Crackingias.com General Studies Mains Ias Exam GS 1

8/10/2019 Crackingias.com General Studies Mains Ias Exam GS 1

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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONThe French Revolution dramatically and quickly altered the political structure of France, and

the Napoleonic conquests spread many of the revolutionary principles in an equally rapid and

stunning fashion to other parts of Europe. During the late 18th

& early 19th

centuries, anotherrevolution - an industrial one - was transforming the economic and social structure of Europe,although in a less dramatic and rapid fashion. The Industrial Revolution sparked immense amounts ofcreativity, productivity, and innovation.Causes1. Agricultural Revolution paved the way: After buying up the land of village farmers, wealthy

landowners enclosed their land with fences or hedges. The increase in their landholdings enabledthem to cultivate larger fields. Within these larger fields, called enclosures, landownersexperimented with more productive seeding and harvesting methods to boost crop yields. Theenclosure movement had two important results. First, landowners tried new agricultural methods. Second, large landowners forced small farmers to become tenant farmers or to give up farming and

move to the cities.Jethro Tull was one of the first of these scientific farmers. He saw that the usual way of

sowing seed by scattering it across the ground was wasteful. Many seeds failed to take root. He solvedthis problem with an invention called the seed drill in about 1701. It allowed farmers to sow seeds inwell-spaced rows at specific depths. A larger share of the seeds took root, boosting crop yields.2. Rotating Crops : The process of crop rotation, proved to be one of the best developments by the

scientific farmers. One year, for example, a farmer might plant a field with wheat, which exhaustedsoil nutrients. The next year he planted a root crop, such as turnips, to restore nutrients. This mightbe followed in turn by barley and then clover.

3. Livestock breeders improved their methods too. In the 1700s, for example, ROBERTBAKEWELL increased his mutton (sheep meat) output by allowing only his best sheep to breed.Other farmers followed Bakewells lead. Between 1700 and 1786, the average weight for lambsclimbed from 18 to 50 pounds. As food supplies increased and living conditions improved,Englands population mushroomed. An increasing population boosted the demand for food andgoods such as cloth. As farmers lost their land to large enclosed farms, many became factoryworkers.

For several reasons, Britain was the rst country to have an economy based on industry .1) Coal and water to power machines2) Iron ore to make machines and tools3) Rivers to move people and goods4) Good harbors for shipping goods to other lands5) Britain also had a system of banks that could fund new businesses6) British governments positive attitude : Britains political stability gave the country a tremendous

advantage over its neighbors. Though Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, noneoccurred on British soil. Their military successes gave the British a positive attitude. Parliamentalso passed laws to help encourage and protect business ventures

7) Since invention was an economic activity, its pace and character depended on factors that affectedbusiness profits including, in particular, input prices. Britain stands out as a high wage, cheapenergy economyOther countries had some of these advantages. But Britain had all the factors of production, the

resources needed to produce goods and services that the Industrial Revolution required. They includedland, labor, and capital (or wealth).Industrialisation Textiles Industrialize First : The Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. Several newinventions helped businesses produce cloth and clothing more quickly. Business owners built huge


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buildingsfactoriesthat housed large machines powered by water. The invention of the steamengine in 1705 brought in a new source of power. The steam engine used re to heat water andproduce steam, which was used to drive the engine. Eventually steam-driven machines were used torun factories. Improvements made in transportation : An American invented the rst steam-driven boat. Thisallowed people to send goods more quickly over rivers and canals.

Watts Steam Engine : James Watt, a mathematical instrument maker at the University ofGlasgow in Scotland, thought about the problem for two years. In 1765, Watt figured out a way tomake the steam engine work faster and more efficiently while burning less fuel. In 1774, Watt joinedwith a businessman named Matthew Boulton. Boulton was an entrepreneur, a person who organizes,manages, and takes on the risks of a business. He paid Watt a salary and encouraged him to buildbetter engines.

Water Transportation - Steam could also propel boats. An American inventor named RobertFulton ordered a steam engine from Boulton and Watt. He built a steamboat called the Clermont,which made its first successful trip in 1807. The Clermont later ferried passengers up and down New

Yorks Hudson River. In England, water transportation improved with the creation of a network ofcanals, or human-made waterways. By the mid-1800s, 4,250 miles of inland channels slashed the costof transporting both raw materials and finished goods.

Road Transportation - British roads improved, too, thanks largely to the efforts of JohnMcAdam, a Scottish engineer. Working in the early 1800s, McAdam equipped road beds with a layerof large stones for drainage. On top, he placed a carefully smoothed layer of crushed rock. Even inrainy weather heavy wagons could travel over the new macadam roads without sinking in mud.

Private investors formed companies that built roads and then operated them for profit.People called the new roads turnpikes because travelers had to stop at tollgates (turnstiles orturnpikes) to pay tolls before traveling farther.

The Railway Age Begins - Steam-driven machinery powered English factories in the late1700s. A steam engine on wheels - the railroad locomotive - drove English industry after 1820. In

1804, an English engineer named Richard Trevithick designed a steam-driven locomotive. OtherBritish engineers soon built improved versions of Trevithicks locomotive.

Starting in the 1820s, steam fueled a new burst of industrial growth. At that time, a Britishengineer set up the worlds rst railroad line. It used a steamdriven locomotive. Soon, railroads werebeing built all over Britain.

The railroad boom helped business owners move their goods to market more quickly. Theboom in railroad building created thousands of new jobs in several different industries. The rail roadhad a deep effect on British society. For instance, people who lived in the country moved to cities.Impact on Society

The Industrial Revolution affected every part of life in Great Britain, but proved to be a mixedblessing.

Positive EffectsIt created jobs for workers. It contributed to the wealth of the nation. It fostered technological

progress and invention . It greatly increased the production of goods and raised the standard ofliving. Perhaps most important, it provided the hope of improvement in peoples lives . Theseincluded healthier diets, better housing, and cheaper, mass-produced clothing . Because theIndustrial Revolution created a demand for engineers as well as clerical and professional workers, itexpanded educational opportunities . The middle and upper classes prospered immediately from theIndustrial Revolution. For the workers it took longer, but their lives gradually improved during the1800s. Laborers eventually won higher wages , shorter hours, and better working conditions afterthey joined together to form labor unions.

The long-term effects of the Industrial Revolution are still evident. Most people today inindustrialized countries can afford consumer goods that would have been considered luxuries 50 or 60


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years ago. In addition, their living and working conditions are much improved over those of workersin the 19 th century. Also, profits derived from industrialization produced tax revenues. These fundshave allowed local, state, and federal governments to invest in urban improvements and raise thestandard of living of most city dwellers.

Negative Effects Population Growth & Growth of Cities : One change was a rise in the proportion of people wholived in cities. For centuries, most people in Europe had lived in the country. Now more and morelived in cities . The number of cities with more than 100,000 people doubled between 1800 and1850. Because they grew quickly, cities were not ideal places to live. People could not nd goodhousing, schools, or police protection. The cities were lthy with garbage, and sickness sweptthrough slum areas. The average life span of a person living in a city was 17 years - compared to 38years in the countryside. Working conditions were harsh as well. The average worker spent 14 hours a day on the job, 6days a week. Factories were dark, and the powerful machines were dangerous. Many workers werekilled or seriously injured in accidents.

Living Conditions - Because Englands cities grew rapidly, they had no development plans,sanitary codes, or building codes. Moreover, they lacked adequate housing, education, and policeprotection for the people who poured in from the countryside to seek jobs. Most of the unpavedstreets had no drains, and garbage collected in heaps on them. The middle class - made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthyfarmersdid well. They enjoyed comfortable lives in pleasant homes. This class began to grow insize, and some people grew wealthier than the nobles who had dominated society for manycenturies. Still, nobles looked down on the people who gained their wealth from business. They, inturn, looked down on the poor workers. Gradually, a larger middle class - neither rich nor poor -emerged. The upper middle class consisted of government employees, doctors, lawyers, andmanagers of factories, mines, and shops. The lower middle class included factory overseers andsuch skilled workers as toolmakers, mechanical drafters, and printers. These people enjoyed a

comfortable standard of living. The Working Class - During the years 1800 to 1850, however, laborers, or the working class, sawlittle improvement in their living and working conditions. They watched their livelihoods disappearas machines replaced them. In frustration, some smashed the machines they thought were puttingthem out of work. One group of such workers was called the LUDDITES . They were named afterNed Ludd. Ludd, probably a mythical English laborer, was said to have destroyed weavingmachinery around 1779. The Luddites attacked whole factories in northern England beginning in1811, destroying laborsaving machinery. Outside the factories, mobs of workers rioted, mainlybecause of poor living and working conditions. Rise of Global Inequality - Industrialization widened the wealth gap between industrialized andnonindustrialized countries, even while it strengthened their economic ties. To keep factoriesrunning and workers fed, industrialized countries required a steady supply of raw materials fromless-developed lands. In turn, industrialized countries viewed poor countries as markets for theirmanufactured products. Its immediate effect was to establish Britain as the leading economic and technological nation in theworld, with all the political prestige and power that came with that, and it imposed the PAXBRITANNICA on Europe for a century. Rise in imperialism - Britain led in exploiting its overseas colonies for resources and markets.Soon other European countries, the United States, Russia, and Japan followed Britains lead, seizingcolonies for their economic resources. Imperialism, the policy of extending one countrys rule overmany other lands, gave even more power and wealth to these already wealthy nations. Imperialismwas born out of the cycle of industrialization, the need for resources to supply the factories ofEurope, and the development of new markets around the world.


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Environmental Pollution : Coal smoke and cloth dyes polluted the air and water.The English city of Manchester showed how industrialization changed society. Rapid growth

made the city crowded and lthy. The factory owners risked their money and worked long hours tomake their businesses grow. In return, they enjoyed huge prots and built huge houses. The workersalso worked long hours, but had few benets. Many of these workers were children, some only sixyears old. Not until 1819 did the British government put limits on using children as workers. With somuch industry in one place, Manchester suffered in another way.Industrialization Spreads

Other countries followed the example of Britain and began to change their economies to anindustrial base. The United States was one of the rst. Like Britain, it had water power, sources ofcoal and iron, and a ready supply of workers. The United States also beneted from conict withBritain. During the War of 1812, Britain stopped shipping goods to the United States. As a result,American industries had a chance to supply the goods that Americans wanted.

The switch to an industrial economy began in the United States in the textile industry. In1789, based on memory and a partial design, a British worker b rought the secret of Britains textile

machines to North America. He built a machine to spin thread. In 1813, a group of Massachusettsinvestors built a complex of factories that made cloth. Just a few years later they built an even largercomplex in the town of Lowell. Thousands of workers, mostly young girls, came to these towns towork in the factories.

In the United States, industry grew rst in the northeast. In the last decades of the 1800s, arapid burst of industrial growth took place that was more wide-spread. This boom was fueled by largesupplies of coal, oil, and iron. Helping, too, was the appearance of a number of new inventions,including the electric light. As in Britain, a railroad buildingwas also a big part of this industrial growth.

Industrial growth spread to Europe as well. Belgiumwas the rst to adopt British ways. It was rich in iron andcoal and had good waterways. It had the resources needed.

Germany was politically divided until the late1800s. As a result, it could not develop a wide industrialeconomy. However, west-central Germany was rich in coaland did become a leading industrial site. Across Europe, small areas began to change to the newindustries. Industrial growth did not occur in France until after 1850. Then the government began tobuild a large network of railroads.

Some countries-such as Austria-Hungary and Spain-had problems that stopped them frombuilding new industries. The Industrial Revolution changed the world. Countries that had adopted anindustrial economy enjoyed more wealth and power than those that had not.

The countries of Europe soon began to take advantage of lands in Africa and Asia. They usedthese lands as sources of raw materials needed for their factories. They saw the people only asmarkets for the goods they made. They took control of these lands, a practice called imperialism.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (ANTI-WHITE FURY) Origin

* Vague proposals of The Cripps mission* The utmost emphasis of the British Government on Communalism and British efforts to

Balkanise the Indian subcontinent.* The retreat of the British from Malay, Burma and Singapore, leaving their dependants to

fend for themselves, the indescribable plight of the Indians trekking back home from theseplaces, the racial ill-treatment meted out to Indians by white soldiers, the 'scorched earth'policy pursued by the British in Bengal to resist probable Japanese invasion which

Businesses needed huge sumsof money to take on big projects. Toraise money, companies sold shares ofownership, called stock. All thosewho held stock were part owners ofthe company. This form of organizinga business is called a corporation.


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resulted in the commandeering of all means of communicating, war-time price rise, black-marketeering and profiteering - all these contributed to the creation of an anti-white fury.

* The bitter campaign of the Muslim League against the congress and the Hindus provoked

the Congress to adopt more radical methods to achieve Swaraj.QIM was the outcome of the above mentioned factors.July 14, 1942 CWC meeting at Wardha accepted the idea of Mass struggle.

August 8,1942

The All-India Congress Committee passed a resolution at a meeting atGowalia Tank, Bombay. Gandhi told the British to quit and leaveIndia in Gods hand. This resolution declared that the immediateending of the British Rule in India was an urgent necessity for the sakeof India and for the cause of freedom and Democracy, for whichBritain and her allies were fighting against fascist powers. Theresolution approved the starting of mass struggle on non-violent lines

on the widest possible scale for the independence of the country.Gandhi regarded the impending movement as the last struggle forIndian Independence. In his speech before the All India Committee, hedeclared it was a decision to Do or Die and it was going to be the laststruggle of his life to win the freedom of India . Gandhi gave forth theslogan Quit India.

OPERATIONZEROHOUR

Before the congress could start a movement, the Government struckvery hard on August 9, 1942 OPERATION ZERO HOUR arrestingmost of the congress leaders. During the Quit India Movement, thetextile strike at Ahmedabad lasted for 3 months and the city wasdescribed as the Stalin grad of India. Nehru was placed in the Almora

Jail, Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in the Agakhan Palace, Poona. Butthis did not discourage the Indians. They responded to Gandhis callwith great vigor. All over the country there were strikes anddemonstrations. The most effective resistance came from the congressSocialists, a group within the main party. J.P.Narayan and R.M.Lohiatook the head. Those who escaped arrest on 9 August wentunderground and guided the movement. Other prominent socialistswere Achyut Patwardan, Raman and Mishra, Purushotam Tricamdosand S.M.Joshi. Mostly the students, the peasants, and the middle classpeople spearheaded the movement.

Phases of QIM The First Phase was predominantly urban and included hartals, strikes and clashes with thepolice and army in most major cities. Though initially the Movement was based on non-violent lines later it turned into violent due to repressive policy of the government andindiscriminate arrests of the leaders. Further, it was the only all India Movement, whichwas leader less .The Second Phase of the movement started from the middle of August. A number of short-lived local 'national governments' were also set up. Parallel Governments were established. * First parallel government in Ballia was formed under Chittu Pandey .* Satara in Maharasfra Prati Sarkar under Y.B.Chawan and Nana Patil * Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P. and Bihar.


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* Bengal Tamluk in Midnapore district, Jaitya Sarkar functioned.The Third Phase of the movement started from about the end of September and was

characterized by terrorist activities, sabotage and guerrilla warfare by educated youths and

peasant squads.All the three phases of the movement were crushed by brutal atrocities including the use ofmachine guns from the air.Extent of Mass participation The unprecedented response of the Indians to the Quit India Movement alarmed andfrightened the British authorities in India.* The students, workers and peasants unions provided the backbone of the revolt. Workerswent on strikes. Peasants revolted furiously. Young women also participated.* Muslims provided shelter to underground activists. There were no communal calshesduring the movement.* The Indian Princes and the landlords were supporting the War effort and therefore did notsympathize with the movement.* The Movement did not evoke much response from the merchant community . In fact,most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War.Response of political parties * The Muslim League kept aloof though many Muslims did participate. The league gavethe call Divide and Quit.* The Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement .* The Communist Party of India due to its Peoples War line did not support themovement. The CPI after the removal of the ban on it in July 1942 had supported theLeagues demand for Pakistan and the war efforts of the Government. The CPI demandedits withdrawal when Russia joined the allies in the war.* The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started during this phase. Jayaprakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organized anunderground movement. Socialists like J.P.Narayan, R.M.Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali and UshaMehta were involved in underground revolutionary activities. The socialists formed a 12-point program and tried to implement it in rural areas. They set up a Central Directorate inBombay and a parallel guerilla organization known as AZAD DASTA with its branches allover India. Usha Sharma started an underground radio station at Bombay. Suchetakriplani formed a Satyagraha Samiti .* Some Congress leaders like Rajaii were openly in favour of the partition of India andagainst the Quit India movement.Response of the government

* The government imposed severe restrictions on the press.* Demonstrations were lathi charged, machine gunned and even bombed from the air.Prisoners were tortured. Over 10000 people died.* Ultimately the Government succeeded in crushing the movement.Failure of the movement The movement was infact short lived. It failed because:- It was leaderless. Gandhi was arrested in the early hours of August 9, 1942. The leaders singularly failed to give the people a well conceived plan or well thought outprogramme of action.


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Proper organization could not stand for long before the mighty strength of an imperialgovernment in power. There was a deplorable lack of co-oriantion between the organizers of the movement in

different areas. It lacked support from other political parties. The QIM was considered to be a congresssponsored movement and not a national struggle.Impact of the movement It played a vital role in Indian National movement as outlined below.* It placed the demand for independence on the immediate agenda of the nationalmovement.* It weakened the leftist groups and parties in India considerably. The Socialists andBoses followers charged the communists with treachery as the communists did notparticipate in the W.W.II because of their support to the allies, including Soviet Union andthe communists charged the Socialists with fifth columnist activity because of the formersplan to win freedom for India with the help of the Axis Powers.* Its importance lay in the fact that it demonstrated the depth that nationalist feeling hadreached in the country and the great capacity for struggle and sacrifice that the people ofIndia had developed.* Lord Linlithgow described the Quit India Movement as by far the most serious rebellionsince that of 1857. The gravity and extent of the Quit India movement by Linlithgow's ownadmission may be compared to those of the Revolt of 1857.* Quit India Movement was the final attempt for countrys freedom . Independence wasno longer a matter of bargain and this became amply clear after the war.* The arrest of the congress leaders proved beneficial to them as it helped them avoidtaking a clear public stand on the Japanese war issue, something which otherwise would havebeen embarrassing for a few months in 1944 when S.C.Boses INA appeared on the bordersof Assam at a time when on the world scale the Allies were clearly winning the war.PRESSURE AND WIND

The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces. Thewinds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of thesurface and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When isobars are straightand when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and theresultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind .

Generally, over low pressure area the air will converge and rise. Over high pressurearea the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface. Apart from convergence, someeddies, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts cause the rising of air,

which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation. Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and AnticyclonesPressure system Pressure

condition at thecenter

Pattern of wind directionNorthern

hemisphereSouthern

hemisphereCyclone Low Anti clockwise ClockwiseAnti cyclone High Clockwise Anti clockwise

PRESSURE BELTSThere are seven pressure belts in all. They are

Equatorial trough of low pressure / Doldrums Sub tropical high-pressure belt (northern hemisphere) Sub tropical high-pressure belt (southern hemisphere)


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Sub polar low-pressure belt (northern hemisphere) Sub polar low-pressure belt (southern hemisphere) Polar high (northern hemisphere) Polar high (southern hemisphere)

1. DOLDRUMS OR THE EQUATORIAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (5 0N and S along theequator)The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), also known as the Intertropical Front, Monsoon trough,Doldrums or the Equatorial Convergence Zone, is a belt of low pressure girdling Earth at the equator.It is formed by the vertical ascent of warm, moist air from the latitudes above and below the equator.

The air is drawn into the intertropical convergence zone by the action of the Hadley cell , amacroscale atmospheric feature which is part of the Earth's heat and moisture distribution system. Thelocation of the intertropical convergence zone varies over time. Over land, it moves back and forthacross the equator following the sun's zenith point. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone isbetter defined, the seasonal cycle is subtler, as the convection is constrained by the distribution ofocean temperatures.

Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the equator.When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones, one ofwhich is usually stronger than the other.

Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall inmany equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold andwarm seasons of higher latitudes. Long term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can resultin severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas.

Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equatorwhere the trade winds feed in. Early sailors named this belt of calm the doldrums because of theinactivity and stagnation they found themselves in after days of no wind. To find oneself becalmed inthis region in a hot and muggyclimate could mean death in an era

when wind was the only majormotive force.

Tropical cyclogenesisdepends upon low-level vorticityas one of its six requirements, andthe ITCZ/monsoon trough fills thisrole, as it is a zone of wind changeand speed, otherwise known ashorizontal wind shear. As theITCZ migrates more than 500 kmfrom the equator during therespective hemisphere's summerseason, increasing coriolis forceallows the formation of tropicalcyclones within this zone morepossible. In the north Atlantic andthe northeastern Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increasein thunderstorm activity, and under weak vertical wind shear, these clusters of thunderstorms canbecome tropical cyclones.2. SUB TROPICAL HIGH-PRESSURE BELTS / TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE CALMS(Horse Latitudes between 25 0 N and S & 35 0 N and S Latitudes)


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This belt is broken into a number of high-pressure cells. The high pressure is acused due tothe subsidence and piling of the air. A calm condition with variable and feeble winds is created in thisregion. The high pressure in this belt is due to the following:-

The temperature in these latitudes is comparatively lower than that on the equator. The hot air over the equator rises, cools and spreads to north and south. The cooling causes

the air to sink. The sinking or descending air accumulates and creates a high-pressure area inthese latitudes.

Because of earths rotation, the air banks up over these latitudes.3. SUB POLAR LOW-PRESSURE BELTS / CIRCUM POLAR LOW-PRESSURE BELTS

(Between 60 0 and 70 0 in both the hemispheres)These belts lie almost around the arctic and Antarctic circles. These are well developed in the

north Atlantic and north pacific regions. The low pressure is caused by converging and rising air. Dueto great contrast between the temperature of the winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions,cyclonic storms are produced.4. POLAR HIGH -PRESSURE BELTS / POLAR HIGHS (Between 70 0 - 90 0 N and South at

both the poles)The temperature is extremely permanently low. The cold descending air as such, gives rise tohigh pressures over the poles. These areas of polar high pressure are known as the Polar Highs.ISOBARS AND ISO BAR MAPS

Isobars are imaginary lines drawn on a amp, connecting places having the same atmosphericpressure. The isobar maps are of great value in studying the climatic details of an area. When theisobars are very close, the pressure gradient (Barometric slope) is aid to be steep and the speed of theblowing wind will be very high. When the isobars are very far apart, the barometric slope is moderateor gentle and the speed of the blowing wind will be very low. A low-pressure isobar surrounded by ahigh-pressure isobar denotes a depression or a cyclone, whereas a high-pressure isobar surrounded bylow-pressure isobars denotes an anticyclone.Windstorm - A windstorm is just a storm with high winds or violent gusts but little or no rain.

Gust Front- A gust front is the leading edge of cool air rushing down and out from a thunderstorm.There are two main reasons why the air flows out of some thunderstorms so rapidly. The primaryreason is the presence of relatively dry air in the lower atmosphere. This dry air causes some of therain falling through it to evaporate, which cools the air. Since cool air sinks (just as warm air rises),this causes a down-rush of air that spreads out at the ground. The edge of this rapidly spreading coolpool of air is the gust front. The second reason is that the falling precipitation produces a drag on theair, forcing it downward. If the wind following the gust front is intense and damaging, the windstormis known as a downburst.Downburst - A downburst is created by an area of significantly rain-cooled air that, after hittingground level, spreads out in all directions producing strong winds. Unlike winds in a tornado, winds ina downburst are directed outwards from the point where it hits land or water. Dry downbursts areassociated withthunderstorms with very littlerain, while wet downburstsare created by thunderstormswith high amounts of rainfall.Derecho - A derecho is awidespread and long-lived windstorm that is associated with a fast-moving band of severethunderstorms. They can produce significant damage to property and pose a serious threat life,primarily by downburst winds. To be classified as a derecho, the path length of the storm has to be atleast 280 miles long. Widths may vary from 50-300 miles. Derechos are usually not associated with acold front, but a stationary front. They occur mostly in July, but can occur at anytime during thespring and summer.

How do windmills work? - Windmills work because they slowdown the speed of the wind. The wind flows over the airfoil shapedblades causing lift, like the effect on airplane wings, causing them toturn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electricgenerator to produce electricity.


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Jet stream - The jet stream is a fast flowing, river of air found in the atmosphere at around 12 kmabove the surface of the Earth just under the tropopause. They form at the boundaries of adjacent airmasses with significant differences in temperature, such as of the polar region and the warmer air tothe south. Because of the effect of the Earth's rotation the streams flow west to east, propagating in aserpentine or wave-like manner at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow.

General Atmospheric CirculationThe air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection

caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics converge atthis low pressure zone. The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the topof the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causesaccumulation of air at about 30o N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground andforms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 300Nand S latitudes. Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as theeasterlies. The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter TropicalConvergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are

called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell . In the middle latitudes thecirculation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising warm air thatblows from the subtropical high. At the surface, these winds are called westerlies and the cell isknown as the Ferrel cell . At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles andblows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell . Thesethree cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heatenergy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.

General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on OceansThe general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds

of the atmosphere initiate large and slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn provideinput of energy and water vapour into the air. These interactions take place rather slowly over alarge part of the ocean.

Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of generalatmospheric circulation. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towardsSouth American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warmwater off the coast of Peru is known as the El Nino. The El Nino event is closely associatedwith the pressure changes in the Central Pacific and Australia. This change in pressurecondition over Pacific is known as the southern oscillation . The combined phenomenon ofsouthern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years when the ENSO is strong,large-scale variations in weather occur over the world. The arid west coast of South Americareceives heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long range forecasting in major parts ofthe world.

WINDS & ITS TYPESAir moving parallel to the ground is called wind; while vertical air movement is called current.

The wind is known by the direction from, which it blows- A wind blowing from west to east is westerly- A wind blowing from east to west is easterly


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An instrument known as Wind vane knows the direction of wind. The wind velocity is measuredusing Anemometer. The speed of the wind is expressed in kmph and knots per hour on the sea. Thereare three different air circulation systems namely primary, secondary and tertiary. The primarycirculation pattern prepares the broad framework for other circulatory patterns.

The primary winds are also known as planetary winds. They include trade winds, westerliesand polar winds.

The secondary winds include monsoon cyclones, anticyclones, air masses and fronts. The tertiary winds include local winds like land and sea breezes. They affect only local

weather and climate. I. PRIMARY WINDS / PLANETARY WINDS/ PREVAILING WINDS

The prevailing wind is the wind that blows most frequently across a particular region.Different regions on Earth have different prevailing wind directions, which are dependent upon thenature of the general circulation of the atmosphere and the latitudinal wind zones. These windsconstitute large-scale motion of atmosphere under the influence of pressure gradients, Coriolis forceand frictional force. It ignores seasonal heating and land water contrast on the earths surface.

In general, the following prevailing winds across the Earth may be identified, althoughvariations arise due to the positions and differential heating rates of the continents and oceans.Latitude Direction Common Name

90-60N NE Polar Easterlies 60-30N SW Southwest Antitrades30-0N NE Northeast Trades0-30S SE Southeast Trades30-60S NW Roaring Forties90-60S SE Polar Easterlies

The prevailing winds in The British Isles are the southwesterly , but for much of the time,the British Isles are influenced by polar air masses with a northwesterly or northerly airflow, thatbring with them colder showery weather. Prevailing winds in the Indian Oceans are northeasterly .During the summer months however, a larger low-pressure system develops over southern Asia due tocontinental heating. Winds in this region now reverse to form the Southwest Monsoons, which bring aprolonged wet season to Southeast Asia and the subcontinent of India.1.DOLDRUMS is a zone of calmness near equator on both its sides. Here winds are feeble andhave least surface movement.2. TRADE WINDS / EASTERLY TRADE WINDS - blow between 50 0 and 30 0 latitudes in boththe hemispheres. The name Trade Winds is based on an early meaning of the word trade meaning"steady track". These winds were very important in early, wind-based seafaring trade. The steadytrack of these winds comes from the stable weather conditions in tropical areas. Strongly heated airalong the equator forms one side of an atmospheric cell that extends to about 30 o north of the equator.A similar cell exists south of the equator. Within each cell, the hot, less dense equatorial air rises and

begins to move away to the north (or south). This air is replaced by cooler air that is drawn in alongthe surface from higher latitudes. In both cases the moving air is affected by the Coriolis Effect.In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing winds are northeasterly and are called northeast

trades. In the southern hemisphere, the prevailing winds are southeasterly and are called southeasttrades. The two Wind belts converge near the equator and forms inter tropical convergence zone(ITCZ).3. WESTERLIES / ANTITRADE WINDS/ MID-LATITUDE WESTERLY WINDS bringrainfall throughout the year

Within the middle latitudes from 30 o North to 60 o North, the winds generally blow from thewest. The convection responsible for this cell is not as strong as the convection in the tropical andpolar cells. As a result, its winds are not as steady as those are in the tropical and polar cells on eitherside. In the mid-latitudes, air driven by the polar cell is rising at latitude 60 o, and air driven by the


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tropical cell is sinking at latitude 30 o. A portion of this sinking air moves toward the equator tobecome the "trade winds", and another portion moves on toward the pole along the Earths surface.The result of the Coriolis effect is to deflect the surface flow toward the poles to the right in theNorthern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere and turn it into a westerly wind. Ingeneral, these mild winds are strongly affected by local zones of high and low atmospheric pressure.These winds blow uninterruptedly with great velocity.

In the southern hemisphere, beyond 40 0 & 50 0 latitude stormy westerlies are observed both insummer as well as in winter. Hence they were known by early mariners as Roaring forties Furiousfifties screaming sixties. 4. POLAR EASTERLY WINDS / TROUGHS- Blow from polar high-pressure areas to subpolar low-pressure areas.

A strong atmospheric cell extending from the North Pole to about latitude 60 o North createsthe polar easterly winds. A similar movement in the Southern Hemisphere also creates polar easterlywinds. Very cold and dense air that is descending toward the Earth at the pole and pushing other airout of its way dominates this cell. As the displaced air moves along the surface from the pole toward

the lower latitudes, it is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in theSouthern Hemisphere. In both cases, this means that the course of the winds is bent toward the west.Thus, the winds that were originally blowing from the pole become increasing easterly until theyreach about latitude 60 o. At this point, they have been diverted entirely to the west and are no longermoving toward the equator. Because the air has been warmed by its contact with the surface, it risesand moves back toward the pole completing the one of the three major wind circulation cells and windbelts.

II. SECONDARY WINDS /PERIODIC WINDSThey change their direction periodically with the change in season. The pattern of wind

circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum heating,pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons,especially over Southeast Asia.

The Arabs who traded with India used the seasonal winds for sailing their ships. They calledthese winds Mousim which means season. The term monsoon has evolved from Mousim. TheGreek philosopher Hippallus for the first time observed and recognized the seasonal winds that blowbetween Africa and India.

1. MONSOONSa. SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON / SUMMER MONSOON SEASONIn summer the land gets more heated than the sea, hence there develops a center of low

pressure. This may be called a Heat low or a thermal low. Over the adjoining sea, the air iscomparatively cool and heavy and a high-pressure area develops there. This causes the wind to blowfrom the sea to the land. It is known as the summer monsoon .

The southwest monsoon appears to enter the Indian subcontinent in two branches; the ArabianSea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch causes extensive rainfall in thewestern and central states and the Bay of Bengal branch gives rainfall to the northeastern states andeastern coastal plains.

The Arabian Sea branch, which gives moderate rainfall in the Deccan plateau and MadhyaPradesh, joins the Bay of Bengal branch over the Gangetic plains. A branch of the Arabian Sea branchmonsoon blows over Saurashtra and Kachchh in Gujarat and it gives scanty rainfall in broken spellsas it reaches western Rajasthan. But when it reaches Punjab and Haryana it joins with the Bay ofBengal branch and blows northwards and gives good rainfall in the northern Himalayan regions.

The Bay of Bengal branch monsoon, which enters Bangladesh and West Bengal from thesouth and southeast directions, bifurcates into two as it crosses West Bengal. One branch enters theBrahmaputra valley and gives heavy rainfall in the north and northeastern regions. The Khasi-Jaintiahills of Meghalaya obstruct these winds and cause heavy rainfall in these regions. Cherrapunji and


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Mousinram are in this region. The other branch moves towards the northwest and through the Gangaplains it reaches Punjab - Haryana plains and joins the Arabian Sea branch. India receives about 60%of its total rainfall during the southwest monsoon season.

b. NORTH EAST MONSOON SEASON (SEASON OF RETREATING MONSOONS)in the winter the conditions are reversed. As the winds blow from the land to the sea, they

bring cold dry weather. They are incapable of giving rain. However, sometimes these winds blowover seas and then pass over the adjoining land. In such a situation, they bring some rainfall to thatarea. The southern Coramandel Coast of TamilNadu in India, the Vietnamese coast, and the westcoast of Japan get sufficient rainfall from winter monsoons.

During the northward march of the sun the monsoon blows towards the north and during thesouthward march of the sun it blows to the south. This southward progression is called the retreatingmonsoon . During the southward movement of the sun, the northern hemisphere is gripped by coldweather conditions. During this season, the low pressure formed over the Bay of Bengal attracts airfrom the north. These winds pick up moisture as they pass over the Bay and blow against the eastcoast. Soon after the monsoon season, places all over India experience clear skies and high

temperatures. During this time, there will be a high diurnal temperature and a very low nighttemperature. Although the land is wet and moist during these days, the temperature and high humiditymake daytime very uncomfortable. This phenomenon is called October heat. By the middle ofOctober, atmospheric temperature decreases fast and winter season begins in north India. October -November months are a gap between rainy season and winter. During this period the low pressureregion that occur in the Bay of Bengal causes the formation of cyclones. These cyclones giveextensive rainfall in the eastern coastal states of India and cause destruction to the highly populateddeltaic regions of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. The influence of this rainfall is experienced in thestate of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala also.

2. SEA AND LAND BREEZESDuring the daytime, both land and ocean absorb solar energy and become warmer. However,

land areas warm significantly faster than ocean areas. As a result, more heat is transferred to the air

Aravalli MountainsOne of the oldest mountains of the world, Aravalli extends from Delhi to the

northern part of Gujarat covering a distance of about 800km. The mountain range has playeda major role in the formation of Rajasthan desert (Thar desert). Lying parallel to the monsoonwinds from the Arabian sea, it cannot obstruct the moisture-laden monsoon winds. Rajasthanreceives only scanty rainfall due to this reason. The highest peak Guru Sikhar, (1722m) in theAravallim range is located in Mount Abu.Land of Rain

No doubt it is Cherrapunji the village, which receives rain throughout the year isthe rainiest place on earth for many centuries, is situated about 56kms from Shillong, thecapital of Meghalaya in a height of about 4500ft above MSL in between Khasi, Gharo andJaintia hills. The Britishers pronounced the word Sohra as Chira. 'Sohra' means not suitablefor cultivation. 'punji' means soil. 'Cherrapunji' means the soil not suitable for cultivation.This region has very poor topsoil has large reserves of coal and limestone beneath. Thereforewater is not available in the wells in this region although the topsoil is wet due to rainfall yearround.

The coveted place of Cherrapunji with an average rainfall greater than 1080cms wastaken over by another place in India some years back. Mousinram, 6 km away fromCherrapunji was the place that captured the position. The Hawaiian Islands have also claimedthe honour of being the rainiest spot on earth. But recently Cherrapunji has come back toregain the first place. Our neighbouring country Bangladesh prays not to have heavy rains inCherrapunji for the reason that when heavy rainfall occurs in Cherrapunji many places inBangladesh will get inundated.


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over the land, and the warmer air begins to rise. The rising air is replaced with cooler air from theocean, creating a sea breeze . In the evening, the process is reversed. The land cools more rapidly thanthe water and thus the air over the water is soon warmer than the air over the land. As shown below,this reverses the process and creates a land breeze .

3. MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY BREEZESDiurnal winds similar to land and sea breezes occur in mountainous regions. In mountainous regions,during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air fromthe valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze. The reversed condition innight is called as mountain breeze . During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air descendsinto the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into thevalley is called katabatic wind . Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of themountain ranges. The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condenses andprecipitates. When it descends the leeward side of the slope the dry air is warmed up by adiabaticprocess. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.4. HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS, AIR MASSES & FRONTS

High pressure systems form when masses of air cool, contract and begin to sink. An air massis a large body of air that can be identified by its temperature and humidity. As the name suggests,these bodies are very large and usually cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometers. The area inwhich it originated determines the temperature and humidity of an air mass. Names are given to airmasses based on the place of origin. The systems with highest pressure are those that are coldestand driest.

There are four basic types of air masses: Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA), Polar (P), Tropical (T),and Equatorial (E). Each of these can be either maritime (m) or continental (c). Maritime air masseshave milder temperatures and higher humidity, while continental air masses are dryer and exhibitmore extreme temperatures.The air in high pressure systems is generally dry and sinking, due to its cooler temperature and higheratmospheric pressure. Therefore it is possible for air in a high pressure system to hold more water

vapor. As this air sinks, it warms and can hold even more water vapor. As a result, condensation ofthe water vapor does not take place and the weather in such areas is clear and dry.AIR MASSES & FRONTS are migratory atmospheric disturbances, which generate secondary typeof winds all over the world. They are associated with stormy weather conditions.When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires thecharacteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains. Theair with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an airmass. It isdefined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. Thehomogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions. The air masses areclassified according to the source regions. There are five major source regions. These are:

Warm tropical and subtropical oceans; The subtropical hot deserts; The relatively cold high latitude oceans; The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes; Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Accordingly, following types of air masses are recognised: Maritime tropical (mT)- It is considerably wider. Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are theextensive sources of this. These air masses overlying the tropical seas are moist and saturateduniversally. They are pushed beyond the source areas and cause heavy precipitation and hightemperature conditions.

Continental tropical (cT)- It is basically hot and dry. These develop over greater Sahara area. Hotdry winds invade Mediterranean Europe, North Mexico, and Southern California in the form ofScorching Sirocco.


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Maritime polar (mP)- It is located over warmer high latitude oceans of North pacific (BeringSea), North Atlantic (Norwegian sea) and entire sweep of southern hemisphere oceans fringingAntarctica. This is a highly efficient evaporator of readily available moisture. Hence, it is lesscold and moister than cP . North America and North Europe experience this.

Continental polar (cP)- It is confined to broad high latitudinal stretches of Siberia and Canada.Typically frozen and dusted with snow throughout winter season. The air masses located over thisregion are chilly, cold and slightly modified in summer.

Continental arctic (cA)FRONTS - Fronts are the boundaries between air masses that differ in density. The process offormation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm;(c) Stationary; (d) Occluded. These density differences are usually due to differences in temperatureand humidity of the air masses.5. LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS & CYCLONES

Any two air masses separated by a front are being deflected in opposite directions. As aresult, a shearing motion is established along the front. This shearing motion is generally in a

counter-clockwise direction , as we see in the diagram. This produces a low-pressure system. Thecounter-clockwise shear along the polar front sets up a low-pressure system known as a wave cyclone.These low-pressure systems develop in response to atmospheric instability (vertical movement of air)and move generally from west to east in response to the mid-latitude westerlies. The formation oflow-pressure systems is a complicated process that involves the formation and evolution of a cyclonefamily . The movement of cyclonic winds is counter clockwise in the N.hemisphere and clockwise inthe S.hemisphere.Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and moveover to the coastal areas bringing about large-scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavyrainfall and storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They are known asCyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and

South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia. Tropical cyclones originate andintensify over warm tropical oceans. The conditions favourable for the formation and intensificationof tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27 C; (ii) Presence of theCoriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weaklow-pressurearea or low-level-cyclonic circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.

The energy that intensifies the storm comes from the condensation process in the toweringcumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of moisture fromthe sea, the storm is further strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture, supply is cut off and thestorm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of thecyclone. The cyclones, which cross 200N latitude generally, recurve and they are more destructive.

A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally circulating wind around thecentre, called the eye . The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km. Theeye is a region of calm with subsiding air . Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strongspiralling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocityin this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall rainbands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is between 600 -1200 km. The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day. The cyclone creates storm surgesand they inundate the coastal low lands. The storm peters out on the land.

TROPICAL CYCLONES TEMPERATE CYCLONESThey are of thermal origin. They are of frontal origin.They have small diameters usually from100-500 kms.

They extend over a large area sometimesmore than 2000 kms. Appearance of dark


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cloud in the background of white clouds istemperate cyclone.

Velocity is 100-200 kmph. They are more

destructive than temperate cyclones.

Velocity is 50 kmph. They are less

destructive than temperate cyclones.They develop in the belt of 8 0 to 15 0 N & Slatitudes. Most prominent in the pacificocean (Taiwan, South Japan, East China)

They develop in the belt of 35 0 to 65 0 N & Slatitudes.

It is almost a circular storm center ofextremely low pressure.

It is just like a spear head having the shapeof an upturned V.

Rainfall is torrential and is evenlydistributed around the center. In India theirintensity is felt more in the Bay of Bengalbranch of South west Monsoon winds.

As soon as the cyclone approaches, there isa drizzle followed by a heavy rainfall.

Extra Tropical CyclonesThe extra tropical cyclone differs from the tropical cyclone in number of ways. The extra

tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system which is not present in the tropical cyclones. They covera larger area and can originate over the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones originate onlyover the seas and on reaching the land they dissipate. The extra tropical cyclone affects a much largerarea as compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and itis more destructive. The extra tropical cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones, movefrom east to west.3. TERTIARY WINDS /LOCAL WINDSTertiary winds are generated by immediate influence of the surrounding terrain. These winds respondto local pressure gradients set up by heating or cooling of the lower atmosphere.Katabolic winds a cold down slope wind caused by the gravitational movement of cold dense airnear the earths surface is a katabolic or drainage wind. The strongest katabolic winds are those thatblow from an ice cap off the Green Land or Antarctic ice caps. These are known by various localnames:Bora northern adraitc coats.Foehn Alps (on lee ward side).Mistral Southren France (blows from Alps over France towards Mediterranean sea)Santa Ana Southern California (is of desert origin)Loo, Foehn and Chinook are warm and dry winds .

Local winds of IndiaKalbaisakhi is a dry local wind of West Bengal during summer season. Originating from theChota Nagpur plateau and influenced by the westerlies, this warm wind moves eastwards and isresponsible for heavy rain and hailstones in West Bengal, Assam and Orissa. These winds manya time cause destruction to life and property. Cherry Blossom is a local wind blows over theinterior Karnataka during the same season is good for coffee cultivation. Mango shower isanother local wind that blows during the summer season along the Karnataka coast and inKerala.Loo In the plains of India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from thewest in the months of May and June, usually in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Itstemperature invariably ranges between 45 0C and 50 0C. It may cause sunstroke to people. Due tointense hot condition that continues from March to May over the northern plains, a low-pressureregion is formed. During this season a dry dusty wind called Loo blows over the north westernUttar pradesh and Rajasthan resulting in the rise of atmospheric temperature further. Other localwinds that blow in this season are the Kalbaisakhi, Mango showers, etc.Chinook literally means, Snow eater. It keeps the grasslands clear form snow during muchof the winter.


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THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOESThey are of short duration, occurring over a small area but are violent. Thunderstorms

are caused by intense convection on moist hot days. A thunderstorm is a well-growncumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightening. When the clouds extend to heights wheresub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come down as hailstorm. If there isinsufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate duststorms. A thunderstorm is characterizedby intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to greaterheight. This causes precipitation. Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and the rain.

From severe thunderstorms, sometimes-spiralling wind descends like a trunk of anelephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on itsway. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado . Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts . These violent storms are the manifestation ofthe atmospheres adjustments to varying energy distribution. The potential and heat energies areconverted into kinetic energy in these storms and the restless atmosphere returns to its stablestate.

Tornadoes occur throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. But they are seenvery frequently in the Mississippi valley and some parts of southeast USA.Hurricanes - Mexico, Florida, West Indies.Willy willies - AustraliaTyphoons - China and Japan.

Besides our study materials the following types of questions are provided inour PRACTICE WORK BOOKLET to make yourself comfortable with the answerwriting skills which is very much essential for performing well in the examination hall. Elucidate the political background of 1857 revolt (About 250 Words) Political causes for the 1857 revolt (248 words)

1. Policies such as effective control, subsidiary alliance & Doctrine of Lapse resulted

in loss of political prestige of almost all ruling princes. According to the Doctrine, anyprincely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British EastIndia Company, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, wouldautomatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died withouta direct heir". States annexed by Doctrine of Lapse Satara (1848), Jaipur (1850)Sambhalpur (1850), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854). Theright of succession was denied to Hindu Princes. Lucknow was annexed in 1856, oncharges of misadministration.2. Rampant corruption in the Companys administration.3. Absentee sovereignityship character of British rule imparted a foreign and alienlook to it in the eyes of Indians.

4. Greedy policy of aggrandizement .5. Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji RaoII. Another important reason for the rebellion was the unfair attitude towards theMughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar . Lord Dalhousie, the governor-general of Indiaat the time had insulted the Emperor by asking him to leave the Red Fort. The governor-general also said that his successors would also have to leave the Red fort. Later, LordCanning, the next governor-general of India, announced in 1856 A.D. that BahadurShah's successors would not even be allowed to use the title of the king. Suchdiscourtesies were resented by the people and the Indian rulers.

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