54 million

USD provided by the IAEA. Countries that have benefitted from the IAEA’s TC are located in

eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America.

15However, the African member states have seen the greatest improvements since their

allocated funds from the TC were used to improve infrastructure. Facilities were either

created or improved and old machinery has been replaced with single-photon emission

computed tomography machines and Positron Emission Tomography scanners.

Aside from providing materials for diagnostic machinery, the IAEA has attempted to

strengthen the radiopharmaceutical market in its member states. However, instead of

attempting to raise profits, the IAEA has created a set of guidelines for their member states

to follow. These guidelines are based off the fundamentals of the Good Manufacturing

Practice (GMP). The GMP is meant to be a system that “ensures that products are

consistently produced and controlled to quality standards,” and has now been implemented

in underdeveloped member-states such as Mauritania in order to attempt to ensure that

radiopharmaceuticals produced are safe for usage. In addition to the GMP, the IAEA has

implemented a new Quality Management System which assists scientists when making new

radiopharmaceuticals wherever it is implemented .

III. 3 Topic-based sections

Regulation of Radiopharmaceutical usage

Although the GMP guidelines have been set in place for the IAEA member states,

they have not been completely followed. Despite this issue being brought up at the 13th

International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities, no real solution was devised by

the IAEA or any other faction of the United Nations. They were unable to create an effective

solution because they came to the conclusion that the legislature of each country's national

government undermines guidelines set by the UN or the IAEA. The IAEA’s lack of power

on national governments allowed these governments to ignore their guidelines and put their

interests over the GMP. In addition, regulatory inconsistencies come from the lack of

accurate reports from nuclear medical centers in Developing countries due to poor record

keeping by inadequately trained doctors.

16The lack of regulation over radiopharmaceuticals can lead to losses in revenue, over

or under-usage of a certain radiopharmaceutical and even the creation of a black market.

In contrast to the failures of countries that lack regulation, those who do, have very

successful markets for nuclear medicine. For example, the market of the United States is

regulated by Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The NRC oversees the usage and

distribution of PET scanners and radioisotopes or radionuclides. Since the United States is

the largest producer of Technetium-99, which accounts for 70% of the radiopharmaceutical

market, they are the largest contributor to the $7 billion USD evaluation of the global

radiopharmaceutical market.

Controlling Hazardous Waste

Considering that many underdeveloped countries have not yet learned techniques on

proper waste disposal, hazardous waste has become a prevalent issue. The disposal

guidelines are simple, but are often ignored by those who handle the radionuclides and

radioisotopes because of its tedious process. The procedures for waste disposal includes

Waiting a 48-hour period before mixing radioactive waste with other waste, recording dates

of collection for used syringes and gloves after they are placed in plastic bags, and letting

radioactive materials decay for 2 months before they are released. When these procedural

guidelines are ignored, contamination between different radioisotopes and radionuclides can

lead to defective mutations in humans if contact is made. In developing countries, the lack of

education on proper disposal methods alongside the costs cleaning chemicals and other

materials for disposal makes it difficult to successfully implement .

Shortage of Radioisotopes/Radionuclides

Even though a wide variety of Radionuclides and isotopes can be used for nuclear

medicine, technetium-99 is the most commonly used. Accounting for 70% of all nuclear

medical usage, technetium-99 is a man-made radioisotope. Despite its high demand there are

fewer than ten reactors in the world capable of producing this radioisotope.

17The creation of the PET has created a higher demand for technetium-99 since its half-

life of 6 hours makes it the most efficient and usable radioisotope for diagnostic purposes. As

the usage of nuclear medical technology becomes more widespread, the current production

rates will not suffice. In addition to growing demand, the conditions of the current

technetium-99 generators are very poor seeing as most of them have been around for

decades. For example two of the largest producing generators of technetium-99 in Canada

and the Netherlands will be depleted of their resources by 2016 and 2022 respectively. The

inevitable depletion of technetium-99 comes from the fact that it has to be extracted from

uranium, which is an element hard to come across, and also because the productivity of

reactors are constantly decreasing

Many of the issues facing the depletion of technetium-99 seem to be resolved by the

creation of its possible replacement, Molybdenum-99. This replacement for technetium-99

was well received since it could be produced easily in the facilities available to the United

States. However, this optimism is premature, as countries like Australia, South Africa, and

The Netherlands are not capable of producing Molybdenum any time soon. In addition to

technological constraints, the costs make it even less convenient to convert from technetium-

99 production to Molybdenum-99 production.

IV. Case Study: University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria

As the amount of people with hyperthyroidism, a disease that causes overactivity of

the thyroid gland, resulting in a rapid heartbeat and an increased rate of metabolism,

increased to 1.2-9.9% of the Nigerian population from 1991 to 2013, doctors at the

University College Hospital (UCH) in Ibadan, Nigeria turned to nuclear medicine. The

increase in Hyperthyroidism in Nigeria started because of the high amounts of untreated

cases of Graves’ disease. When left untreated Graves’ disease, begins to rapidly produce

thyroid hormones which eventually leads to hyperthyroidism.

18Since Hyperthyroidism is not as severe as cancer, the Nigerian doctors settled for a

mild Radionuclide, Iodine-131 (RAI), which has a half-life of about 8 days. RAI had been

introduced to Nigeria in 1991 but had not been used on a larger scale until 2006-2013.

Before the UCH study on Hyperthyroidism was conducted, a set of ethical guidelines was

established to follow along with Nigerian practices. These guidelines, based on the Helsinki

Declaration in 1975, stated that “the Nuclear Medicine Technologist will provide services

with compassion and respect for the dignity of the individual and with the intent to provide

the highest quality of patient care, maintain strict patient confidentiality in accordance with

state and federal regulations, comply with the laws, regulations, and policies governing the

practice of nuclear medicine, and provide care without discrimination regarding the nature of

the illness or disease, gender, race, religion, sexual preference or socioeconomic status of the

patient” . Fifty-six Nigerian patients were treated with RAI in UCH over a period of 6

months to see whether or not their hyperthyroidism improved with new medication. After the

6 months of nuclear treatment, about 20 % of all patients were cured and under 5% were left

uncured. The status of the remaining 75% of the patients is unknown due to poor data

collection techniques, poorly trained doctors and absence of a regulatory body overseeing the

UCH.

19 V. Guiding Questions

1. Does your country have access to Nuclear Medical Facilities? If so, what problems

have they encountered and how have they been dealt with? If not, how have they

attempted to implement them?

2. How can countries improve methods of accurate regulation of nuclear medical

technology usage?

3. How does your country plan on combating the shortage of radioisotopes and

radionuclides?

4. Does your country have a code of ethics towards the usage of nuclear medicine? If

so, how has it limited your country in the past?

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