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Course Code: 121
Course Name: English II
1- Course specification:
Relevant program: B.Sc. in Computer Science, B. Sc. in Information Systems.
Department offering the program: Computer Science & Information Systems
Department offering the course: Basic Science.
Data of specification approval:
2- Course overview:
Course Level: 1 Course code: 121 Lecture Time: 2
Credit hours: 2 Course Title: English II
Tutorial/Exercise: 4
Course prerequisites: None Practical: -
3- Course Learning Objectives:
This course gives practice in specific points of grammar to consolidate and extend learners existing
knowledge. Analysis of syntax; comprehension; develop the learner's skills; comprehension questions
interpretation and implication. The activities used to develop listening, speaking and writing skills through a
communicative
4- Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOS)
a. Knowledge and understanding:
On successful completion of the courses, students should be able to:
a1. List the modal verbs and define the concepts relating to their usage such as; permission and ability.
a2. Acquire a level of proficiency in language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) that
enables them to communicate with speakers of English.
a3. Describe the ethical issues involved in learning English language and understand the responsibilities
as citizens in a scientific and multi-cultural world.
b. Intellectual skills:
On successful completion of the courses, students should be able to:
b1. Explain the kinds of conjunctions and give examples for each kind.
b2. Express different activities using mental, physical, or mechanical verbs.
b3. Give examples to different "if clause" types and explain the use of each one.
c. Professional and practical skills :
On successful completion of the courses, students should be able to:
c1. Prepare and write paragraphs using correct English.
c2. Use the linguistic competence to be aware of different computer subjects in order to contribute in
understanding scientific terms and to present and explain the concepts and issues related to
information systems and computer science.
c3. Use paper English to participate in conversations discussions.
d. General and transferable skills:
On successful completion of the courses, students should be able to:
d1. Demonstrate the ability to make use of a range of English learning resources and to manage one's
own learning.
d2. Show communication skills, public speaking, writing skills, oral delivery, and effectively using
various media for a variety of audiences in English.
Course Contribution in the Program ILO’s
Course ILO’s Program ILO’s
A Knowledge and understanding a1, a3, and a9
B Intellectual skills b5, b8, and b9
C Professional and practical skills c3, c5, and c10
D General and transferable skills d1, and d6
5- Contents
Week
No. Topic
Lecture
Hours
Tutorial
Hours
Practical
Hours
1 Tenses: Past, Present Perfect & Past Participle. 2 4 -
2 The Adverb & Prepositions. 2 4 -
3 Conjunctions; Coordinating Conjunctions. 2 4 -
4 Conjunctions; Correlative Conjunctions. 2 4 -
5 Conjunctions; Conjunctive Adverbs. 2 4 -
6 Conjunctions; Subordinating Conjunctions. 2 4 -
7 Verbs. 2 4 -
8 Mid-Term Exam
9 Purpose Clause 2 4 -
10 Expressing preferences. 2 4 -
11 Would Rather. 2 4 -
12 Making Comparison. 2 4 -
13 Conditional statements. 2 4 -
14 Reported Statements. 2 4 -
15 Practical Exam / Final Revision
- Final Exam
Total Hours 26 52 -
6- Teaching and Learning and Assessment methods:
Cou
rse
ILO
's
Teaching and Learning Methods Assessment Methods
Lec
ture
Bra
in s
torm
ing
Dis
cuss
ions
Tuto
rial
s
Pro
ble
m s
olv
ing
Labo
rato
ry
& E
xper
imen
ts
Rese
arch
an
d Re
port
s
Role
pla
yin
g
Work
shops
Pro
ject
s
Mod
elin
g an
d Si
mul
atio
n
Wri
tten
Exam
Pra
ctic
al /
Exe
rcise
Exa
m
Quiz
zes
Ter
m P
aper
s
Ass
ignm
ents
Kno
wle
dge
&
Und
ersta
ndin
g
a1
a2
a3
Intel
lectu
al sk
ills b1
b2
b3
Pro
fess
ion
al
skil
ls
c1
c2
c3
Gen
eral
Tran
. skil
ls
d1
d2
7- Teaching and Learning and Assessment methods for Students with special needs:
Not Applicable
8- Students' evaluation:
Assessment Method Timing Grade(points)
Semester Work : seminars, quizzes, assignment and reports Weeks 4,7,10,13 20
Mid –Term Exam 8th Week 20
Practical Exam 15th week -
Written Exam To be consider 60
Total 100
9- List of references:
Course notes: Lecturer Notes (PDF file, Presentation, and Word documents)
Required books:
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Stacy A. Hagen, "Understanding and Using English Grammar ", 4 th edition,
Pearson Longman, 2009.
Recommended books:
None.
Periodicals, Web sites, etc.:
English Grammar Secrets:
http://www.englishgrammarsecrets.com/
English grammar guide:
http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/english-grammar-guide/
British council; English Grammar:
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar
10- Facilities required for teaching and learning:
Teaching aids Computer aided data show Computers
White boards
Course coordinator: Dr. Rasha Moussa
Head of the Department: Dr. Hazem Farouk
Date:
Present perfect Vs. Past perfect
Both present perfect and past perfect talk about something that happened before a point in time (reference point).
In the present perfect, our reference point is the present.
In the past perfect, our reference point is in the past.
PRESENT PERFECT An action that started in the past and continues to the present.
I have lived in this city for six months.
An action that happened before now (unspecified time) I have been to Japan twice.
HOW TO FORM THE PRESENT PERFECT: HAVE / HAS + past participle
EXAMPLES OF THE PRESENT PERFECT: My mother has just gone to the store.
Janet has lived abroad for five years. I haven’t seen the new movie yet.
Have you finished your homework? It’s very common to use the contractions ‘ve and ‘s in the present perfect:
I’ve been to Japan three times.
My mother’s just gone to the store. Janet’s lived abroad for five years.
PAST PERFECT An action that happened before a time in the past
When I arrived at the office this morning, I discovered that I had left my computer on the night
before.
HOW TO FORM THE PAST PERFECT: HAD + past participle
SITUATIONS WHERE YOU WOULD USE THE PAST PERFECT: Situation:
1. I went to Japan in 1988 and 1991. 2. I turned 10 years old in 1994.
Past perfect sentence:
I had been to Japan twice by the time I was 10 years old. Situation:
1. My husband ate breakfast at 6:00 AM 2. I woke up at 7:00 AM
Past perfect sentence:
When I woke up this morning, my husband had already eaten breakfast. It’s common to use the contraction ‘d in the past perfect:
I’d traveled to five different countries by the time I was 20 years old.
Exercise: present perfect or past perfect
1. When I opened the refrigerator, I discovered that someone ____________ the last piece of cake.
a. has eaten
b. had eaten
2. She failed the test because she _____________
a. hasn’t studied
b. hadn’t studied
3. _____________ Brazilian food.
a. I’ve never tried
b. I’d never tried
4. By the end of the night, John ___________ with everyone at the party.
a. has talked
b. had talked
5. I had a great time on my date with Henry last week, but he ____________ me since.
a. hasn’t called
b. hadn’t called
6. They couldn't drive home because _____________ their keys in the car.
a. they’ve locked
b. they’d locked
7. We ____________ the new English teacher yet.
a. haven’t met
b. hadn’t met
8. Don't get the floor dirty - my mother _____________ the house.
a. has just cleaned
b. had just cleaned
9. You're working late again?! ___________ overtime every day this week!
a. you’ve worked
b. you’d worked
10. ____________ Brazilian food until my trip to Rio last month.
a. I’ve never had
b. I’d never had
Now write lines paragraph using both tenses properly.
What Are Past Participles?
Past participles are formed from verbs. Past participles (just like present participles) can be used as adjectives or used to form verb tenses. Let's look at the verb to whisper:
Here's the past participle: whispered
Here it is used as an adjective: The whispered word Here it is used to form a verb tense: The message was whispered.
There are two types of participles:
The Past Participle
(Past participles usually end with -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n.)
Past participles are classified as verbals. (A verbal is a verb form that functions either as an adjective or a noun.)
Examples of Past Participles Being Used As Adjectives
Here are some examples of past participles being used as adjectives:
The Verb The Past Participle
To swell swollen eyes
To break broken plate
To ruin ruined cake
Past Participles in Participle Phrases
Past participles can often be found in participle phrases. A participle phrase acts like an adjective. In the examples below, the participle phrases are shaded and the past participles are in bold:
The boy taken to hospital has recovered.
(The participle phrase taken to hospital describes the boy.)
I have a heart wracked with sorrow.
(The participle phrase wracked with sorrow describes a heart.)
More Examples of Past Participles Used as Adjectives
Here are some examples of past participles (shaded) being used as adjectives:
Here is a laminated copy to replace your torn one.
Stuffed deer heads on walls are bad enough, but it's worse when they have streamers in their antlers because then you know they were enjoying themselves when they were shot. (Ellen DeGeneres)
A torn jacket is soon mended, but hard words bruise the heart of a child. (Henry
Longfellow) Scandal is gossip made tedious by morality. (Oscar Wilde, 1854-1900) The enemy is anybody who's going to get you killed, no matter which side he's
on. (Joseph Heller, 1923- 1999)
Past Participles Used in Verb Tenses
As well as being used as adjectives, past participles are also used to form verb tenses. Here are the verb tenses (past participles shaded):
The 4 Past Tenses Example
simple past tense I broke
past progressive tense I was breaking
past perfect tense I had broken
past perfect progressive tense I had been breaking
The 4 Present Tenses Example
simple present tense I break
present progressive tense I am breaking
present perfect tense I have broken
present perfect progressive tense I have been breaking
The 4 Future Tenses Example
simple future tense I will break
future progressive tense I will be breaking
future perfect tense I will have broken
future perfect progressive tense I will have been breaking
Choose the present or past participle form:
1. His ……………… coat needs mending.
a. tattering b. tattered
2. A ………………stone gathers no moss.
a. rolling b. rolled
3. A ………………opportunity never returns.
a. losing b. lost
4. He kept me ……………….
a. waiting b. waited
5. She looked ……………….
a. worrying b. worried
6. I saw the storm ……………….
a. approaching b. approached
7. ………………a noise, I turned around.
a. hearing b. heard
8. Being ………………, he quit his job.
a. dissatisfying b. dissatisfied
9. Being ………………with work, I couldn’t meet them.
a. occupying b. occupied
10. ………………by his wife, he persevered.
a. encouraging b. encouraged
Write a paragraph minimum of 6 lines, using the past and present participle properly.
The Adverb
Recognize an adverb when you see one.
Adverbs tweak the meaning of verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and clauses. Read, for example, this sentence:
Our basset hound Bailey sleeps on the living room floor.
Is Bailey a sound sleeper, curled into a tight ball? Or is he a fitful sleeper, his paws twitching while he dreams? The addition of an adverb adjusts the meaning of the verb sleeps so that the
reader has a clearer picture:
Our basset hound Bailey sleeps peacefully on the living room floor.
Adverbs can be single words, or they can be phrases or clauses. Adverbs answer one of these
four questions: How? When? Where? and Why?
Here are some single-word examples:
Lenora rudely grabbed the last chocolate cookie.
The adverb rudely fine-tunes the verb grabbed.
Tyler stumbled in the completely dark kitchen.
The adverb completely fine-tunes the adjective dark.
Roxanne very happily accepted the ten-point late penalty to work on her research essay one
more day.
The adverb very fine-tunes the adverb happily.
Surprisingly, the restroom stalls had toilet paper.
The adverb surprisingly modifies the entire main clause that follows.
Many single-word adverbs end in ly. In the examples above, you saw peacefully, rudely,
completely, happily, and surprisingly.
Not all ly words are adverbs, however. Lively, lonely, and lovely are adjectives instead,
answering the questions What kind? or Which one?
Many single-word adverbs have no specific ending, such as next, not, often, seldom, and then.
If you are uncertain whether a word is an adverb or not, use a dictionary to determine its part
of speech.
Adverbs can also be multi-word phrases and clauses. Here are some examples:
At 2 a.m., a bat flew through Deidre's open bedroom window.
The prepositional phrase at 2 a.m. indicates when the event happened. The second prepositional phrase, through Deidre's open bedroom window, describes where the creature
traveled.
With a fork, George thrashed the raw eggs until they foamed.
The subordinate clause until they foamed describes how George prepared the eggs.
Sylvia emptied the carton of milk into the sink because the expiration date had long passed.
The subordinate clause because the expiration date had long passed describes why Sylvia
poured out the milk.
Avoid an adverb when a single, stronger word will do.
Many readers believe that adverbs make sentences bloated and flabby. When you can replace a
two-word combination with a more powerful, single word, do so!
For example, don't write drink quickly when you mean gulp, or walk slowly when you mean
saunter, or very hungry when you mean ravenous.
Form comparative and superlative adverbs correctly.
To make comparisons, you will often need comparative or superlative adverbs. You use comparative adverbs—more and less—if you are discussing two people, places, or things. You use superlative adverbs—most and least—if you have three or more people, places, or things.
Look at these two examples:
Beth loves green vegetables, so she eats broccoli more frequently than her brother Daniel.
Don't use an adjective when you need an adverb instead.
You will often hear people say, "Anthony is real smart" or "This pizza sauce is real salty."
Real is an adjective, so it cannot modify another adjective like smart or salty. What people
should say is "Anthony is really smart" or "This pizza sauce is really salty."
If you train yourself to add the extra ly syllable when you speak, you will likely remember it
when you write, where its absence will otherwise cost you points or respect!
Realize that an adverb is not part of the verb.
Some verbs require up to four words to complete the tense. A multi-part verb has a base or main part as well as auxiliary or helping verbs with it.
When a short adverb such as also, never, or not interrupts, it is still an adverb, not part of the
verb. Read these examples:
For his birthday, Frank would also like a jar of dill pickles.
Would like = verb; also = adverb.
After that dreadful casserole you made last night, Julie will never eat tuna or broccoli again.
Will eat = verb; never = adverb.
Despite the approaching deadline, Sheryl-Ann has not started her research essay.
Has started = verb; not = adverb.
Among the members of her family, Beth eats pepperoni pizza the least often.
Find the adjective in the first sentence and fill the gap with the adverb.
Joanne is happy. She smiles …………..
The boy is loud. He shouts…………...
Her English is fluent. She speaks English…………...
Our mum was angry. She spoke to us…………...
My neighbor is a careless driver. He drives…………...
The painter is awful. He paints…………...
Jim is a wonderful piano player. He plays the piano…………...
This girl is very quiet. She often sneaks out of the house…………...
She is a good dancer. She dances really…………...
This exercise is simple. You…………..have to put one word in each space.
Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in
front of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on
the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in
English:
Prepositions of time
English Usage Example
on days of the week on Monday
in months / seasons
time of day
year
after a certain period of time (when?)
in August / in winter
in the morning
in 2006
in an hour
at for night
for weekend
a certain point of time (when?)
at night
at the weekend
at half past nine
since from a certain point of time (past till
now)
since 1980
for over a certain period of time (past till
now)
for 2 years
ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago
before earlier than a certain point of time before 2004
to telling the time ten to six (5:50)
past telling the time ten past six (6:10)
to / till /
until
marking the beginning and end of a period of time
from Monday to/till Friday
till / until
in the sense of how long something is going to last
He is on holiday until Friday.
by in the sense of at the latest
up to a certain time
I will be back by 6 o’clock.
By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.
Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)
English Usage Example
in room, building, street, town, country
book, paper etc.
car, taxi
picture, world
in the kitchen, in London
in the book
in the car, in a taxi
in the picture, in the world
at meaning next to, by an object
for table
for events
place where you are to do something
typical (watch a film, study, work)
at the door, at the station
at the table
at a concert, at the party
at the cinema, at school, at work
on attached
for a place with a river
being on a surface
for a certain side (left, right)
for a floor in a house
for public transport
for television, radio
the picture on the wall
London lies on the Thames.
on the table
on the left
on the first floor
on the bus, on a plane
on TV, on the radio
by,
next to, beside
left or right of somebody or something Jane is standing by / next to / beside the
car.
under on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else
the bag is under the table
below lower than something else but above
ground
the fish are below the surface
over covered by something else
meaning more than
getting to the other side (also across)
put a jacket over your shirt
over 16 years of age
walk over the bridge
English Usage Example
overcoming an obstacle climb over the wall
above higher than something else, but not directly over it
a path above the lake
across getting to the other side (also over)
getting to the other side
walk across the bridge
swim across the lake
through something with limits on top, bottom
and the sides
drive through the tunnel
to movement to person or building
movement to a place or country
for bed
go to the cinema
go to London / Ireland
go to bed
into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house
towards movement in the direction of something (but not directly to it)
go 5 steps towards the house
onto movement to the top of something jump onto the table
from in the sense of where from a flower from the garden
Other important Prepositions
English Usage Example
from who gave it a present from Jane
of who/what does it belong to
what does it show
a page of the book
the picture of a palace
by who made it a book by Mark Twain
on walking or riding on horseback
entering a public transport vehicle
on foot, on horseback
get on the bus
in entering a car / Taxi get in the car
English Usage Example
off leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train
out of leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi
by rise or fall of something
travelling (other than walking or horse-
riding)
prices have risen by 10 percent
by car, by bus
at for age she learned Russian at 45
about for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions. Choose your answers from the options given in the brackets.
1. This material is different …………………… that. (from / to / with)
2. You should explain this …………………… them. (to / at / with)
3. He has been absent ………………… Monday. (since /for / from)
4. I haven’t been to the theatre ………………… a long time. (since / for /from)
5. He goes ……………….. school by car. (to / at / on)
6. This is a comfortable house to live ……………… (on / at / in)
7. They are called …………………. different names. (by / with / for)
8. We should not spend money ………………. luxuries. (for / on / with)
9. I gave him a chair to sit ………………. (on / at / in)
10. The new term begins …………………. June 1st. (on / in / from)
11. He poured the tea ………………….. the mug. (into / on / in)
12. He said that he was very pleased ……………………. my work. (with / on / at)
Conjunctions
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words used as joiners.
Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.
The following are the kinds of conjunctions:
A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:
words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.
Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.
Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:
When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma
should be placed before the conjunction.
A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates a series and requires commas between the elements.
A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction
B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
either. . .or both. . . and
neither. . . nor not only. . . but also
These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.
C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
These conjunctions join independent clauses together.
The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:
after all in addition next also incidentally nonetheless
as a result indeed on the contrary besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise finally instead still
for example likewise then furthermore meanwhile therefore hence moreover thus
however nevertheless
Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after
the conjunctive adverb.
D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions
after in order (that) unless although insofar as until
as in that when as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where
as if now that wherever as though once whether
because provided (that) while before since why
even if so that even though supposing (that)
how than if that
inasmuch as though in case (that) till
Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so; they make one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.
A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a sentence.
A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than
coordinating conjunctions does.
Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.
Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
Punctuation Note:
When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses. When the independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second do not
separate the two clauses with a comma.
Conjunction Exercises
Subordinating Conjunction Exercises
Complete each sentence using the subordinating conjunction from the parenthesis:
I visit the Grand Canyon _________ I go to Arizona. (once, whenever, wherever)
This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited. (where, when, how)
_________ you win first place, you will receive a prize. (wherever, if, unless)
You won’t pass the test _________ you study. (when, if, unless)
I could not get a seat, _________ I came early. (as, though, when)
We are leaving Wednesday _________ or not it rains. (if, whether, though)
Pay attention to your work _________ you will not make mistakes. (so that, unless, or)
The musicians delivered a rousing performance _________ they had rehearsed often. (though, as, once)
She’s honest _________ everyone trusts her. (if, so, when)
Write this down _________ you forget. (or, when, lest)
Correlative Conjunction Exercises
Complete each sentence using the correct correlative conjunction pair from the parenthesis:
I plan to take my vacation _________ in June _________ in July. (whether / or, either / or, as / if)
_________ I’m feeling happy _________ sad, I try to keep a positive attitude. (either / or, whether / or, when / I’m)
_________ had I taken my shoes off _________ I found out we had to leave again. (no sooner /
than, rather / than, whether / or)
_________ only is dark chocolate delicious, _________ it can be healthy. (whether / or, not /
but, just as / so)
_________ I have salad for dinner, _____________________I can have ice cream for dessert. (if /then, when / than, whether / or)
_________ flowers _________ trees grow _________ during warm weather. (not only / or, both / and, not / but)
_________ do we enjoy summer vacation, _________ we _________ enjoy winter break.
(whether / or, not only / but also, either / or)
Calculus is _________ easy _________ difficult _________ (not / but, both / and, either / or)
It’s _________ going to rain _________ snow tonight. (as / if, either / or, as / as)
Savory flavors are _________ sweet _________ sour. (often / and, neither / nor, both / and)
Coordinating Conjunction Exercises
Complete each sentence using the correct coordinating conjunction from the parenthesis:
My car has a radio _________ a CD player. (but, or, and)
Sharon hates to listen to rap music, _________ will she tolerate heavy metal. (but, nor, or)
Carol wanted to drive to Colorado, _________ Bill insisted that they fly. (and, or, but)
I’m afraid of heights, _________ I appreciate the view from the top of this building. (and, yet, nor)
I have to be on time, _________ my boss will be annoyed if I’m late. (and, or, for)
Do you like chocolate _________ vanilla ice cream better? (or, nor, and)
I have to go to work at six, _________ I’m waking up at four. (but, so, yet)
I was on time, _________ everyone else was late. (so, but, for)
Nadia doesn’t like to drive, _________ she takes the bus everywhere. (but, yet, so)
Our trip to the museum was interesting, _________ there were several new artifacts on display. (but, for, yet)
Conjunctive Adverb Exercises
Complete each sentence using the correct coordinating conjunctive adverb from the parenthesis:
Bianca wore her rain boots; _________, her feet stayed dry during the storm. (however, therefore, on the other hand)
I love the color red; _________, this shade seems a little too bright. (therefore, nonetheless, in
fact)
You have to be on time; _________, you’ll miss the train. (nonetheless, however, otherwise)
Teresa likes to read; _________, her sister Julia prefers to watch TV. (however, in contrast,
again)
She really wanted to eat ice cream; _________, she had a salad. (however, likewise, instead)
We were working hard; _________, Jill and Jerry were lounging by the pool. (meanwhile,
instead, therefore)
He is a weak leader; _________, he has plenty of supporters. (otherwise, moreover, nevertheless)
She has an incredible voice; _________, she will go far in her music career. (otherwise, undoubtedly, similarly)
Natalie wanted to make pie but didn’t have apples; _________, she decided to bake a cake.
(therefore, namely, in contrast)
We had hoped to go to Spain; _________, we ended up in France. (otherwise, instead, again)
Verbs
What is a verb?
A verb is one of the main parts of a sentence or question in English. In fact, you can’t have a sentence or a question without a verb! That’s how important these
“action” parts of speech are.
The verb signals an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Whether mental, physical, or
mechanical, verbs always express activity.
Physical Verbs – Definition and Examples
Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can create a
motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you use to describe it is most likely a physical verb.
Physical Verb Examples
The physical verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
Let’s run to the corner and back.
I hear the train coming.
Call me when you’re finished with class.
Mental Verbs – Definition and Examples
Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering, understanding, thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive state.
Mental Verb Examples
The mental verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
I know the answer.
She recognized me from across the room.
Do you believe everything people tell you?
States of Being Verbs – Definition and Examples
Also known as linking verbs, state of being verbs describe conditions or situations that exist. States of being verbs are inactive since no action is being performed. These verbs are usually
complemented by adjectives.
States of Being Verb Examples
The states of being verbs in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
I am a student.
We are circus performers.
He is quiet.
English Modal Verbs
Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special
verbs which behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like "work, play, visit..." They give additional information about the function of the main verb that follows
it. They have a great variety of communicative functions.
Here are some characteristics of modal verbs:
They never change their form. You can't add "s", "ed", "ing"...
They are always followed by an infinitive without "to" (e.i. the bare infinitive.)
They are used to indicate modality allow speakers to express certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity, ability
List of modal verbs
Here is a list of modal verbs:
can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must
The verbs or expressions dare, ought to, had better, and need not behave like modal
auxiliaries to a large extent and may be added to the above list
Use of modal verbs:
Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:
Permission
Ability
Obligation
Prohibition
Lack of necessity
Advice
possibility
probability
Modal Concept Example
Can
Ability:
Permission:
Offers :
Julie can swim.
Can I come with you? ('May' is also used.)
Can I help you?
Could
Possibility:
Past ability :
Permission :
Requests :
That story could be true - who knows!
Charlie could swim when he was four years old.
Could I use your phone please?
Could you tell me the way to the station please?
May Possibility :
Permission :
The President may come to our offices
if the meeting finishes before 5 pm.
May I borrow your dictionary?
Might
Slight Possibility:
Past form of 'may'
in reported speech.
We might win a prize but I doubt it.
The President said he might come.
Should Advice :
Logical deduction :
You should take an umbrella in case it rains.
I've revised so I should be ready for the test.
to Ought
Advice :
Logical deduction :
You ought to write to your grandmother.
30 € ought to be enough for the taxi.
Shall
Future tense auxiliary :
Offers/suggestions with ''I' and 'we'
I shall be in London on Monday (or I'll be ...).
Shall I order a taxi? Shall we begin the meeting now?
Will
Future tense auxiliary:
Invitations/offers :
The ticket will cost about 50€.
Will you join us for coffee? Won't you come in?
Exercise Complete the sentences using: can could have to must might should
1. Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He…………….. be exhausted after
such a long flight. He…………….. prefer to stay in tonight and get some rest.
2. If you want to get a better feeling for how the city is laid out, you…………….. walk downtown and explore the waterfront.
3. Hiking the trail to the peak…………….. be dangerous if you are not well prepared for
dramatic weather changes. You…………….. research the route a little more before you attempt the ascent.
4. When you have a small child in the house, you…………….. leave small objects lying
around. Such objects…………….. be swallowed, causing serious injury or even death.
5. Dave: …………….. you hold your breath for more than a minute?
Nathan: No, I can't.
6. Jenny's engagement ring is enormous! It…………….. have cost a fortune.
7. Please make sure to water my plants while I am gone. If they don't get enough water, they…………….. die.
8. I…………….. speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Egypt. But after
we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the language and forgot almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I…………….. just say a few things in the language.
9. The book is optional. My professor said we…………….. read it if we needed extra credit.
But we…………….. read it if we don't want to.
10. Leo: Where is the spatula? It…………….. be in this drawer but it's not here.
Nancy: I just did a load of dishes last night and they're still in the dish washer. It…………….. be in there. That's the only other place it…………….. be.
11. You…………….. take your umbrella along with you today. The weatherman on the news
said there's a storm north of here and it…………….. rain later on this afternoon.
12. …………….. we pull over at the next rest stop? I really…………….. use the bathroom and I don't know if I…………….. hold it until we get to Chicago.
13. Oh no! Frank's wallet is lying on the coffee table. He…………….. have left it here last night.
14. Ned: …………….. I borrow your lighter for a minute?
Stephen: Sure, no problem. Actually, you…………….. keep it if you want to. I've given up smoking.
15. I…………….. believe she said that to Megan! She…………….. insult her cooking in
front of everyone at the party last night. She…………….. have just said she was full or had some salad if she didn't like the meal.
16. Do you…………….. chew with your mouth open like that? Geez, it's making me sick
watching you eat that piece of pizza.
17. Mrs. Scarlett's body was found in the lounge just moments ago, and it's still warm! Nobody has left the mansion this evening, so the killer…………….. be someone in this room. It…………….. be any one of us!!!
18. Ted: I don't know why Denise starting crying when I mentioned the wedding.
Pamela: It…………….. have been what you said about her brother. Or, perhaps she is just nervous. After all, the big day is tomorrow.
19. …………….. you always say the first thing that pops into your head? …………….. you
think once in awhile before you speak?
20. I was reading the book last night before I went to bed. I never took it out of this room. It…………….. be lying around here somewhere. Where…………….. it be? be
swallowed, causing serious injury or even death.
Purpose Clause
We use certain clauses to show why somebody does something. These are called clauses of
purpose. They are introduced with the following words or expressions:
to + infinitive; David went out to buy a bottle of wine.
in order to/so as to + infinitive (formal); We were asked to say over in order to finish the
project.
so that + can/will – used for a present or future reference; Here’s my number so that you can
call me if you have a problem.
so that +could/would – used for a past reference; We left early so that we would be able to park close to the stadium.
in case + present tense – present or future reference – Take your hat in case it gets too hot.
in case + past tense – used for past reference – We took an umbrella in case it rained.
for + noun – used to express purpose – We went out for a pizza.
for + -ing – used to express purpose and/or function of something – This function on the air conditioner is for reducing humidity.
Negatives
For negative purpose we use:
in order not to/so as not to + infinitive – we walked in quietly so as not to wake up the
children.
prevent + noun/pronoun + from + ing – I parked the car under a tree to prevent it from getting too hot.
Choose the right answer:
1. we worked hard just before Christmas ……….we could really enjoy the holiday a. to b. so that c. in order to
2. John just popped out ……….the paper. a. For buy b. to buy c. buy
3. Take your house keys in case I ………. Out when you came back. a. Have gone b. went c. will go
4. This oven is used …………bread a. For making b. for make c. to make
5. This bracelet is ……….. Sarah. It’s her birthday tomorrow.
a. For b. in order to c. to 6. John whispered ………… disturb the other passengers on flight.
a. For b. so as not to c. to
Expressing preferences
PREFER: + Noun +TO + Noun : I prefer coffee to tea
+ -ING Form + TO + ING Form : I prefer skiing to swimming. = to talk
about general preferences
+ TO Infinitive + RATHER THAN + Bare Infinitive : I prefer to eat fish
rather than (eat) meat to talk about general preferences
WOULD PREFER + TO Infinitive : Would you like to have a cup of coffee? I’d prefer to have some water. = To talk about specific preference
Another clause can be introduced by rather than + bare infinitive: He’d prefer to stay at home rather than drive to the restaurant
Prefer takes an object when we want to introduce a new subject: I would prefer her to stay at home
WOULD RATHER
SAME SUBJECT: followed by the bare infinitive: I'd rather play football than golf but I
prefer football to golf
Or the Perfect Infinitive: I'd rather have stayed at home
DIFFERENT SUBJECT: → Use a Past Tense with present or future meaning: Shall I open
the window? I'd rather you didn't
→ Use a Past Perfect with past meaning: I'd rather you hadn't called him old
HAD BETTER + Bare Infinitive (= should/ought)
You had/'d better book your flight early I'd better not take out a loan; I won't be able to pay it back
This structure is used to give advice or to say what the best thing to do in a particular
situation is. Had better is more emphatic than Should or Ought to but it is not as emphatic as Must
You must see a lawyer (Strong advice) You had better see a lawyer (less emphatic than "Must")
You should/ought to see a lawyer (even less emphatic)
Making Comparison
When comparing two things, you can say that one thing is more than the other thing, that one
thing is less than the other thing, or that the two things are the same. To say that something is more than something else, you can use the following patterns:
ADJECTIVE + “ er” + “than” (for adjectives with less than three syllables) “My father is richer than your father.”“This train is slower than the last one.”
“more” + ADJECTIVE + “than” (for adjectives with three or more syllables) “John is more intelligent than Bill.”“Melanie is more beautiful than Karen.”
To say that something is “less” than something else, you can use the following patterns:
“not as” + ADJECTIVE + “as” “Kevin is not as strong as David.”“Horses are not as smart as pigs.”
“less” + ADJECTIVE + “than” “My watch is less expensive than yours.”
To say that something is “more” than something else in a stronger way you use “much” or “a lot” in the following ways: “My father is a lot richer than your father.”“Melanie is much
more beautiful than Karen.”To say that two things are the same, you can use the following
pattern:
“as” + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB + “as” “Darren runs as fast as John.”“The bus is as crowded as the subway.”
Fill in the words in brackets as adjective or adverb
He……………..reads a book. (quick)
Mandy is a…………….girl. (pretty) The class is…………….loud today. (terrible)
Max is a…………….singer. (good) You can…………….open this tin. (easy)
It's a…………….day today. (terrible) She sings the song…………….. (good)
He is a…………….driver. (careful) He drives the car…………….. (careful) The dog barks…………….. (loud)
Conditional statements
If Clause Type 1
Form
if + Simple Present, will-Future
Example: If I find her address, I will send her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.
Example: I will send her an invitation if I find her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative.
Example: If I don’t see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a
certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic – so we think it is
likely to happen.
Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.
I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite sure, however, that I will find it.
Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari.
I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves Ferraris. So I
think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a Ferrari.
If Clause Type 2
Form
if + Simple Past, main clause with Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.
Example: I would send her an invitation if I found her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative.
Example: If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here.
Were instead of Was
In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use ‚were‘ – even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it –.
Example: If I were you, I would not do this.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type II refers to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to change, however. I just
imagine „what would happen if …“
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her address, but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find her address.
Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari.
I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely that he will have the
money to buy one in the near future.
If Clause type 3
Form
if + Past Perfect, main clause with Conditional II
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.
Example: I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative.
Example: If I hadn’t studied, I wouldn’t have passed my exams.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type III refers to situations in the past. An action could have happened
in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled.
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her address,
however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation.
Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari.
I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one.
Complete the Conditional Sentences with the correct form (Type I, II or III).
If I (be)……………………stronger, I'd help you carry the piano.
If we'd seen you, we (greet) ………………………...
If we (see)…………………..him tomorrow, we'll say hello.
He would have repaired the car himself if he (have)………………….the tools.
If you drop the vase, it (break)…………………………..
If I hadn't studied, I (not/ pass)……………………….the exam.
I wouldn't go to school by bus if I (have)……………………a driving license.
If she (not/ see)…………………….him every day, she'd be lovesick.
I (not/travel)……………………….to London if I don't get a cheap flight.
We'd be stupid if we (tell)……………………….him about our secret.
Complete the Conditional Sentences Type I.
If you (go)…………….out with your friends tonight, I (watch)…………..the football match
on TV.
I (earn)…………..a lot of money if I (get)……………..that job.
If she (hurry / not)………………, we (miss)…………….the bus.
Complete the Conditional Sentences Type II.
If he (try)………………harder, he (reach)……………..his goals.
I (buy)…………….these shoes if they (fit)………………..
It (surprise / not)……………….me if he (know / not)…………………….the answer.
Complete the Conditional Sentences Type III.
If we (listen)………….to the radio, we (hear)……………the news.
If you (switch)………….on the lights, you (fall / not)……………over the chair.
She (come)……………to our party if she (be / not)…………….on holiday.
Reported Statements
When do we use reported speech? Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example "I'm
going to the cinema tonight". Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first person said.
Here's how it works:
We use a 'reporting verb' like 'say' or 'tell'. If this verb is in the present tense, it's easy. We just put 'she says' and then the sentence:
Direct speech: “I like ice cream”.
Reported speech: She says (that) she likes ice cream.
We don't need to change the tense, though probably we do need to change the 'person' from 'I' to 'she', for example. We also may need to change words like 'my' and 'your'.
(As I'm sure you know, often, we can choose if we want to use 'that' or not in English. I've put it in brackets () to show that it's optional. It's exactly the same if you use 'that' or if you don't
use 'that'.)
But, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, then usually we change the tenses in the reported speech:
Direct speech: “I like ice cream”.
Reported speech: She said (that) she liked ice cream.
Tense Direct Speech Reported Speech
present simple “I like ice cream” She said (that) she liked ice cream.
present continuous
“I am living in London”
She said (that) she was living in London.
past simple “I bought a car” She said (that) she had bought a car OR She said
(that) she bought a car.
past
continuous
“I was walking along
the street”
She said (that) she had been walking along the
street.
present perfect “I haven't seen Julie” She said (that) she hadn't seen Julie.
past perfect* “I had taken English
lessons before”
She said (that) she had taken English lessons
before.
will “I'll see you later” She said (that) she would see me later.
would* “I would help, but..” She said (that) she would help but...
can “I can speak perfect
English” She said (that) she could speak perfect English.
could* “I could swim when I was four”
She said (that) she could swim when she was four.
shall “I shall come later” She said (that) she would come later.
should* “I should call my She said (that) she should call her mother
mother”
might* "I might be late" She said (that) she might be late
must "I must study at the weekend"
She said (that) she must study at the weekend OR She said she had to study at the weekend
* doesn't change.
Occasionally, we don't need to change the present tense into the past if the information in direct speech is still true (but this is only for things which are general facts, and even then
usually we like to change the tense):
Direct speech: “The sky is blue”.
Reported speech: She said (that) the sky is/was blue.
Reported Questions
So now you have no problem with making reported speech from positive and negative sentences. But how about questions?
Direct speech: "Where do you live?"
How can we make the reported speech here?
In fact, it's not so different from reported statements. The tense changes are the same, and we keep the question word. The very important thing though is that, once we tell the question to
someone else, it isn't a question any more. So we need to change the grammar to a normal positive sentence. A bit confusing? Maybe this example will help:
Direct speech: "Where do you live?"
Reported speech: She asked me where I lived.
Do you see how I made it? The direct question is in the present simple tense. We make a present simple question with 'do' or 'does' so I need to take that away. Then I need to change the verb to the past simple.
Another example:
Direct speech: "where is Julie?"
Reported speech: She asked me where Julie was.
The direct question is the present simple of 'be'. We make the question form of the present simple of be by inverting (changing the position of) the subject and verb. So, we need to
change them back before putting the verb into the past simple.
Here are some more examples:
Direct Question Reported Question
“Where is the Post Office, please?” She asked me where the Post Office was.
“What are you doing?” She asked me what I was doing.
“Who was that fantastic man?” She asked me who that fantastic man had been.
So much for 'wh' questions. But, what if you need to report a 'yes / no' question? We don't have
any question words to help us. Instead, we use 'if':
Direct speech: "Do you like chocolate?"
Reported speech: She asked me if I liked chocolate.
No problem? Here are a few more examples:
Direct Question Reported Question
“Do you love me?” He asked me if I loved him.
“Have you ever been to Mexico?” She asked me if I had ever been to Mexico.
“Are you living here?” She asked me if I was living here.
Reported Requests
There's more! What if someone asks you to do something (in a polite way)? For example:
Direct speech: "Close the window, please"
Or: "Could you close the window please?"
Or: "Would you mind closing the window please?"
All of these requests mean the same thing, so we don't need to report every word when we tell another person about it. We simply use 'ask me + to + infinitive':
Reported speech: She asked me to close the window.
Here are a few more examples:
Direct Request Reported Request
“Please help me”. She asked me to help her.
“Please don't smoke”. She asked me not to smoke.
“Could you bring my book tonight?” She asked me to bring her book that night.
“Could you pass the milk, please?” She asked me to pass the milk.
“Would you mind coming early tomorrow?” She asked me to come early the next day.
To report a negative request, use 'not':
Direct speech: "Please don't be late."
Reported speech: She asked us not to be late.
Reported Orders
And finally, how about if someone doesn't ask so politely? We can call this an 'order' in
English, when someone tells you very directly to do something. For example:
Direct speech: "Sit down!"
In fact, we make this into reported speech in the same way as a request. We just use 'tell'
instead of 'ask':
Reported speech: She told me to sit down.
Direct Order Reported Order
“Go to bed!” He told the child to go to bed.
“Don't worry!” He told her not to worry.
“Be on time!” He told me to be on time.
“Don't smoke!” He told us not to smoke.
Time Expressions with Reported Speech sometimes when we change direct speech into reported speech we have to change time
expressions too. We don't always have to do this, however. It depends on when we heard the direct speech and when we say the reported speech.
For example:
It's Monday. Julie says "I'm leaving today".
If I tell someone on Monday, I say "Julie said she was leaving today". If I tell someone on Tuesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving yesterday".
If I tell someone on Wednesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving on Monday". If I tell someone a month later, I say "Julie said she was leaving that day".
So, there's no easy conversion. You really have to think about when the direct speech was said.
Here's a table of some possible conversions:
now then / at that time
today yesterday / that day / Tuesday / the 27th of June
yesterday the day before yesterday / the day before / Wednesday / the 5th of December
last night the night before, Thursday night
last week the week before / the previous week
tomorrow today / the next day / the following day / Friday
Revise
Possessive adjectives
What are possessive adjectives?
Possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their - modify the noun following it
in order to show possession.
Examples:
I'll get my bag.
Is this your luggage?
Possessive adjectives are often confused with possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Your bike is blue. (your is an adjective which modifies bike)
Mine is yellow. (mine is a pronoun which functions as the subject of the verb is)
Examples
Subject Pronouns I you he she it we you they
Possessive Adjectives my your his her its our your their
Examples:
Why didn't you clean your room?
(your modifies the noun room)
Mary doesn't like her dress. (her modifies the noun dress)
The chameleon can change its color. (its modifies the noun color)
Her hair is long. His hair is short
Things to remember:
1. Possessive adjectives are different from possessive pronouns.
This is your (possessive adjective) book and this is mine (possessive pronoun).
2. its, their are possessive adjectives.
Its color is beautiful.
Their car is in their garage.
3. it's, they're and there are not possessive adjectives — its is a contraction of it is or it has; they're is a contraction of they are; there is an adverb of place.
It's not my book = It is not my book.
My house is big. It's got five bedrooms = It has got five bedrooms.
Nancy and Alan are from New York. They're my friends = They are my friends.
Please, put the chair there. (adverb)
Review:
Personal
pronouns
Possessive
adjectives
Possessive
pronouns
Reflexive
pronouns
Object
pronouns
I my mine myself me
you your yours yourself you
he his his himself him
she her hers herself her
it its its itself it
we our ours ourselves us
you your yours yourselves you
they their theirs themselves them
Replace the personal pronouns by possessive adjectives:
1. Where is (I) …………….. book?
2. Here is (we) ……………… teacher.
3. She goes to school with (she) …………….. brother.
4. (They)…………….. father works in a car factory.
5. (You) …………….. laptop is very expensive.
6. (He) …………….. favorite hobby is tennis.
7. (I) …………….. husband and I want to go to Paris.
8. We want to see (it) …………….. historical monuments.
9. Leila likes (she) …………….. dog !
10. (It) …………….. name is Bobby.
Choose the right possessive adjective:
1. Two students didn't do …………….. mathematics homework.
2. I have a car, …………….. color is black.
3. We have a dog. …………….. name is Pancho.
4. Nancy is from England. …………….. husband is from Australia.
5. Ann and Nadia go to a high school. …………….. little brother goes to primary school.
6. Alan has a van, …………….. van is very old.
7. We go to a high school. …………….. high school is fantastic.
8. I like singing, …………….. mother sings with me.
9. François and Alain are French. …………….. family are from France.
10. Mary likes …………….. grandmother. She often visits her.
Forming comparative and superlative adjectives
One-syllable adjectives
Form the comparative and superlative forms of a one-syllable adjective by adding –er for the
comparative form and –est for the superlative.
One-Syllable Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
tall taller tallest
One-Syllable Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
old older oldest
long longer longest
Mary is taller than Max.
Mary is the tallest of all the students.
Max is older than John.
Of the three students, Max is the oldest.
My hair is longer than your hair.
Max's story is the longest story I've ever heard.
If the one-syllable adjective ends with an e, just add –r for the comparative form and –st for the
superlative form.
One-Syllable Adjective
with Final -e Comparative Form Superlative Form
large larger largest
wise wiser wisest
Mary's car is larger than Max's car.
Mary's house is the largest of all the houses on the block.
Max is wiser than his brother.
Max is the wisest person I know.
If the one-syllable adjective ends with a single consonant with a vowel before it, double the
consonant and add –er for the comparative form; and double the consonant and add –est for the superlative form.
One-Syllable Adjective
Ending with a Single Consonant with a
Single Vowel before It
Comparative Form Superlative Form
big bigger biggest
thin thinner thinnest
fat fatter fattest
My dog is bigger than your dog.
My dog is the biggest of all the dogs in the neighborhood.
Max is thinner than John.
Of all the students in the class, Max is the thinnest.
My mother is fatter than your mother.
Mary is the fattest person I've ever seen.
Two-syllable adjectives.
With most two-syllable adjectives, you form the comparative with more and the superlative with most.
Two-Syllable Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
peaceful more peaceful most peaceful
pleasant more pleasant most pleasant
careful more careful most careful
thoughtful more thoughtful most thoughtful
This morning is more peaceful than yesterday morning.
Max's house in the mountains is the most peaceful in the world.
Max is more careful than Mike.
Of all the taxi drivers, Jack is the most careful.
Jill is more thoughtful than your sister.
Mary is the most thoughtful person I've ever met.
If the two-syllable adjectives ends with –y, change the y to i and add –er for the comparative form. For the superlative form change the y to i and add –est.
Two-Syllable Adjective Ending with -y
Comparative Form Superlative Form
happy happier happiest
angry angrier angriest
busy busier busiest
John is happier today than he was yesterday.
John is the happiest boy in the world.
Max is angrier than Mary.
Of all of John's victims, Max is the angriest.
Mary is busier than Max.
Mary is the busiest person I've ever met.
Two-syllable adjectives ending in –er, -le, or –ow take –er and –est to form the comparative and superlative forms.
Two-Syllable Adjective
Ending with -er, -le, or -ow
Comparative Form Superlative Form
narrow narrower narrowest
gentle gentler gentlest
The roads in this town are narrower than the roads in the city.
This road is the narrowest of all the roads in California.
Big dogs are gentler than small dogs.
Of all the dogs in the world, English Mastiffs are the gentlest.
Adjectives with three or more syllables.
For adjectives with three syllables or more, you form the comparative with more and the superlative with most.
Adjective with Three or More Syllables
Comparative Form Superlative Form
generous more generous most generous
important more important most important
intelligent more intelligent most intelligent
John is more generous than Jack.
John is the most generous of all the people I know.
Health is more important than money.
Of all the people I know, Max is the most important.
Women are more intelligent than men.
Mary is the most intelligent person I've ever met.
Exceptions.
Irregular adjectives.
Irregular Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
good better best
bad worse worst
far farther farthest
little less least
many more most
Italian food is better than American food.
My dog is the best dog in the world.
My mother's cooking is worse than your mother's cooking.
Of all the students in the class, Max is the worst.
Two-syllable adjectives that follow two rules. These adjectives can be used with -er and -est
and with more and most.
Two-Syllable Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
clever cleverer cleverest
clever more clever most clever
gentle gentler gentlest
gentle more gentle most gentle
friendly friendlier friendliest
friendly more friendly most friendly
quiet quieter quietest
quiet more quiet most quiet
simple simpler simplest
Two-Syllable Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form
simple more simple most simple
Big dogs are gentler than small dogs.
Of all the dogs in the world, English Mastiffs are the gentlest.
Big dogs are more gentle than small dogs.
Of all the dogs in the world, English Mastiffs are the most gentle.
Using adjectives to compare attributes and describing equal and unequal quantities
Using adjectives to compare attributes
COMPARING ATTRIBUTES
When comparing the attributes of two things, we use a standard set of constructions.
WHEN ATTRIBUTES ARE EQUAL
Comparing equal attributes is simple. To compare the attributes of two things that are equal, we use the pattern:
as + adjective describing the attribute + as
EXAMPLES
Tom is as tall as his brother.
I am as hungry as you are.
Sally is as nice as Jane.
WHEN ATTRIBUTES ARE NOT EQUAL
When the two attributes are not equal, there are three constructions with equivalent meanings.
Either use the pattern:
not as + adjective describing the attribute + as
Or use the pattern:
less + adjective describing the attribute + than : This construction is more frequent with some adjectives than with others.
Or use the pattern:
comparative adjective + than : This construction may require changing the order of the phrase or using the opposing adjective.
EXAMPLES
Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest.
Mont Blanc is less high than Mount Everest.
Mont Blanc is lower than Mount Everest.
Mount Everest is higher than Mont Blanc.
Norway is not as sunny as Thailand.
Norway is less sunny than Thailand.
Thailand is sunnier than Norway.
Norway is cloudier than Thailand.
Exercises
A. Write the Comparative forms of the adjectives:
tall taller
1. fast ____________
2. heavy ____________
3. dangerous ____________
4. small ____________
5. large ____________
6. light ____________
7. rare ____________
8. common ____________
9. bad ____________
10. good ____________
B. Correct the sentences
1. Cats are popularer than snakes as pets. X
__________________________________
2. Pigs are more intelligent as other animals. X
__________________________________
3. Turtles are slow than crocodiles. X
__________________________________
4. Elephants are heavyer than pigs. X
__________________________________
5. Bears are more rare than snakes. X
__________________________________
Comparative adjectives
1. I am ___________ (tall) my sister.
2. My mum thinks that cats are ___________ (good) pets than dogs.
3. Cycling is one of ___________ (dangerous) sports.
4. I want to have ___________ (big) car.
5. A blue whale is ___________ (heavy) twenty-five elephants.
6. You look ___________ (thin) last month. Have you lost weight?
7. Bicycles are ___________ (slow) cars.
8. She is ___________ (nice) person I know.
9. What is ___________ (good) film you´ve seen?
10. Computers are ___________ (cheap) mobile phones.
11. Is your brother ___________ (tall) you?
12. I think Spanish is ___________ (easy) Japanese.
13. Our dog is ___________ (nice) your dog.
14. Glass bottles are ___________ (good) plastic bottles.
15. I think Rafael Nadal is ___________(good) tennis player in Spain.
16. Sharks are ___________ (dangerous) other fish.
17. This situation is ___________ (serious) the last one.
18. He is ___________ (smart) his brother.
19. My brother wanted ___________ (expensive) trainers in the shop.
20. Today is ___________ (good) day of the year.
21. Daniela is ___________ (funny) me.
22. My house is ___________ (larger).
23. Mount Everest is ___________ (high) mountain in the world.
24. The sea is ___________ (large) a lake.
25. My job is ___________ (easy) yours.
26. London is ___________ (big) city in England.
27. This car is ___________ (comfortable) yours.
28. He is ___________ (rich) man in town.
29. I am ___________ (strong) you.
30. A baby blue whale gets ___________ (big) a great white shark.
Comparative adjectives
1. A Mercedes is ________ (expensive) a Fiat.
2. Maradona is ________ (good) football player ever.
3. A swordfish is ________ (fast) a jellyfish.
4. Julio is ________ (friendly) Carlos.
5. Irene is ________ (clever) Silvia.
6. Comedies are ________ (funny) police dramas.
7. Pablo is ________ (big) Juanma.
8. Max is ________ (old) John.
9. Adriano is ________ (fast) Ronaldo.
10. My hair is ________ (long) yours.
11. A dolphin is ________ (intelligent) a shark.
12. Elaine is ________ (wise) her sister.
13. Tony is ________ (happy) Max.
14. Sandra is ________ (busy) Sam.
15. Skiing is ________ (dangerous) football.
16. This is ________ (narrow) of all roads in Málaga.
17. Health is ________ (important) money.
18. Those cakes are ________ (bad) I´ve ever tasted.
19. My dog is ________ (good) dog in the world.
20. Patricia´s house is ________ (small) Linda´s.
21. A car is ________ (fast) a bike.
22. My laptop is ________ (fast) yours.
23. The ant is ________ (small) insect.
24. This lamp is ________ (bright) one in the room.
25. My house is ________ (clean) her house.
26. Jack is ________ (tall) boy in his class.
27. Steven Spielberg is ________ (good) film director in the world.
28. This dress is ________ (old) that one.
29. A sea lion is ________ (heavy) a lobster.
30. A sports car is ________ (fast) a motorbike.
Comparative and superlative adjectives
1. clean
2. easy
3. good
4. dirty
5. fat
6. beautiful
7. sad
8. flat
9. active
10. comfortable
11. hot
12. happy
13. wet
14. narrow
15. big
16. busy
17. noisy
18. dirty
19. thin
20. little
21. bad
22. few
23. much
24. many
25. rich
Relative clauses
1. The relative pronouns:
The relative pronouns are:
Subject Object Possessive
who whom, who whose
Subject Object Possessive
which which whose
that that
We use who and whom for people, and which for things. We use that for people or things.
We use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses, which tell us more about people and
things.
2. Relative clauses to postmodify a noun
We use relative clauses to post modify a noun - to make clear which person or thing we are talking about. In these clauses we can have the relative pronoun who, which, whose or that
as subject (see Clauses Sentences and Phrases)
Isn’t that the woman who lives across the road from you?
The police said the accident that happened last night was unavoidable The newspaper reported that the tiger which killed its keeper has been put down.
WARNING: The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
We do not repeat the subject:
*The woman who [she] lives across the road… *the tiger which [it] killed its keeper …
as object of a clause (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)
Have you seen those people who we met on holiday? You shouldn’t believe everything that you read in the newspaper.
The house that we rented in London was fully furnished. The food was definitely the thing which I enjoyed most about our holiday.
- Sometimes we use whom instead of who when the relative pronoun is the object:
Have you seen those people whom we met on holiday?
- When the relative pronoun is object of its clause we sometimes leave it out:
Have you seen those people we met on holiday?
You shouldn’t believe everything you read in the newspaper. The house we rented in London was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed most about our holiday.
WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
We do not repeat the object:
Have you seen those people who we met [them] on holiday? The house that we rented [it] in London was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed [it] most about our holiday.
As object of a preposition. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we
usually put the preposition after the verb:
You were talking to a woman >>> who was the woman who you were talking to? My parents live in that house >>> that’s the house that my parents live in.
You were talking about a book. I haven’t read it. >>> I haven’t read the book which you were talking about.
- When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we usually leave it out:
Who was the woman you were talking to? That’s the house my parents live in.
- Sometimes we use whom instead of who:
Who was that woman whom you were talking about?
- When we use whom or which the preposition sometimes comes at the beginning of the
clause:
I haven’t read the book about which you were talking.
- We can use the possessive form, whose, in a relative clause:
I always forget that woman’s name >>> That’s the woman whose name I always forget.
I met a man whose brother works in Moscow.
3. Times and places
We also use when with times and where with places to make it clear which time or place we
are talking about:
England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year when we got married. I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day when the tsunami happened.
Do you remember the place where we caught the train? Stratford-upon-Avon is the town where Shakespeare was born.
... but we can leave out the word when:
England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year we got married. I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day the tsunami happened.
4. Giving additional information
We use who, whom, whose, and which (but not that) in relative clauses to tell us more about a
person or thing.
as subject (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)
My uncle, who was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas. I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which is one of the most frightening books ever written.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. We do not repeat the subject:
My uncle, who [he] was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas. I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which [it] is one of the most frightening books ever written.
as object (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)
We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed.
My favorite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw in “On the Waterfront”.
- We can use whom instead of who as object:
My favorite actor was Marlon Brando, whom I saw in “On the Waterfront”.
WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
We do not repeat the object:
We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed [it]. My favorite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw [him] in “On the Waterfront”.
as object of a clause :
He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired. We are going back to Venice, which we first visited thirty years ago.
We can also use who as the object.
He finally met Paul McCartney, who he had always admired.
WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause. We do not repeat the object:
He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired [him].
We are going back to Venice, which we first visited [it] thirty years ago.
as object of a preposition:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, who he had read about in the newspaper. That’s the program which we listened to last night.
- We sometimes use whom instead of who:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, whom he had read about in the newspaper.
- The preposition sometimes comes in front of the relative pronoun whom or which:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, about whom he had read in the newspaper. That’s the program to which we listened last night.
5. Quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns
We often use quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns:
many of whom - most of whom - one of which - none of whom some of which - lots of whom - two of which - etc.
We can use them as subject, object or object of a preposition.
She has three brothers, two of whom are in the army. I read three books last week, one of which I really enjoyed.
There were some good programs on the radio, none of which I listened to.
6. Using “which" to give more information
We often use the relative pronoun which to say something about a clause:
He was usually late, which always annoyed his father. We’ve missed our train, which means we may be late.
Choose the correct relative pronoun (who, which, whose).
1. This is the man……………….saved the kid.
2. The house ………………. windows are open is beautiful.
3. The writer………………. wrote that article won the Nobel Prize.
4. He bought a car……………….runs fast.
5. He was wearing a cap……………….was black.
Re write these sentences using relative clauses.
Use who, whose and which.
Example:
He drank the juice. He made the juice. He drank the juice which he made.
1. A lion is an animal. It is very strong. A
lion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. A novelist is a person. He writes novels.
A novelist……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
3. A bottle opener is a device. It opens bottles.
A bottle opener……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
4. The girl speaks Chinese. Her mother writes poems. The
girl………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. A detective is someone. He discovers the truth about crimes. A
detective…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
A TO Z OF COMPUTER DICTIONARY
A ABACUS: One of the earliest known calculating devices on which rows of beads on wires are used to perform mathematical operations
Actuator: A device used to carry out the physical requirement of computer. Algorithm: A sequence of instructions used to solve a given problem.
Alphanumeric Data Field: A unit of information in a record which may contain any kind of data – numbers , letters, or special symbols.
ANALOGUE: A way of representing data as a continuous, smoothly varying signal wave. Contrast with digital.
Analogue to Digital Converter (A/D Converter): A device that changes analogue data to digital data so that it can be stored and processed in a computer system.
ANALYTICAL ENGINE: An invention by Charles Babbage that incorporated several ideas used by computers today such as memory and punched cards.
AND gate: The AND gate will only output a high signal if it receives both input signals as high.
Application Software: Software used to manipulate input data in other to provide users with meaningful information. Contrast with system software.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): A component of the CPU that performs arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, and logic functions such as the comparison of two
numbers. Artificial Intelligence: An expert system that can change the rules by which it works according
to experience of what has happened previously. ASCII: Acronym for American Standard Code for Information Interchange (pronounced ass-
key). A binary code for representing data in many computers and for transmitting data over communication lines.
Assembler: A program that translates assembly language statements into machine language. Assembly Language: A programming language that each individual operation is translated into
a machine instruction; it is very efficient, but it is a very difficult programming language to write.
Auxiliary storage; A series of devices that store data in electronic form so that the data can conveniently be used again; also called secondary storage. Example of auxiliary storage are
floppy or hard disk for micros. B
Babbage Charles: The father of computers; he design the difference engine and the analytical engine.
Back up file: a copy of file of information that is stored somewhere away from the computer and can be used to restore the file if the file is lost.
Bandwidth: a measurement of how much data can be sent along a communication channel at the same time.
Bar code: Black and white bars that we see on most books and consumer goods. They can be read by a Bar Code Reader or Light pen.
BASIC: An easy to learn high level programming language that is most often used for interactive processing; an acronym for Beginners All – purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.
Batch OS: An operating system in which the data to be processed is collected in batches and is then run at some later more convenient time; the data must not be time sensitive. Binary Numbering System: A numbering system in which there are only two possible digits 0
and 1. Computers use a binary coded system for representing data and instructions. Bit: means Binary digits. Is the smallest unit of a computer memory.
Black box: It is used with reference to gates, describing the flow of pulses in a particular direction.
Boot: Act of starting a computer by loading part of the operating system Boolean data: Data that can only exist in two states and hence can be represented by 0 and 1.
Buffer: An area of memory outside the processor that allows the temporary storage of data while it is waiting to be used.
Bug: An error in a program Byte: Eight adjacent bits of memory treated as a unit of information.
C
C: A high level programming language
Cathode ray tube (CRT): A TV like screen that displays user instructions and the computer responses: also called video display terminal (VDT) or monitor.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The part of the computer system that controls all the computer operation.
Changeover: The process by which a new system replaces the old one; typical methods are direct changeover, phased implementation and parallel running.
Closed System: A computer system or network of computers that has no connections to external system such as the internet
COBOL: A High level language developed for business application; acronym of Common Business Oriented Language.
Coded data: Data that has been changed in some way so that entry and storage in the computer are simplified e.g. M for Male and F for Female.
Coding: The process of writing program or set of instruction that computer understands to solve a particular task.
COLOSSUS: Computer used by the British to crack the secret code used by Germany to send messages. COM: Compute Output Microfilm: A device that can be linked to a CPU to create output on
microfilm or microfiche at very high speeds. Command: These are instructions given to the computer to perform.
Command based interface: Interface between the computer and the user that requires the user to type commands at a prompt supplied by the operating system.
Compiler: A program used to translate a source program into object program. Computer: Is an electronic machine or device which accept data, process it and send the output
to the screen as information. Computer aided design (CAD): Software that allows design work to be carried out on a
computer. Computer aided learning (CAL): Using computers to teach students facts about a particular
topic, it can also be used for testing students and automatically producing the result. Computer aided manufacturer: software that allows the manufacture of items which have been design using CAD.
Computer educators: These are people who teach computing at various levels. Computer managers: A computer professional who oversees the activities of all systems
analysts and programmers in an organization. Computer professional: Person that has undergone one form of professional training or the
other. Computer system: A group of machines commonly called hardware that together with
programs called software, and put together by people called people ware. Cursor: A small blinking underline or rectangle that indicates where your input will actually
appear on the screen. Custom written software: Software that is specially commissioned to carry out a particular
task.
D
Data: An unprocessed information stored on the computer.
Data dictionary: a list that stores details of data items in a database. Data encryption: Encoding data so that it cannot be understood unless it is first decoded used to
protect data from unauthorized access. Data entry: Entering of data into the computer.
Data integrity: The need to keep the data from being corrupted by input or by deliberate attempts to tamper with the data.
Data validation: Checking the validity of data. Data verification: Checking the correctness of data.
Database: Collection of data in a computer system ; it normally has two or more files (tables) that can interact with each other so that the need for duplication will be reduced
Debugging: Finding and correcting errors (bugs) in a program. Decimal system: The numbering system that is based to 10
Desktop publishing: Software that can import text and graphics to the computer and can then be used to arrange them on page. Difference engine: A machine developed by Charles Babbage in 1882 to compute logarithm
tables. Digital computer: The type of computer that operates on binary digits and relies on counting
for its operations. Direct access file: A type of storage file in which data can be accessed without the need for
sequential search. Directory: A system file that list the names and locations of all other files on a disk.
Diskette: A storage device that is flat and rectangular in shape, it is an external storage device Disk Operating System (DOS): DOS tells the computer how to format, read and write
information. Dot matrix printer: An impact printer that create characters using a grid of pins that press
against a carbon ribbon to print on paper. E
EBCDIC: Acronym for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. The standard 8-bit computer code for most IBM and IBM-compatible mainframe computers.
Editing: Altering, deleting, replacing, moving, or copying data already entered in a document. EEPROM: An acronym for Electronic Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. A ROM
chip that allows program information to be changed by software without removing the chips from the computer.
Electronic computers: These are computers based on binary number system. Electronic signatures: means of ensuring that the person who sends an electronic
communication is the real person that supposed to do it. It is also known as digital signatures. Embedded system: A computer system that is built into a machine, usually to provide a means
of control. Encryption: As in data encryption.
EPROM: An acronym for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. A ROM chip that must
be removed from the computer for re-programming and requires the use of a special process to erase old programs.
Expert system: A computer system that stores facts about a particular topic and can search those facts for information according to a set of rules.
F
Field: An individual data item within a record. Fifth generation computers: Computers developed from 1990 to the present. These are
knowledge-based system; they endow computers with the ability to make decision in various circumstances.
File: A collection of related records. File directory: An index that allows fast access to the files stored on a computer system
Firewall: A stand-alone machine through which external messages must pass before being allowed onto a network to prevent viruses and unauthorized access doing ant damage to the
system Firmware: Another name for ROM chips that contain built-in programming functions. Fixed disk: See a hard disk.
Fixed-length record: A record with fields that are always the same size. Floppy disk or diskette: A small flexible disk, coated with iron oxide, on which data is stored.
Form: A layout that indicates both the items of data and where they are to be placed. It helps in the process of collecting and storing data.
Format: To prepare a blank disk so that it can be used to store information.
G Gates: These are electronic switches that control the flow of pulses so that logic operations are
carried out. Gigabyte: Approximately 1 billion byte.
GIGO: This stands for Garbage In Garbage Out; which means what you put into the computer to process will determine your output. Graphic- Pictorial or other data than cannot be stored in the same way as text and numbers.
Graphical User Interface (GUI): an interface that uses windows to create a border to the Information, icons to represent files, menus to allow user to make choice and a pointer to
Select choice; hence, sometimes called a WIMP. Graphics tablet- an input device that allows the user to input a graphic by drawing on paper
placed on the surface of the tablet. Graphing and charting package: A program used for presenting business Graphics; its artwork
can be output as transparencies or as black- and white, or color graphs on paper.
H Hacking: The unauthorized access to computer systems. Those perform this act are called
Hackers. Handshaking- a process that take place when a computer is about to communicate with a
device to establish rules for the communication.
Hard copy: Output on paper from computer. Hard disk: A microcomputer storage device that can typically store between 10 and 100 or
more million characters. Hardware: The set devices of the computer system that can be physically seen.
High- level language- a computer programming Language that consists of statement that are similar to instruction writing in English, which makes it easier for programmers but means it
has to be translate for use by the computer e.g. Pascal, Java, Basic etc. Human / Computer Interface (HCI): The hardware and software that allows communication
between a person and computer. Hybrid: Combines the property of both digital and analogue devices.
I Icon- a pictorial symbol on computer screen that represents a choice of activity
Indexed file: A method of database organization that uses an index based on the key field of the record. The most common method of organization for storing records on disks.
Information- data stored in the computer after it has been given a meaning by being written in context. Ink-jet printer: A types of non-impact printer based on shooting tiny dots of ink onto paper.
Input – data that is put into a computer system or the process of putting data into a system Instruction Register: A temporary storage location within the CPU.
Instruction set- the complete set of instructions that are used by a particular type of central processing unit
Integrated software- pieces of software that can communicate with one another and share data without changing its Form.
Integrated circuit: A circuit consisting of hundreds of electronic components, thousands of which are imprinted onto a silicon microchip.
Interpreter: A translator program that converts programs in a high-level language into machine language one statement at a time as the program is being run on the computer.
Interface – the hardware and software data create the connection between the user and the computer or the software being used Internet- a wide area network whose contents are not controlled that is available to anyone whit
a computer and modem or other way of connecting to the network Interpreter- translator software that translates a single instruction in a high – level language,
and allows it to be run before translating the next instruction Interrupt- a signal send to the processor from some external devices, asking the processor to
stop what it is doing and do something for the external device instead Intranet – a privately operated wide area network, like the Internet except that the data content
and access to it are controlled Item- a piece of information that is stored in a field.
Iteration- the process of repeating a sequence of steps.
J Jacquard Loom: Machine which processed information and was used by a French cloth
manufacturer called Joseph Jacquard.
Jacquard, Joseph: A Frenchman who use punch cards to alter weaving loom settings without human intervention.
K
Key field: A major field on which records can be indexed in some logical order for fast access. Keyboard: A device that Resembles typewriter keyboard: is the most common unit for entering
data and for coding or using program instructions. Kilobyte (K or KB): A measure of storage equal to 1, 024 bytes (or characters).
L
Large-scale Integration (LSI): The process of packing thousands of electronic circuits onto a single silicon chip.
Laser Printer: A types of non-impact printer that uses laser technology to produce very high-quality characters by beaming whole pages at a time onto a drum and the image is picked up
with toner, like that used in xerographic copy. Leibnitz, Gottfried von: A German mathematician, who develops a device that added, subtracted, multiplied, divided and calculated square roots. This is called stepped Reckoner.
L.E.O: One of the first computers to be built outside the university. It was built for a tea company called J.M. Lyons.
Light pen- an input device used to input data through a monitor screen Line Number: Number at the beginning of a line, usually in BASIC, that is used to show the
order in which program lines are stored in main memory. Local area network (LAN) - networks in which the computers are physically close together and
are connected by wires (or sometimes using wireless communication) Logic data field: Fields in a record that allow only Yes/No or True /False responses.
Logic diagrams: These are representation of gates by symbols. Logo: An educational, problem-oriented programming language that is easy for children to
learn yet is powerful enough to be used for complicated programming tasks. Loop: A program logic pattern in which the computer repeatedly executes a series of instruction a long as specified conditions are met.
Lovelace, Ada (Lady): She showed how to use the “Analytical Engine’ and she is often regarded as the first computer programmer.
Low- level language- computer programming language that consists of binary code, which is easy for the computer to understand but difficult for programmers.
M
Machine Language: A complex language that uses actual machine addresses and operation codes in order to execute a program, all programs must be in machine language in order to be
executed. Macro-a small program used to customizes a piece of software.
Main memory: The computer’s primary storage, commonly called random access memory (RAM).
Magnetic disk – storage medium that can store large amounts of data in a way that allows
direct access to the data. Magnetic ink – special ink used to print characters so that they can real by people and
computer s Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) – the recognition by a computer of special stylized
characters printed in magnetic ink Magnetic stripe – a stripe of magnetic material that stores information about the holder, e.g. .
on a credit card Magnetic tape – storage medium that is now a bit out of data but is still used to keep back-up
files on some system. Mainframe computer – large- scale computer typically used in a large organization to provide
the processing power for all the terminals in a multi- user system Master file: The main collection of records relating to specification area.
Megabyte (MB): Approximately 1 million bytes. Menu: A list of choice displayed on the screen from which required operations can be
selected. Microcomputer – typically a personal computer Microfilm: Miniaturized photographic copies of document s that takes up little very storage
space. Microphone - device used to input sound to a computer system
Microprocessor – a dedicate device that incorporates all the parts of a processor on a single chip
Minicomputer- a computer that is large than a micro but smaller than a mainframe; typically used to control the checkouts in a supermarket
Modem- the hardware device that connects a computer to the telephone network and transform the computer’s digital signals to analogue and the telephone network’s analogue signals to
digital; the word is an abbreviation of the modulation/demodulator’ Module- the smaller components that remain after a problem has been broken down by the use
of top-down design Monitor- a device that shows the output from a system in picture form; output is short –lived, unlike that from a printer
Multi-access OS-an operating system that allow one computer that does processing to be used by a number of people at different terminals
Multimedia package –a set of software that uses many different media to convey information, e.g. sound, graphics, animal
Multitasking OS – an operating system that allows the user to imagine that they are using the computer to do a number of different things at the same time; Microsoft Windows is a typical
multitasking OS Musical instrument digital interface (MIDI0)- a device that provides a communications link
between an electronic instrument and a computer so that the sounds can be stored digitally
N
Network ¬–a group of computers that are linked together so they can communicate with one another
Network OS - an operating system that allows a number of machines to be in communication with each other and to share data. Egg Novell.
Note gate: The NOT gate will always outputs its opposite. Number bases: The system of counting numbers, it could be binary, octal decimal, etc.
Numeric data field: A field in a record that has only numbers in it. Numeric keypad: A section of a keyboard containing numbers, used to facilitate numeric data
entry.
O Object code-the machine code program that has been produced by translating a high-level
program or an assembly language program. Objectives of a solution- the list of things that a solution should do that has been agreed
between the analyst and the user and will be used during the testing of the solution works Offline OS-a way of using the computer in which the user or device is not directly connected to the processor
Operating system software – the set of software that controls the hardware of the computer and provides an interface with the outside world
Optical disk – a storage device that stores large amounts of data in a way that can be accessed directly using lasers, rather than magnetically
Optical mark reader (OMR)- an input device used to detect marks made in pencil on preprinted forms on documents.
Output-the result produced by a computer system after processing the input data or the action
of reading information from a computer system.
P Password - a code know only by the user that allows the computer to be sure of the identity of the person who is accessing information
Peripheral device- any device that can be connected to a computer to perform a useful task, e.g. a keyboard and a printer
Physical data- data that exists in the physical world, such as length, area, weight, this data is analogue and is not in the right from for a computer
Pixel - the smallest part of a computer graphic image; the pixel is so small that it cannot be seen
Pointing device – a device used to input to the computer by pointing at a particular output on the screen, e.g. a mouse
Point-of sale terminal - a shop till (checkout ) connected to the shop’s computer system Polling- the process by which a processor in charge of a number of devices keeps in touch with
them all by asking each in turn if they have anything new to report Presentation software – software that allows a presentation to be produced using linked screens
(or frames ) that can be followed in an order; the software will allow the use of animation and
sound as well as standard outputs Printer- device used to produced hard copy output from a computer, usually on paper
Privacy of data – some data is confidential and methods such as passwords and encryption need to be used to ensure that the wrong people do not see it.
Process control OS- an operating system that allows a processor to control the used of sensors and actuators in order to influence the physical world
Processing- the calculations /comparisons that are performed on input data in a computer system
Procedure; Description of how to perform a certain activity. It is used in LOGO and much other programming language.
Process: The stage in which input must undergo to provide output. Processor: The part of the system that transforms input data into useful information.
Program: A set of instruction for processing data. Programmer: A computer professional who writes programs, or sets of instruction for each
application, debugs, and then documents them. PROM: An Acronym for programmable Read-Only Memory. A ROM chip that must be removed from the computer for programming and requires the use of a special process to erase
old programs. Pulse trains: These transmit data and instructions between the various parts of the processor or
between the processor, memory, and peripherals.
R
Random- access memory (RAM) – the part of the computer’s memory that is not erased when the power is turned off
Real-time OS- an operating system that processes an input and produces output quickly enough to affect the next input
Record – a of a file that store data about a particular entity; all records in the file stores the same type of data Refreshing ¬: The processing of placing the picture on a monitor so that it is always available
and up to date. Register: A specialized storage area where the CPU holds data while performing operations on
it. Requirements specification – a list of the necessary hardware and software to put a solution
into practice and a list of the wishes of the proposed user of the solution. Re-skilling- learning and using a new skill to replace another skill that is no longer needed
Resolution- a measurement of the clarity of an image based on the number of pixel used to create the image.
S Second-generation computers: Computers developed in the period 1955-1964; they used
transistors, they were smaller, faster, and had larger. Storage capacity than first-generation computers; they were the first computers to use English-like programming language.
Scanner- a device that; allows an image that already exists to be input to the computer so that it
can be manipulated using special software Search engine- a program used to help find information on the Internet.
Security of data- the way data is looked after to make sure that it is not damaged, lost or destroyed, typically by making back-ups of the data.
Sensor- input device that captures physical data Sequential file- a file that stores data in a logical order, e.g. alphabetically.
Sequential medium- a storage medium, such as magnetic tapes, the store items one of after the other some sort of order.
Serial file – a file that store data in the order in which it was received.
Smart terminal- a workstation connected to a central processor as part of a multi-access computer system that can do some of its own processing.
Software- the instruction that make a computer do something useful. Source code- the original assembly language program or high-level language program before it
is translated into machine code Speaker- a device used to produce sound output from a computer also called loudspeaker. Spelling checker: A word processing feature that enables user to compare each word in a
document with an electronic dictionary to catch errors. Spreadsheet Package: A types of application that computerizes the record keeping function of
spreadsheet ledgers or any worksheet that can be divided into rows and columns. Status line: The line at the lower right corner of the screen when using Windows application.
Storage – somewhere to store things so that they are not when a computer system is switched off, e.g. The computer’s hard disk.
Structure Diagram – a diagram used to show how a problem can be broken down into smaller units that can be considered as separate problems, as in top-down design.
Subdirectory an index of this of a particular type Supercomputer – the most powerful types of computer whose extremely fast processing speeds
make it useful for application requiring large amounts of calculates, such weather Syntax: The rules guiding the use of a command. Syntax: error: An error that Occurs when the programmer violets the grammatical rules of the
programming language. System flowchart – a diagrammatic representation of the way the hardware and software
operate in a system and the way that the files are stored System Analysis –Standardized sets of steps that can be used to analyses a problem and design
and implement a solution. System analysts – the person who is responsible for carrying output the stage of system
analysis on a project. System software; Any program that control the programmer violates the grammatical rules of
the programming language.
T
Technical documentation – a set of detailed descriptions about how a solution was arrived at
and how it works; it is intended for someone. Who needs to develop or maintain the system? Test plan- a set of test material designed to test specific part of a solution.
Test strategy –a decision made by the system analyst about where, when, how and by who the eventual solution is to be rested.
Third - generation computer: Computer developed in the period 1964-1971, they featured integrated circuits, reduced size, lower cost, and increased speed and reliability.
Time Dependent – a process that must be completed within a specific time. To-down design – the braking down of a large problem into smaller problems also called
stepwise refinement. Toggle: A switch with two settings. Each time the switch is thrown, it maintains its new setting
until it is thrown back again. Touch-sensitive screen – a screen that allow input as well output; input is accomplished by
touching an area of the screen Transistor: A type of electronic circuitry that controls current flow without the use of a
vacuum; it Is smaller, faster, and more reliable than vacuum tubes. Translator: A program converting other programs from one language to another language. Turtle: A computer controlled cybernetic animal used to draw pictures in screen in LOGO.
Type over mode: A text editing feature in which text that is currently on the screen will be overwritten by the new text you enter.
U User documentation –a set of detailed description about how to use a system to do something
useful. User ID- a unique name or code used to let a computer system know who the user is
User: Anyone who uses the computer.
V
Validation – the checking of data input to a system to ensure that it follows certain rules and is therefore sensible. Valve: They provide a method of switching current on and off.
Variable- a value, often in an algorithm, that can take different values at different times. Verification – a the checking of data input to a system to ensure that it is what is meant to have
been input Video conferencing –a conference in which a number of people can all see and hear one
another while they are physically separated Video digitizer – a device that turns an analogue picture into a digital one suitable for storing in
a computer Virtual reality –an electronic environment that seems real to the user; it is achieved through the
design of the input to and output from a computer system and May involved the use5 of special headgear and gloves.
Virus – a computer program that is maliciously placed on a computer system with the aim of destroying the files on that system and replicating itself so that system and replicating itself so
that it can be transmitted to other systems.
Viruses’ protection – software that identifies viruses and deals with them by not allowing access or erasing them
W
Web page – information stored on a single (Scrolling) screen on the Internet as part of a website.
Website – a collection of web pages, normally on a single theme, on the Internet. Website authoring software – software that allows the user to create a website with all the
features that they want to include. Wide area network (WAN) – a network in which the computer are so far apart that they need to
be connected in some other way than simply wiring them together. Window; A display portion of a worksheet or other document; several windows can be opened
at once; Allowing you to switch between applications. Wizard – a special feature of some software that helps user perform a specific task.
Word Processor – software designed to allow the input of text to a computer.
References
https://www.englishgrammar.org
https://www.englisch-hilfen.de
https://www.espressoenglish.net/
https://www.nypl.org/blog/2012/11/28/11-great-free-websites-practice-english
www.myenglishpages.com/
https://learnenglishkids.britishcouncil.org/en/worksheets
http://www.consp.com/it-information-technology-terminology-dictionary
https://www.learnenglish.de
