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Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
The Study of Human Development
Developmental psychology• Examines physical, cognitive, and socioemotional change
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
The Study of Human Development
THREE DEBATES
• Stages or continuity
• Sensitive and critical periods
• Hereditary and environmental influences
• Nature and nurture
• Stability and change
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES
Every cell in your body, except red blood cells and sex cells (sperm or egg), contains a full set of 23 chromosome pairs. These 23 chromosome pairs contain the full blueprint for you as a complete, unique person. The primary component of each chromosome is a single, tightly wound molecule of DNA. Within that DNA are around 21,000 genes, each determining specific traits.
CNRI
/ S
cien
ce S
ourc
e
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Genetics, Conception, andPrenatal Development
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
How exactly did you get your genes from your biological parents?
• Genes are found in chromosomes.
• Chromosomes inherited from biological parents.
• Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23 pairs.
• Twenty-third chromosome pair determines genetic sex.
• XX = female; XY = male
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Genetics, Conception, andPrenatal Development
FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS
Zygote
• Is single cell formed by union of sperm cell and egg
• Travels down fallopian tube while dividing into more cells
Multiples
• Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated at conception.
• Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated by two different sperm.
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Genetics, Conception, andPrenatal DevelopmentGerminal Period (Conception to end of 2nd week)• Implanting in uterine wall; rapid growth
Embryo Period (3rd to 8th week)• Cell differentiation; formation of major organs and systems
begin• Heart begins to beat; spinal cord and intestinal systems
develop by end of period
Fetal Period (2nd month to birth)• Rapid weight gain; clear sleep-wake cycles; all organs,
systems, and structures fully developed at birth• Brain weight one-quarter of adult size
Nei
l Bro
mha
ll /
Scie
nce
Sour
ce
Om
ikro
n/Sc
ienc
e So
urce
Anat
omic
al
Trav
elog
ue/S
cien
ce S
ourc
e
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Prenatal Development and Periodsof Critical Growth
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Genetics, Conception, andPrenatal Development
Teratogens
• Embryo not protected from all environmental dangers.
• Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus.
• Damage depends on the agent, timing, and duration of exposure.
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
The photograph at left shows the brain of an infant girl who died at 6 weeks. The mother was categorized as a chronic alcoholic. The child’s head circumference was 27 centimeters at birth and did not grow at all during her 6 weeks of life (normal head circumference is approximately 35 centimeters - about 13 and 3/4 inches).
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Male infant born at term and died at 10 weeks due to a sudden cardiac arrest (see picture at right). The mother's alcohol drinking included up to a gallon of wine at a time several times a week. The child had hydrocephalus (excess water in the brain) and typical facial features of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). The cerebellum (which controls coordination and movement) was "extremely small and poorly shaped (see picture at right)." The brainstem (responsible for processes such as breathing and body temperature) was also grossly malformed.
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Child with FAS, illustrating many features in the drawing. Such children may also have cardiovascular and limb defects.
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Can you identify the
potential effects of each of these
teratogens?
Alcohol
Caffeine
Cocaine
LeadLithium
LSD
Mercury
Nicotine
Radiation exposure
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Infancy and Child Development
Synaptic pruning
• Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain
• Unused synaptic connections eliminated
• Decrease in neural connection by 40 to 50 percent by puberty
Rosenzweig’s rats
• Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrate how environment influences animal brain development.
• Rats with enriched environment experienced greater increases in brain weight and synaptic connections.
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Infancy and Child Development
PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Schema
• Collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding
Assimilation
• Using existing information and ideas to understand new knowledge and experiences
Accommodation
• Restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Ch
ild p
layi
ng p
eeka
boo
, ˝ P
ete
r P
olak
/Fot
olia
.com
; Chi
ld p
layi
ng
vet
with
Te
ddy
bea
r, ˝
Gin
a S
and
ers/
Fot
olia
.com
; O
bjec
t pe
rman
ence
tes
t,
Do
ug G
ood
man
/Sci
enc
e S
ourc
e;
Blo
cks
silo
, Th
inks
tock
; Te
enag
e gi
rl w
ritin
g on
cha
lkb
oard
, C
reat
as/
Th
inks
tock
; Yo
ung
Asi
an
boy
po
urin
g
coo
kin
g oi
l in
to c
ake
batte
r, iS
tock
pho
to/T
hin
ksto
ck;
Ha
nds
open
, iS
tock
pho
to/T
hin
ksto
ck; P
iag
et C
ons
erv
atio
n-G
irl w
ith m
ilk g
lass
es,
Bia
nca
Mos
cate
lli/W
ort
h P
ubl
ish
ers
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Assessing Child’s Stage of Cognitive Development
Child playing peekaboo, ˝ Peter Polak/Fotolia.com; Child playing vet with Teddy bear, ˝ Gina Sanders/Fotolia.com; Object permanence test, Doug Goodman/Science Source; Blocks silo, Thinkstock; Teenage girl writing on chalkboard, Creatas/Thinkstock; Young Asian boy pouring cooking oil into cake batter, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Hands open, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Piaget Conservation-Girl with milk glasses, Bianca Moscatelli/Worth Publishers
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Infancy and Child Development
ATTACHMENT
Attachment
• Degree to which infant feels emotional connection with primary caregivers
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Attachment
Freud
Baby attaches to mother because mom provides oral stimulation
Attachment is due to feeding only.
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Infancy and Child Development
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Erikson
• Proposed human development marked by eight psychological stages from infancy to old age
• Suggested each stage marked by developmental task or emotional crisis to be resolved
• Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Infancy and Child Development
ERIKSON’S EIGHT STAGES
Trust versus mistrust
Identity versus role confusion
Intimacy versus Isolation
Check Table 8.2 for a discussion of each stage and its positive and negative resolutions.
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Erikson
Trust vs. mistrustBirth to 1 year
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Harry Harlow
Harry and Margaret Harlow found that contact comfort forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeys
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Mary AinsworthThe Strange Situation
Human infants exhibit separation anxiety and stranger anxiety once attachment has formed, at about 6 to 8 months of age
Separation anxiety
• fear and distress shown when parent leaves
Stranger anxiety
• fear of strangers
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Secure attachmentUse mother as a secure base for exploring
Distressed by separation from caregivers, greet caregivers when they return
More cooperative and content than other infants
Display better social skills as preschool children
Insecure Avoidant attachmentNot responsive to mother, not troubled when she leaves
May actively avoid contact with mother after separation
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Insecure Ambivalent attachment
Seek close contact with mother, and tend not to branch out and explore
After separation, may display anger toward mother; not easily comforted
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Adolescence
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Adolescence
Puberty
Menarche
Spermarche
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Adolescence
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Timing and effects of maturation
• Early maturing girls: More negative outcomes; social anxiety, higher risk of emotional problems and unhealthy and delinquent behaviors; lower self-confidence
• Early maturing boys: Generally a more positive experience; however: aggressive behavior, cheating, temper tantrums common
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Adolescence
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Adolescent egocentrism
• Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality
• Influences increased risky behaviors
• Personal Fable
• Imaginary Audience
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Adolescence
Adolescent brain
• Significant limbic system development compared to prefrontal cortex can lead to increase in risk-taking behavior.
• Increased myelination of axons in prefrontal cortex which is not yet fully developed
• Adolescent may not foresee the possible consequences of reward-seeking activities.
Should this influence decision about teenagers and the death penalty?
Teen inmates stand in line at a Texas prison facility. As of 2005, defendants being tried for crimes committed before age 18 are no longer candidates for the death penalty.
© M
icha
el A
insw
orth
/Dal
las
Mor
ning
New
s/Co
rbis
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Adolescence
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Erikson’s stage of ego identity versus role confusion
• Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new roles
• Influenced by positive resolution and success at earlier stages
• Positive resolution = Stronger sense of values, beliefs, and goals
• Negative resolution = Role confusion
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN
ADOLESCENCE
Relationships between teens and parents are generally positive, but most involve some degree of conflict.
Many disputes center on everyday issues, like clothing and chores, but the seemingly endless bickering does have a deeper meaning.
The adolescent is breaking away from his parents, establishing himself as an autonomous person.
Parents and Friends
SW P
rodu
ction
s/G
etty
Imag
es
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
Parenting Styles
Baumrind
2 factors:
Discipline and control
Love and affection
Low High
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
SocializationParenting Styles
Authoritarian parentsMake arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience, punish transgressions
Authoritative parentsSet high but realistic standards, reason with the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence
Permissive parentsMake few rules or demands, allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior
Cour
tesy
Dr.
Julie
Gra
low
SocializationParenting Styles - Outcomes
Children with authoritarian parents: withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy
Children with authoritative parents: happier; have higher self-esteem; more self-reliant, socially competent; more responsible than their peers
Children with permissive parents: most immature, impulsive, and dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-controlled