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Crown Heights analysis by 5 students of the thesisgroup Studio Brooklyn
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CROWN HEIGHTSExploring the Grid
Antrees Engelen
Koen Moesen
Pieter Van den Poel
Arnout Van Soom
Sofie Verjans
Essay
Copyright by K.U.Leuven
Without written permission of the promoters and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (Belgi). Telefoon +32-16-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88.
A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.
All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the authors (Studio Brooklyn).
CROWN HEIGHTSExploring the Grid
Antrees Engelen
Koen Moesen
Pieter Van den Poel
Arnout Van Soom
Sofie Verjans
5East New York
SOCIAL ENCLAVES PLANNING THE CITY LIVING MODELS CITY ECOLOGY
12 CASE STUDIES
BROOKLYN 101
SITE ANALYSIS
SITE ANALYSIS
SITE ANALYSIS
CASE STUDIES
COLLECTIVE CULTURE
13 EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENTS
Red Hook
Crown Heights
The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York.The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to the condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site analyzes carried out by three to five students in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown Heights and East New York. Throughout the different documents we jump in three scales: the borough, our strip from old port to airport and finally the three chosen neighborhoods.
Red HookCrown Heights
East New York
The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project
consists of a series of books and thirteen
postcards. First is Five Chapters on a City
Life, created by the complete group that
works around the observations we did on
our trip.
Then second are three site analyses
carried out by three to five students in
the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown
Heights and East New York.
This booklet is a specific analysis of the
neighborhood Crown Heights.
Throughout the different documents we
jump in three scales: the borough, our strip
from old port to airport and finally the three
chosen neighborhoods. Our neighborhood
Crown Heights is located in the center of
Brooklyn, and presents itself mostly as a
black neighborhood.
This analysis starts with an overview
of Crown Heights cultural history, from
the original inhabitants in the 1700s until
the ethnic diversity today. Maps of the
population of Crown Heights show different
trends that are currently occurring. In the
following chapter, the infrastructure of the
neighborhood is set out in various maps,
coupled with the land use.
Subsequently the different typologies
in the neighborhood are explored, and
to conclude our analysis, some shifting
tendencies are examined.
We made this booklet to gain insight in the
neighborhood Crown Heights, to start our
individual design proposals with proper
knowledge.
13 EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENTS
The Studio Brooklyn Graduation Project consists of a series of books and thirteen postcards. First of is Five Chapters on a City Life, created by the complete group that works around the observations we did on our trip. The book also holds thirteen postcards, each freezing a memory of an urban experiment we experienced during our stay in New York.The second book contains twelve case studies on a wide array of topics, relevant to the condition in Brooklyn. Then there are three site analyzes carried out by three to five students in the neighborhoods of Red Hook, Crown Heights and East New York. Throughout the different documents we jump in three scales: the borough, our strip from old port to airport and finally the three chosen neighborhoods.
Red HookCrown Heights
East New York
PREFACE
P23Ethnic Diversity
P5Location of Crown Heights
P11Crown Heights Grid
P15Historical Map 1845
P17Historical Map 1890
P27Transportation
P29Subway Lines
P31Long Island Railroad
P33Bike Routes
P39Public Housing
P47Spatial Indicators of Gentrification
P19Map 2012
P45Level of Education
P37Residential Landuse
P43Unemployment and Public Safety
CONTENTS
Mindmap P09
Crown Heights Grid P11
[1] Cultural History Historical Map 1845 P15
Historical Map 1890 P17
Map 2012 P19
Timeline P21
Ethnic Diversity P23
[2] Infrastructure Transportation P27
Subway lines P29
Long Island Railroad P31
Bike routes P33
[3] Typologies Residential Land Use P37
Public Housing P39
[4] Shifting TendenciesUnemployment and Public Safety P43
Level of Education P45
Spatial indicators of gentrification P47
References
8 | MindmapINTRODUCTION
10 |
The analysis presented in this booklet is an
introduction to 5 design proposals located
in Crown Heights. The designs are all on
different scales, and they deal with various
topics.
A first approach to analyse Crown
Heights was to define the borders of the
neighborhood. This approach taught us
that neighborhoods with the grid as only
structure dont have specific borders.
The aspects that form these borders can
change in a very short period of time. That
is why we changed our area of analysis to
a larger area, including parts of adjacent
neighborhoods: Bed-Stuy, Brownsville,
Prospect Heights, East Flatbush and
Lefferts Garden.
Crown Heights GridINTRODUCTION
Historical Map 1845
Historical Map 1890
Map 2012
Timeline
Ethnic Diversity
CULTURAL HISTORY
14
In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson arrived in what is now called the New York Harbor. By the 1630s, Dutch and English settlers were exploring the west of Long Island. Crown Heights was then a hilly forested area inhabited by Lenape Indians. By the 1660-s, the area around the northwestern corner of Crown Heights became known as Bedford. Its roads were based on the Lenapes hunting paths, which on their turn were based on the topography. The settlement was located along one of Long Islands most important road which connected Jamaica with the East River ferries. By the time of the American Revolution (1775-1783) Brooklyn was an agricultural community, housing about four thousand inhabitants. Bedford Corners was a small village with a tavern, a blacksmith, a school, a brewery, and a couple of farmhouses. In the early 1800-s, Bedford was the home of many prominent Dutch families like the Lefferts family. In 1836, the Brooklyn & Jamaica Railroad (later part of the Long Island Rail Road LIRR) opened and connected the East Rivers South Ferry with Jamaica. Although Bedford had a train station, not much development took place. Downtown Brooklyns development would eventually reach Bedford.
CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 1845
[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776
16
City planners designed the street grid in 1855 to stimulate urban development. The grid was based on the main streets of the small existing villages, which on their turn were based on the topography, like the Brooklyns Green Mountains before it was flattened. Although Brooklyns population grew to about 400.000 in 1870, Crown Heights only developed slowly. The Eastern Parkway and Prospect Park, both designed by Olmsted and Vaux, were completed around 1868. By the 1870-s, an extensive network of horse car routes and three city railroads linked North Crown Heights with the many East River ferries. The area was being promoted as a first-class neighborhood and became one of Manhattans suburbs. But its growth appeared to be limited by the unreliability of the ferries, which were dependent on the weather. The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 offered a solution to this problem. Residential construction increased although North Crown Heights largest development only came after the opening of the Kings County Elevated Railway in 1888, which went from the Fulton Ferry to Nostrand Avenue. By the mid-1890-s, the former rural area was transformed into a suburban and urban neighborhood. Transportation improvements, like the electrification of the horse car lines and construction of the street grid continued throughout the 1890-s.
CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 1890
[1] Bedfort Corners in 1776 and 1916
18
In 1898, the year in which Brooklyn
fused with the four other boroughs into
New York City, the first electrified Kings
County Railway train crossed the Brooklyn
Bridge. The direct ride from Crown Heights
North to Lower Manhattan made the
neighborhood an even more desirable
residential area. The area developed from
towards Eastern Parkway in the south, and
to west and east along the Kings County
Railway. Even after the completion of the
street grid, residential typologies continued
to evolve: in the 1920-s, developers began
demolishing the largest mansions in former
exclusive residential streets in order to build
apartment houses. Housing development
in south Crown Heights around Eastern
Parkway strongly increased with the
opening of the subway line in 1920. But the
neighborhood declined through the 1960-
s as apartment buildings were abandoned
and the community steadily became
poorer. This is also represented by the
construction of public housing throughout
the 1970-s. Nowadays, north Crown
Heights experiences a gentrification wave
from Prospect Heights towards the historic
districts in the center of Crown Heights.
CULTURAL HISTORY | Map 2012
20
Total Population (100%)
White (%)
Black (%)
Hispanic (%)
As mentioned before, Crown Heights was the former home of the western Long Islands native Lenape Indians. Their tribes and paths ran across the area until it was purchased in 1700 by Leffert Pieterse, to be farmed by African American slaves. The opening of the reliable steam driven Fulton Ferry in 1814 caused a flow of people towards Brooklyn. The state New York prohibited slavery in 1827, 38 years before the official nationwide prohibition in 1865. Some of the African Americans purchased property and founded two black communities known as Weeksville and Carrville in the northeast corner of present-day Crown Heights. The area became known as Crow Hill, probably because the white people called the African Americans crows. City planners designed the street grid in 1855. The northern section quickly became a desirable residential area: mansions and limestone row houses were built to replace the old farms. Eastern Parkway was completed in 1868. The boulevard made the northern part of Crown Heights an even more desirable residential area, and more large houses were built. The opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 and the unification of the five boroughs into New York City caused a second flow of people from Manhattan to Brooklyn. Many brick and brownstone row houses were built. The attractiveness of south Crown Heights increased with the opening of the subway line under the Eastern
Parkway in 1920. Many Jews migrated from the heavily Jewish neighbourhoods of Williamsburg, Brownsville and Manhattans Lower East Side. From the 1920s to the 1960s, Crown Heights was a mainly white neighbourhood, largely composed of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. In the 1940s, Jews even represented 42% of the white population in Crown Heights. Many were Chabad-Lubavitch (Ultra-Orthodox) Jews who had emigrated from the Soviet Union. 770 Eastern Parkway became their headquarters from then on. After World War II, three developments rapidly changed Crown Heights ethnic composition. The first development was the White Flight: the expanding black population of Bed-Stuy pushed southward while many veterans moved to the suburbs with the assistance of the G.I. Bill. The second development was the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, which reformed Americas immigration policy. The Act resulted in a sharp increase in the number of immigrants and their ethnic structure. Whereas immigrants before 1965 came primarily from Europe, after 1965, more than 80 % came from Asia, South and Central America, Africa, and the Caribbean. In 1969, the first West Indian-American Day Carnival on Eastern Parkway was organized. And since then the Hispanic population kept growing until what it is today: the largest West Indian neighbourhood in the city. The third factor of the demographic transformation
of Crown Heights was the growth of the Lubavitch Jewish community. The opening of the subway in 1920 and the immigration of European and Russian Jews after World War II vastly increased the number of Lubavitch Jews. Racial tension between the Jews and African Americans came to a tragic climax in august 1991 when a Guyanese child was killed by a car driven by an important Lubavitch Rabbi. The following riot lasted three days in which a visiting Australian Jew was killed. Neighbourhood organizations responded to the tensions with community-building ventures like the annual Unity Day. Nevertheless racial tensions were seen again in 2008 when a black man was assaulted by Ludavitch Jews because a Jewish teenager was robbed and beaten by black teenagers the week before. Today, racial tensions have decreased due to frequent meetings between the black and Jewish community leaders but are nonetheless still strongly present in a few blocks. Since 1990, there is a gentrification wave noticeable from Park Slope in the west, through Prospect Heights in the past decade, and nowadays entering North Crown Heights towards its historic districts.
CULTURAL HISTORY | Timeline
1700Leffert
Pieterse
LenapeIndians
512.000 people
128.000
32.000
8.000
2.000
500
1814Fulton Ferry
1827Weeksville &
Carrville
1855Street Grid
1868Eastern Parkway
1883Brooklyn Bridge
1898Consolidation
of NYC
1920Opening Subway
1945White Flight
1965Immigration and Nationality Act
1991Crown
Heights Riots
2008 Increased
Racial Tensions
21
22
Overall, Crown Heights is a black
neighborhood with a gradient of 50%
blacks in the western part to 90% in the
eastern part.
Though Crown Heights is mostly a black
neighborhood, there are some noticeable
differences:
The east of Bedford Avenue, there live
almost 50% whites due to the spreading
gentrification process. In the center of
Crown Heights, south of the Eastern
Parkway, lives a strong concentration of
whites, the Lubavitch Jew community. In
the eastern part of Crown Heights, the
10% non-blacks are generally Hispanic. In
Bushwick, the north-east of the map, the
majority of the people are also Hispanic.
The opening of the subway in 1920 and
the immigration of European and Russian
Jews after World War II increased the
number of Lubavitch Jews. They did not
move out of Crown Heights like other white
people because the cultural gap between
them and their black neighbors was so
wide that there was a small chance that
younger Lubavitchers would absorb values
of the black majority.
Black100 %
Hispanic100 %
White100 %
CULTURAL HISTORY | Ethnic Diversity
White 100%
Black 100%
Hispanic 100%
Mosque
Church
Synagogue
[1] Lubavitch Jew Kids
Transportation
Subway lines
Long Island Railroad
Bike routes
INFRASTRUCTURE
26 | TransportationINFRASTRUCTURE
By car every neighborhood in Brooklyn is
reachable from Crown Heights within thirty
minutes. The second fastest way to get to
other neighborhoods is by bike. By public
transport almost every neighborhood is
reachable within one hour. The slowest
way of transportation is obviously by foot.
Some neighborhoods are even more than
a 90 minutes walking distance away [1].
The streetgrid of Crown Heights is for a
major part defined by different ways of
transportation. The differences in car traffic
intensity, the subway lines, the partially
elevated Long Island Railroad, and the
amount of bus traffic shape the grid.
Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods by car/ by bike / by public transport / by foot
5 m
in10
min
20 m
in30
min
60 m
in
90 m
in
[1] Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods in Brooklyn
Time-distance from Crown Heights to other neighborhoods by car/ by bike / by public transport / by foot
5 m
in10
min
20 m
in30
min
60 m
in
90 m
in
Subway lines
Elevated Subway lines
Bus linesTraffic Intensity
28
[1] Commercial activity at Nostrand Avenue
[2] Subway station at Kingston Avenue at Eastern Parkway
The development of the commercial
streets in Crown Heights is linked with the
subway stations.
The A and C lines run along Fulton Street,
and the 3 and 4 lines run along Eastern
Parkway. Between the subway stations of
both lines, commercial activity has been
developed over time. So the commercial
streets form connections between the
subway stations.
The bus lines running through Crown
Heights are complementary to the subway
lines. While the subway lines run east-
west, the bus lines mostly run north-south,
along the commercial streets.
Mixed commercial and residential
Commerical | Subway linesINFRASTRUCTURE
Subway lines
Elevated Subway lines
Bus lines
30
[2] The elevated Long Island Railroad along Atlantic Avenue
[1] Atlantic Avenue
The partially elevated Long Island Railroad
runs along Atlantic Avenue from East to
West all the way through Crown Heights.
Small industries like auto repair shops and storage facilities create a buffer between
the noisy train and traffic and the residential
neighborhood surrounding it.
The same is to be noted for the elevated
subway lines, shown on the map.
Elevated subway lines
LIRR
Transporation and UtilityIndustrial and Manufacturing | Long Island RailroadINFRASTRUCTURE
32
[1] Brooklyn-Queens Greenway
The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway is a network of bicycle and pedestrian pathways that connects parks and communities.This network runs from Coney Island in the south of Brooklyn, along Prospect Park and the eastern parkway, all the way up to Fort Totten on the Long Island Sound in Queens [1]. The Greenway holds all sorts of amenities, cultural experiences, and passes parks, botanical gardens, the Brooklyn museum, the New York Hall of Science, and different ethnic and historic neighborhoods. The greenways connecting these aminities are multi-use paths for pedestrians, joggers, cyclists, skaters, and wheelchair users. Greenways are natural and constructed linear corridors, where people walk, stroll, or bike for recreation, exercise, and commuting. In Crown Heights, this greenway is interrupted from Ralph Avenue (the end of the Eastern Parkway) until the Highland Park in Queens. To connect this interruption, Mayor Bloomberg proposed a masterplan for the Eastern Parkway Extension, using the existing bike paths that mostly run from east to west.
Apart from the great Prospect Park, Crown Heights doesnt have a lot of green open spaces. But the few present parks and playgrounds are well spread across the neighborhood.
[3] Prospect Park
Open Space and Outdoor Recreation
Existing Bike Routes
Eastern Parkway | Bike RoutesINFRASTRUCTURE
[2] Logo Greenway at Eastern Parkway
Planned connecting Bike Routes
Northern and Southern Route to
connect the greenway
Residential Land Use
Public Housing
TYPOLOGIES
36 Residential Landuse |
The fairly equally sized blocks of Crown
Height are mainly covered with a residential
use. One is able to note three significant
different morphological strategies. The
first one is a (neo-)traditional development
of row houses, which is surely the
most prominent. The second one is the
Modernist tower-in-the-park approach.
The third one is a rather more suburban
condition of detached units and is only
to be found in a small part of the Jewish
neighborhood.
On a smaller morphological scale, Crown
Heights is a historical collage of the
typical typologies of New York City. The
original tenements for low income people
with its small air shafts originate from the
19th century. Since then they have been
regulated and the poor living conditions
have been improved by several Tenement
Laws. In contrary to the tenement, the
garden apartment was designed for
moderate incomes. The single-family
Brownstone and its similar multi-family
row house developments, also provided
better living conditions. From the 1950s
to the 1970s the slum clearance program
resulted in many towers, looming over the
skyline of Crown Heights.
CROWN HEIGHTS Exploring the grid
TYPOLOGY
TYPOLOGIESOne and two family buildings
Multi-family buildings
[1] [2] [3]
[4] [5] [6]
[1]
[2]
[3][4]
[5]
[6]
38
NYCHA Public Housing
Median Household income 2005-2009:
< $25000
$25000 - $45000
[1] Prospect Plaza towers
The New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) has been providing public housing since 1934. The slum clearance program boosted the amount of public housing, mostly in the shape of Modernist towers-in-the-park. The map shows the success of the NYCHAs ability to create and maintain housing for the poor. Unfortunately this strategy has led to areas of concentrated poverty, not only attracting crime and violence, but also enlarging the racial segregation in public housing. Like many other Housing Authorities all over the U.S., the NYCHA is suffering from its own success. Today, many federal programs are therefore focusing on the demolition of the problematic towers-in-the-park, often resulting in a displacement of 90% of the former residents. The NYCHA is resisting this national trend towards demolition with a preservation and maintenance policy. Unfortunately, despite the crucial role of the NYCHA, a continuously disinvestment by the government in the NCYHA is resulting in the disrepair of many of its buildings, making the living conditions in these concentrated areas of poverty even worse.
[2] Albany I & II
Public Housing | TYPOLOGIES
Unemployment and Public Safety
Level of Education
Spatial indicators of gentrification
SHIFTING TENDENCIES
42
The median household income is evidently
related to the number of unemployed
inhabitants. Its notable that the
unemployment rate follows a gradient from
very low in eastern part of Crown Heights
near Prospect Heights to very high in the
western part near Brownsville.
According to the New York Times the
number of murders in Crown Heights has
decreased during the last years. The map
shows the location of murders from 2007 to
2011. The murders are clearly following the
same pattern as the unemployment rate.
Therefore the surroundings of Prospect
Heights are a far more safer area than
the area near Brownsville. An interesting
anomaly is the significant absence of
murders in the Jewish neighborhood.
The unemployment rate in the Jewish
neighborhood is also remarkably low. Note
the resemblance of the unemployment
map and the map of the ethnic diversity.
0-10%
...
+ 40%
Unemployment: the percentage unemployed (census 2000)
0 - 10 %
10 - 20 %20 - 30 %
30 - 40 %+40 % murdered by knife
murdered by rearm
C,M,Y,K = 15,22,0,0
C,M,Y,K = 30,45,0,0C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,20
C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,40
C,M,Y,K = 60,90,0,60Murdered by firearm
Murdered by knife
Unemployment percentages:
Unemployment and Public Safety | SHIFTING TENDENCIES
[1] Surveillance Cameras
44
The level of education in Crown Heights
is clearly a determining factor for the
unemployment rate, as the percentage
of inhabitants with an educational level
less than High School appears to show a
similar gradient from Prospect Heights to
Brownsville.
When inspecting the physical presence
of schools in the different areas, one is
surprisingly able to conclude that there
is no correlation between the presence
of the 18 High Schools and the level of
education. This seems also to be true
for the 88 Elementary Schools, the 16
Middle Schools and the 13 K-12 Schools.
Although upon looking to the physical
presence of a possible higher educational
program, it is noticeable that the colleges
and universities are only situated in the
west part of Crown Heights.
It can be concluded that the level of
education is not largely influenced by the
physical presence of schools, but rather
by other factors like median household
income or family configuration. One can
for example note that the inhabitants of the
Jewish neighborhood are higher educated
than the surrounding area. Elementary SchoolMiddle School
High School (HS)
K-12 Schools and Junior HS / HS
College / univeristy
5-10%
...
50-60%
Percentage less than High School Degree:
5 - 10 %
Education: the percentage less than High School (census 2000)
10 - 15 %15 - 20 %
20 - 30 %30 - 40 %
40 - 50 %50 - 60 % College / University
K-12 Schools and Junior HS / HS
High School (HS)Middle School
Elementary School
C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,10
C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,15C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,20
C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,28C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,38
C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,48
C,M,Y,K = 0,0,0,60Level of Education | SHIFTING TENDENCIES
[1] School playground
46
Increase with 1 to 20%
Increase with more than 50%
Decrease with 1 to 20%
Decrease with more than 50%
According to an unpublished Kontokosta,
C.E. and CHPC 2009 gentrification
model, Prospect Heights and North
Crown Heights are the most gentrified
neighborhoods in Brooklyn. Crown Heights
has several Historic Districts, which have
a strong attraction to first wave gentrifiers,
and proximity to public transport and to
Manhattan. Moreover the proximity to
gentrified areas like Park Slope accelerates
the gentrification through a spillover
effect. For 1990-2000, four possible spatial
indicators of gentrification in North Crown
Heights and Prospect Heights are the
increase in ownership rate (demographic),
increase in monthly gross rent (economic),
increase in number of inmovers (moving
pattern), and the decrease of vacancy rate
(physical). These indicators result in the
spatial gentrification index, which shows a
gentrification wave from Prospect Heights
going to Crown Heights Historic Districts.
The 2000-2010 difference in population
density shows, besides the gentrified
area near Prospect Heights, also a drastic
increase in population in the area of
Brownsville.
2%
4 %
6 %
8 %
10 %
12 %
$ 250
$ 350
$ 450
$ 550
$ 650
$ 750
6 %
14 %
21 %
28 %
35 %
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
-6
-4
0
4
8
12
PROSPECT HEIGHTS
Washington Av
Bedfort Av
Vanderbilt Av
Ralph Av
Utica Av
CROWN HEIGHTS
OWNERSHIP RATE
MONTLY RENT
INMOVERS
VACANCY RATE
SPACIAL GENTRIFICATION INDEX
2000
1990
Historical Districts
Population Density evolution 2000-2010:
25%
$ 39.270
average household size: 2,58 22% of total households are withfemale householder and related children
median household income
15,6% own his housing unit 31,1% of all families has a vehicle available
25% of the peoplelives below the poverty level
foreign born 32,2%
white 6,8%black 78%
asian 4,8%
hispanic 10,4%
22%
12%
$ 80.072
average household size: 2,33 8,8% of total households are withfemale householder and related children
median household income
27,4% own his housing unit 42,6% of all families has a vehicle available
12% of the peoplelives below the poverty level
foreign born 16,4%white 54,8%
black 15,9%asian 3,2%
hispanic 25,6%
8,8%
36%
$ 25.954
average household size: 2,96 34% of total households are withfemale householder and related children
median household income
15,7% own his housing unit 33,8% of all families has a vehicle available
36% of the peoplelives below the poverty level
foreign born 27%
white 0,9%black 81%
asian 0,9%
hispanic 17,2%
Park Slope
crown heights
Brownsville
34%
Spatial Indicators of Gentrification | SHIFTING TENDENCIES
Bedf
ord
Aven
ue
Washington Avenue
Utic
a Av
enue
Ral
ph A
venu
e
Roc
kaw
ay A
venu
e
Nos
trand
Ave
nue
Vand
erbi
lt Av
enue
REFERENCES
P11 GOOGLE MAPS Sattelite Image of Crown Heights, Brooklyn, NYC, http://www.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.
P14 WIKIPEDIA, South Ferry, Brooklyn, 2010, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ferry,_Brooklyn, last visited: 12/04/12.
GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006. KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Ports- mouth, San Franscisco, 2009.
SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.
GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race- relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.
RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
[Image P14] STILES, Bedford corners in 1776, 1867, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/ mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
P15 BACH, A. D.; HASSLER, F. R., New York Bay Harbor, from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1845, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.
P16 GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.
KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Ports- mouth, San Franscisco, 2009.
SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006. NYC Bicyce Master Plan, The Greenway System, 2003, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/bike/green sys.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.
RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
[Image P16] STILES, Map of Bedford Corners in 1776-77 and 1916, 1916, van NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www.archive.org/stream/ bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
P17 Bien, Joseph Rudolf; The Narrows to Jamaica Bay-Coney Island, north to Brooklyn from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, 1890, http://www.davidrumsey.com/, last visited: 12/04/12.
P18 GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.
KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Ports- mouth, San Franscisco, 2009.
SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.
GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race- relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.
RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
P23 THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/ censuscensus2010/t_pl_p3a_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.
UNKNOWN, Map Churches Crown Heights, 2012, http://maps.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.
References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions.
P26 GOOGLE MAPS - Directions, Brooklyn, NYC, http://www.google.be/maps, last visited 12/04/12.
P27 METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, Brooklyn Bus Map, 2011, http://www.mta.info/ nyct/maps/busbkln.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011.
METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections,2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.
P29 New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 2, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk2profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 3, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk3profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 4, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk4profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 8, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk8profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 9, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/ lucds/bk9profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 16, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk16profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 17, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk17profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
P31 References Land Use, see P29 - Industrial Land Use.
METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY, New York City Subway, with railroad connections,2011, http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/subwaymap.pdf, last visited: 10/11/2011.
P32 CITY OF NEW YORK PARKS & RECREATION, Brooklyn-Queens Greenway Guide, 2007, http://www.nycgovparks.org/sub_things_to_do/facilities/images/Brooklyn_Queens_GreenwayGuide. pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
NYC Bicyce Master Plan, The Greenway System, 2003, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/bike/green sys.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
P33 NYC Department of City Planning, The Brooklyn-Queens Greenway, Eastern Parkway Extension , 2006, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/transportation/td_eastern_pkwy_extention.
shtml, last visited: 12/04/12.
P20 GOLDSCHMIDT, Henry, Race and Religion Among the Chosen People of Crown Heights, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2006.
KELLY, Wilhelmena, Images of America: Crown Heights and Weeksville, Arcadia Publishing, Ports- mouth, San Franscisco, 2009.
SHAPIRO, Edward, Crown Heights, Blacks, Jews, and the 1991 Brooklyn Riot, Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2006.
GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race- relations-in-crown-heights, last visited: 12/04/12.
RULE, Sheila, The Voices and Faces of Crown Heights, 1994, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/15/ arts/the-voices-and-faces-of-crown-heights.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm, last visited: 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Crown Heights North, http://www.crownheightsnorth.com/history2.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
WALLABOUT HISTORIC DISTRICT, Designation Report, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/down loads/pdf/reports/wallabout.pdf, last visited: 12/04/12.
NEW YORK STATE LOCAL HISTORY LEAFLETS, Bedfort Corners, Brooklyn, 1917, http://www. archive.org/stream/bedfordcornersbr00univ#page/n7/mode/2up, last visited: 12/04/11.
NYCLPC, Landmark Designation Report, 1986, http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilio_guer ra/5473377527/, last visited: 12/04/12.
P21 WRIGHT, Henry, Fulton Ferry, New York, 1890, http://www.postaprint.co.uk/ilnimages/i901343.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.
STILES, Edward, Town of Brooklyn and Part of Long Island, 1867, http://www.geographicus-archive.com/P/AntiqueMap/BrooklynTwn-stiles-1867, last visited 12/04/12.
SCHUSZLER, Alajos, Shoe Shine, Eastern Parkway, 1938, http://www.nycgovparks.org/photo/ archivesthe_african_american_experience/photo-15292-Shoe-Shine#more_text, last visited 12/04/12.
ILLMAN, Thomas, Twenty Five Miles Round The City Of New York, 1835, http://www.davidrumsey. com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~3302~400119:Map-of-the-Country-Twenty-Five-Mile, last visited 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Aerial view of Levittown, 1959, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/ LevittownPA.jpg, last visited 12/04/12.
OKAMOTO, Yoichi, President Johnson signing the 1965 Immigration Act, 1965, http://www.new america.umd.edu/themes.html, last visited 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Riots 1991, 1991, http://www.crownheights.info/index.php?itemid=366, last visited 12/04/12.
UNKNOWN, Crown Heights Protest, 2008, https://picasaweb.google.com/VosIzNeias.Com/Crown HeightsProtes5162008#5201526732365990162, last visited 12/04/12.
References Land Use, see P29 - Open space and recreation. GROSSMAN, Elizabeth, MECHIK, Leonid, YUCE, Veysel, A History of Tension: Race Relations in Crown Heights, 2012, http://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledgebase/80-a-history-of-tension-race- NYC DEPARTMENT OF CITY PLANNING AND TRANSPORTATION, NYC Cycling Map, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/2012_nyc-cycling-map.pdf, last visited: 23/11/2011.
P37 References Land Use, see P27 - Residential Land Use.
PLUNZ, Richard, A History of Housing in New York City, Columbia University Press, New York, 1992.
BING MAPS, Birds eye, 2012, http://be.bing.com/maps/, last visited: 12/04/2012.
P39 SORKIN, Michael, All Over The Map, Verso, New York, 2011.
DODGE, David, An Overview of New York Public Housing - Submitted by the Right to the City Alliance to Marguerite Casey Foundation, September 2009, http://www.cdp-ny.org/report/NYpublic housing_sept09.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012.
PRATT CENTER FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, Building communities of opportunity, 2009, http://prattcenter.net/sites/default/files/publications/PrattCenterPublicHousing.pdf, p13, last visited: 04/04/2012.
NEW YORK CITY HOUSING AUTHORITY, NYCHA Housing Developments, 2012, http://www.nyc. gov/htmlnycha/html/developments/dev_guide.shtml, last visited: 12/04/2012.
NYC OASIS, Median Household Income (2005-09), http://www.oasisnyc.net/map.aspx, last visited: 12/04/2012.
P43 NEW YORK TIMES, Murder: New York City, http://projects.nytimes.com/crime/homicides/map, last visited: 13/04/2012.
SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Unemployed, http://www.socialexplorer.com, last visited: 13/04/2012.
P45 SOCIAL EXPLORER, 2000 Census Tract - % Less than High School, http://www.socialexplorer. com, last visited: 13/04/2012.
References Land Use, see P29 - Public Institutions.
P46 HESSE, Hannah, Gentrification - Chance & Rick for a New York City neighborhood - A case study of North Crown Heights | Prospect Heights, 2009, http://hannah-hesse.com/Urban%20Planning/ thesis_excerpt.pdf, last visited: 12/04/2012, used with written permission.
THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/download/census/ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.
Juravich, Nick, Crown Heights, Riots, Gentrification: Some Fresh Takes on the Usual Topics, 2001, http://ilovefranklinave.blogspot.com/2011/10/crown-heights-riots-gentrification-some.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
Juravich, Nick, Two Years of Commercial Development on Franklin, 2010, http://ilovefranklinave. blogspot.com/2010/11/two-years-of-commercial-development-on.html, last visited: 12/04/12.
The Citizen Housing and Planning Council (CHPC), Kontokosta, C.E. and CHPC 2009 gentrificationmodel, http://www.chpcny.org/, last visited: 12/04/12.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 6, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk6profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 8, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk8profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
New York City Department of City Planning, Brooklyn CD 16, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/ pdf/lucds/bk16profile.pdf, last visited: 05/04/2012.
P47 UNKNOWN, Historic Districts Council Brooklyn, 2012, http://hdc.org/hdc-across-nyc/brooklyn, last visited: 12/04/12.
THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, 2011, http://www.nyc.gov/html/ dcp/download/ census/ census2010/t_pl_p1_ct.xlsx, last visited: 05/04/2012.